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Conventional

Titolo presentazione
1. Introduction to metal welding
sottotitolo 2. Oxy-gas welding
metal welding 3. Electric arc welding
Milano, XX mese 20XX
technologies 4. Resistance welding

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


1. Introduction to
metal welding technologies

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Joining processes

Almost all industrial artifacts are the result


of mounting of two or more parts

Mounting processes:
permanent processes
o welding
o mechanical fixing
o bonding
non permanent processes

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Welding nomenclature

Filler Heat Welding


metal source bead
Permanent joining process of
two mechanical components.

Base metal: two pieces to


be welded Faces

Filler metal: it is the metal


that can be added to the
base metal in order to
create the joint Base
metal

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Welding nomenclature

A welding can be

homogeneous: base metal = filler metal

heterogeneous: base metal filler metal

autogenous: base metal is melted filler metal optional

eterogenous: base metal is not melted filler metal compulsory

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Conventional welding processes

Fusion welding
Fusion and solidification of two faces with or
without filler metal (gas or arc fusion).
Brazing
Chemical or electrical fusion
of filler material only

Resistance welding (Pressure)


Mechanical pressure combined
with heating of the two faces

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Welding classification

WELDING
AUTOGENOUS ETEROGENOUS
Light
Gas Oxyacetylene Brazing
Strong
Covered electrodes
Submerged arc
Arc Braze-welding
TIG
MIG - MAG
Roll
Resistance
Spot
FricGon
Solid state
USW
Laser
Plasma
Other
EBW
Thermit

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Welding topography

Flat" Overhead "


Horizontal" Vertical "
Up or Down"

Axis vertical" Axis horizontal" Axis inclined 45"

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Welding joint types

Butt" Tee"

Lap"
Corner"

Cruciform"

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Faces shaping before welding

Influencing parameters:

welding process
joint type
welding position
base metal nature
base metal thickness

Advantages:

enhancing welding operations


getting better joint mechanical characteristic
getting full fusion on all thickness
enhancing filler metal penetration

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Faces shaping before welding

Shape Thickness Shape Thickness

II faces 3 - 4 mm X < 20 mm

V < 12 mm J*2 > 40mm

K < 20 mm
U*2 > 40 mm

Y < 12 mm
Y*2 > 40 mm

20 - 40
U
mm V +
< 15 mm
sustain

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Back side resumption

If it is possible to operate on back side

A back side resumption improves joint toughness

a) faces preparations
b) front side welding execution
c) groove execution at back side
d) back side resumption

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Weld bead shape

1. Plane weld bead



2. Concave shape weld bead

3. Convex shape weld bead

Filler metal saving


Weld bead resistance
AestheGc and pracGcal needs

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Weld bead shape

Toe" Throat"
Weld face" thickness"

Toe"
Root"
Leg length"

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Weldability

The capacity of a material to be welded under the imposed fabricaIon condiIons into a
specic, suitably designed structure and to perform saGsfactorily in intended service.
(ANSI / AWS A3.0)

Build Metallurgic
factors factors
Metal/alloy Welding temperature [C]
Steel 1300 - 1400
Aluminium 660
Brass - Bronze 900
Cast iron 1200
Copper 1080
Tin 230

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Welding thermal cycle

Temperature


CriGcal
temperature

Time
Heat up Maintain at high T Cool down

Thermal cycle determines:

metallurgic structure characteristics


physical and technological characteristics

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Welding thermal cycle

Thermal cycle depends on:

point position
Temperature

weld procedure
(thermal specific provision,
introduced heat / length unit)
Time

bead thickness and type


(cooling velocity)

base material (specific heat and thermal conductivity)

initial temperature

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Weld joint metallurgical structure

Welding type Rd
Fuse zone diluGon raGo: Rd = (Vbm_fuse * 100) / Vtot_fuse zone
Brazing 0%
External to internal solidicaGon Welding 100%
DendriGc structure without FM
Number and dimension of grains depend on thermal cycle
TIG 20% - 40%
(cooling velocity)
Submerged arc 10% - 65%
New passes re-melt the previous and improve joint toughness MIG - MAG 5% - 40%

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Weld joint metallurgical structure

HAZ (heat affected zone: near the melted zone)


Thermal cycle causes transformations at the solid state

Final state depends on:


max T
thermal cycle influence
chemical composition

Low carbon steels:


austenitic grain enlargement
grain aging (normalization)
transformation of a part of austenite in ferrite e pearlite with
finer grain
Mechanical characteristic similar to the base metal one

Medium carbon steels:


quenching structures may cause fragile regions
cold cracks (pre-heating is needed)

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Relieving heat treatments

Non uniform heating and cooling can cause:


Deformations
Residual tensions

A relieving heat treatment is needed

Hardened structures that reduce the local plastic deformation and cause
cracks

Stressed structures that work at low T: brittle fracture

Structures subject to corrosion: the tensions accelerate the process

Structures subjected to peak loads: internal tension causes instability

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Welding joint defects

Discontinuity:
metallurgical inhomogeneity between HAZ and BM
metallic discontinuities (crack, inclusions, waste)

Hot cracks (during bead solidification):


high C in BM
presence of impurities in BM
high shrinkage stress

Cold cracks (during bead cooling and solidification):


high cooling velocity
high percentage of H absorbed by molten pool (hydrogen embrittlement)
high shrinkage tension

Other defects: no penetration or fusion, gluings

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Welding joint filling defects

Undercut

Cold lap

Incomplete penetration

Slag inclusion

Incomplete sidewall fusion


Incomplete root fusion

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


2. Oxy-gas welding

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Oxy-gas welding

Flame obtained through gas + oxygen combustion in a torch


o gas: fuel
o oxygen: combustive agent

Gas characteristics:
o high flame T
o high thermal content
o low flame reactivity with BM and FM
o flame stability and tuning ease
Oxy-gas weldability
Steels
- mild %C < 0.4 good
- semi-hard 0.4 < %C < 0.6 difficult
- hard %C > 0.6 BM pre heating
Cast iron BM pre heating
Copper excellent
Aluminium oxides, Cu and Zn alloys are not weldable
Brass, Bronze difficult

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Oxy-gas welding

Fuel Flame T

Hydrogen H Oxydric 2500 C


Gases Methane CH4 Oxymethanic 2750 C

Propane C3H8 Oxypropanic 2750 C

ButhaneC4H10 Oxybuthanic 2850 C


Part thickness FM wire Acetylene C2H2 Oxyacetilenic 3200 C
12 12
34 2,5 3
56 3,5 4 Filler metal
78 56 Variable dimensions
9 12 67 and chemical composition
> 12 78

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Oxyacetilenic welding

C 2H 2
Flame T = 3200 C
maximum heat generated per unit time
minimum oxygen consumption
reducing combustion gases (CO and H )

C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2 + 106.000 Cal


2CO + O2 2CO2 + 137.000 Cal
H2 + 1/2O2 H2O + 58.000 Cal

Flame type:
neutral (steel, cast iron, Cu, Al)
carburating C2H2 excess (generates
carbides: surface hardening), T for
brazing
oxidising O2 excess (bronze and brass)

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Oxyacetilenic welding - equipment

Equipment
oxygen feeder
acetylene feeder
connection and tuning devices
torch
supports and tools on the welding station

Torch
mixes the gases Thickness (mm) Power (l/h)
tunes the flame
guides the flame to get a localised 0.3 - 1 25 - 100
heat transfer 1-2 100 - 200
2-4 200 - 400
Torch power 4-6 400 - 600
Measured in lacetylene/h
6-9 600 - 900
9 - 12 900 - 1200

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Oxyacetilenic welding - torch

A head
B tip
C-D gas flow tuning valves
E oxygen pipe connection
F acetylene pipe connection
G handle
Advanced Manufacturing Processes
Oxyacetilenic welding - torch

Low pressure torch


O2 0.1 - 0.3 MPa
C2H2 0.001 MPa

High pressure torch


O2 0.075 MPa
C2H2 0.075 MPa

More dangerous
Fixed ejection

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Oxyacetilenic welding - performances

Use
no FM for low thickness
FM similar to BM
faces cleaning before welding

Characteristics
no reactive alloys
suitable for low carbon steels

good process control


low penetration
good for thin plates

high cost and time consumption for high thickness


versatile equipment, easy to transport

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


3. Electric arc welding

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Electric arc welding main solutions

MMAW - manual metal arc welding (covered electrodes)


SAW - submerged arc welding
GTAW - gas tungsten arc welding (no fuse electrode)
TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas)
GMAW - gas metal arc welding (fuse electrode)
MIG (Metal Inert Gas)
MAG (Metal Active Gas)

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


MMAW Covered electrodes

Thermoelectric heat source fusion welding

Voltaic arc that shoots out between BM and FM (electrode core)

The arc is triggered by touching the base metal with the tip of the electrode and
immediately by pulling back it at a distance of few millimeters

When there is the contact between the


electrode and the metal, a current with a high
intensity (I) flows in the circuit (short circuit)
and it considerably overheats the electrode
and the base metal, causing moreover a deep
ionization of the surrounding air and triggering
the electric arc.

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


MMAW Covered electrodes

Electric circuit Features quantities


generator I [A]
user V [V]
connecting cables
Ohm law
V=R*I

Direct current
I is constant in time
constant travel direction
pole + and pole -

Alternate current
I is variable in time
variable travel direction

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


MMAW Covered electrodes

Applying a sufficient V:
cathode (-) electrons anode (+)

During their motion they hit the atoms in the air and they
ionize them. Therefore positive ions (+) and electrons (-)
are generated
Direct polarity
The positive ions (+) move to the cathode (-), where (piece = anode (+))
they neutralize their charge, generating a huge quantity
of heat, that is necessary for the heat emission of new
electrons

The electrons (-) hit the anode (+) producing the heat
required for the metal fusion
Inverse polarity
The phenomenon is able to self-sustain, but between
(piece = cathode (-))
the electrodes there must be a sufficient V

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


MMAW Covered electrodes

The energy, which is generated by the passage of current, distributes unequally


between the two electrodes in continuous current (c.c.): 1/3 on the cathode (-)
and 2/3 on the anode (+).

Continuous current Alternate current


Tcathode 2600 - 2800 C Tcathode = Tanode
Tanode 3500 - 4000 C

Stable arc High deposition


Uniform weld bead Low arc stability

Direct polarity Inverse polarity


High penetration High deposition

Thick pieces Thin pieces

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


MMAW Covered electrodes

MagneIc blow on the arc


Current Electromagnetic forces, which
are generated by the circulating
currents, act on the arc

MagneGc eld
Arc is deflected

Irregular weld bead


Arc This effect can be avoided:
keeping the arc as short as possible
varying the position of the clamp
varying the electrode inclination
using a.c. configuration

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


MMAW Covered electrodes

Both the BM and the FM are fused.

FM drops mix in the melt pool. Drop dimension = f (I, coating)

Coating generally melts at higher temperature:


it extends beyond the electrode FM core;
it concentrates and directs the arc.

Coating:
gaseous part envelops the arc and
the melt pool
liquid part floats above the melt
pool and solidify (slag)

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


MMAW Covered electrodes

Covered electrodes
Core (metal wire that is similar to the MB)
current conductor
gives filler metal
Coating (mixture of particular substances)

Gaseous part:
protects the melt pool from oxidation
enhances arc stability producing ionized gases (essential in a.c.)
Liquid part:
traps the BM
purifies the melt pool from harmful substances (sulfur and phosphorus)
thanks to calcium carbonate or magnesium
alloying elements improve the bead mechanical and technological features
covers the melt pool with a slag, protects from oxidation slows down cooling

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


MMAW Covered electrodes

Covered electrodes
The coating composition influences the results of the welding operation.

Oxidizing: based on iron oxides, manganese and silicon:


low penetration, liquid slag and heavy but easy to be removed
weld bead with low mechanical and technological features
welding plane

Acid: based on silicon dioxide:


good quality of the weld bead, good penetration
for frontal welding and vertical ascending

Basic: based on calcium carbonate and fluorite:


good mechanical and technological features of the weld bead
welding of any position

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


MMAW Covered electrodes

Covered electrodes
Cellulosic: based on organic materials:
good mechanical and technological joint properties, easily removable slag
low penetration
high fume generation

Rutile-based: based on titanium dioxide:


good arc stability
regular weld bead appearance

High-efficiency: based on iron powder, efficiency up to 160%:


efficiency = weight of the deposited metal / weight of the consumed core

Strong penetration: based on titanium oxide:


deeper penetration (2 x average)
suitable for high thickness parts

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


MMAW Covered electrodes

Yes carbon steels, stainless steels, cast iron, copper, nickel and its alloys
No low melting alloys (based on tin (Sn), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn))
reactive metals with oxygen (titanium (Ti), aluminium (Al) and
zirconium (Zr))

Characteristics
Electrode has to be substituted (operation interruption)
Slag has to be removed after every pass
Simple and portable equipment
Higher speed and lower cost respect the oxyacetylene welding
Welding of parts with different thickness
Uncompetitive respect other arc processes
Head junction of tubes for liquid transport
Minimum thickness 1 mm

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


MMAW Covered electrodes

Covered electrodes arc welding typical defects:

slag inclusion in the weld bead


porosity
- BM impurities
- humidity absorbed by the coating
- high welding speed that inhibits gas evacuation
longitudinal cracks
- generation of hot cracking during the deposition of thin weld bead on pieces
with an high thickness due to inhabited shrinkage
- cold cracking due to shrinkage tensions in pieces with high thickness and
stiffness
discontinuities due to incomplete edge fusion
high welding current - excessive electrode mass fusion in a short time
- incomplete edges filling

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


SAW

The arc shoots out between the electrode


tip and BM and it remains under the
protection of a granular flow: arc and bead
are covered by the granular flow.
FM: continuous bare wire

Granular flow: protects against O2


and N2 and chemically reacts with the BM
impurities.

Control unit: the current intensity, arc


voltage, wire speed and advancement

d.c. (reverse polarity) or a.c.

Wire: 2 8 mm

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


SAW

Copper brushes transmit current to the wire


Abundant granular flow

a part melts and the exceeding part is


solidifies (slag) aspirated

Pre-melted or neutral flows:


composed by calcium chloride, calcium carbonate, and manganese silicate
cooked in the oven and then grinded
only protective function (the chemical reactions between elements take place
in the cooking phase)
Agglomerates or active flows:
composed by silicates, manganese ferroalloys, silicates of sodium and
potassium, oxides of tungsten
finely grinded components, agglomerated in the oven with binders and dried
protective and metallurgical function

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


SAW

Advantages
semi-automatic or fully automatic operation
execution of long welds
cleaner weld joint cleaner, uniform and with controlled composition through the
granular flow
welding speed higher compared to a covered electrode process
plant shutdown time decrease for the electrodes replacement respect welding
with covered electrodes
high penetration and high hourly deposition (number of passes decrease)
minimal piece deformations
very high welding currents (the electrical resistance decreases in the arc area
due to the presence of the melt flow that becomes electrically conductive)

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


SAW

Limitations
flow preserved from contamination which could cause porosity in the weld joint
metal base completely devoid of flakes, rust, grease and other contaminants
dross elimination before making any following passes
welding position: flat or corner

High current density


high heat development

Possibility to
deposit very
large weld joint
GeneraGon in a single pass
of greater distorGons

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


SAW

Yes carbon steel, stainless steel, low and intermediate alloy steel,
nickel and nickel alloys
No light alloys, steels for tools, cast iron

Applications
longitudinal weld of pipe, also wide-ranging
welds on large thick panels (up to 60 mm)
naval and railway carpentry

Material Current and polarity


Mild steels CC direct polarity
Stainless steels CC direct polarity o CA
Magnesium alloys AC
Nickel alloys CC direct polarity
Brass AC
Copper CC direct polarity

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


GTAW - GMAW

In electric welding the weld pool and the arc are exposed to air oxidation.
The protective action of the coating is often not sufficient.

Use of inert gases or active gases


TIG - MIG - MAG

Inert gases: they do not combine with other elements of the weld pool and
exclude air from contact with the area to be welded (Ar, He)

Active gases: combine with elements in BM (CO2 or mixtures containing it)

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


TIG

Inert gas: Ar, He, Ar-He mixtures


Electrode: tungsten bar (T melting> 3000 C) infusible
FM: stick (manual) or wire (automatic)
Arc, electrode, melted BM and FM in an inert environment
Water cooled gun
Sheets with small thickness: no need of FM

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


TIG

Heat distribuGon between electrode and BM

Direct polarity (piece (+)) Reverse polarity (piece (-) A.C.


flow of electrons toward electrons flow toward problems of arc stability
the BM electrode
high penetration electrode overheating;
smaller diameter larger diameter
electrode electrode
weld joints of smaller larger weld joint
Flow of positive ions towards the workpiece
dimensions with deoxidizer action necessary for
welding aluminium and magnesium

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


TIG

Characteristics
Suitable for stainless steels, copper, brass, light alloys (aluminium and
magnesium), very reactive materials (titanium and zirconium) and alloys resistant
to high temperatures
High gas cost
Absence of slag and melted material projection
Easy execution in any position
Excellent quality with the exception of low-melting materials (tin, lead and zinc)
Low feed rate
Suitable for thin sheets, not very competitive for medium and large thicknesses
Weld joints does not require additional finishing
Precise control of energy introduced into the joint

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


TIG

Components
A torch or gun
B tungsten electrode
C FM
D BM
E ground terminal
F water inlet
G water outlet
H generator
I electric cables
L flowmeter
M pressure gauge
N gas cylinder
O economizer
P gas pipe

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


MIG - MAG

assistance gas
MIG: Ar, He (inert)
MAG: CO2 (active)
electrode: continuous fuse wire
arc between wire and BM
semiautomatic or automatic devices
DC reverse polarity: favourable to the wire fusion

deoxidizing action assigned


to the wire electrode which
contains the alloying
elements like manganese
and silicon

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


MIG - MAG

Characteristics

Semiautomatic and automatic welding


High speeds
Expensive and complex equipment, thus less transportable
Absence of slag
Strong penetration
Not useful for hard-to-reach zones

MIG MAG
Expensive gas Lower quality than TIG and MIG
Welding with any type of metal Less expensive
Only gentle or low alloy steel of
large thickness

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


MIG - MAG

Components
A electrode wire
B motor and wire feeding device
C reel trimmer
D generator
E electric cables
F water circulation pipe
G gas pipe
H gas cylinder
I heater (for CO2 only)
L manometer
M flowmeter
N control and adjustment unit
O economizer

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Electric arc welding - FM transfer mode

Short-arc or globular transfer mode


Arc V < 20 V, big drops that interrupt the arc for a short
time, causing a pool cool down
Quick cool down
For thin parts, any position
Low FM deposition rate and low quality

Spray-arc mode
Arc V > 25 V, small droplets do not disturb the arc
Thick parts, high penetration and high FM deposition rate
Flat welding
Very stable

Pulsed-arc mode
Achievable only with special machines that can control arc V to heat the
electrode (low V) and to transfer FM (high V)
Thin parts and big electrodes

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Electric arc welding - comparison

Process MMAW SAW TIG MIG-MAG


ConguraGon AC, DC AC, DC AC, DC(rp) DC(rp)
Current [A] 10-500 450-1600 200-500 500
Voltage [V] 17-45 20-50 55 16-30
Feed rate [mm/min] 100-1100 500-3000 250-450 330-600
DeposiGon rate [kg/min] 1.3-7.6 6.3-13.5 1.3-8.1 1.8-7.2
PenetraGon 20-70% 60-80% Deep Deep
Electrode Consumable Consumable Infusible Consumable
Quality Good Excellent High High
Cost Low High Fair Fair
Shielding gas --- Ar, He Ar, He Ar, He - CO2
ApplicaGon Wide Ship, railroad, Wide Wide
car, pipe
Spaqer Yes No No No
DistorGon Big Less Less Less

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


4. Resistance welding

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Resistance spot welding

Autogenous welding with compression

High and localised heating of a small contact


region between the two metal sheets achieved
through a current flow:
o high I
o low V
o short t

Compression on the overlapped sheets


performed by the two electrodes

BM fusion in the contact zone

No FM needed

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Resistance spot welding

Electric energy heat thanks to Joule effect = f (total resistance)

Q = k Rtot I2 t

Rtot = r1 + r2 + r3 + r4 + r5 + r6

Tmax is achieved where r is


maximum: only there fusion is r2 r1
achieved r3
r4 r5
r1: electrode resistance r6
r2: upper contact resistance
r3: upper sheet resistance
r4: sheet adhesion resistance
r5: lower sheet resistance
r6: lower contact resistance

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Resistance spot welding - procedure

PosiGoning Approach Welding RetenGon ResGng

Positioning: spot region choice and sheet preparation

Approach: high compression to achieve adherence in a localised zone,


overcoming the sheet elastic resistance

Welding: current flow; compression contrasts metal thermal expansion

Retention under compression: to avoid pick up cavities when the solidifying metal
contracts

Resting: electrodes detachment

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Resistance spot welding - equipment

Voltage transformer

From network current


to high I and low V current

5000 to 20000 A
for short times

Hydraulic or mechanical device


to achieve compression

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Resistance spot welding - electrodes

Electrode characteristics
High thermal and electric conductivity (low r)
Low contact r with BM, to avoid surface fusion
Low electron affinity with BM
Composition and shape
Raw electrolytic copper, copper-zirconium, copper-cadmium-zirconium
Truncated-cone tip to convey current and compression stress to BM
Maintenance
Periodic tip cleaning
Substitution in case of abrasions or local burning

Pointed Flat Eccentric Truncated-cone

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Resistance spot welding - schemes

E = electrodes
P = parts to be welded
T = transformer
B = sustaining base

Joint made by several spot weldings distributed on the contact region

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Resistance spot welding - schemes

Characteristics
Achievable features
Metal sheet joining, even made of different metals and thickness
Suitable for steel treated with corrosion-resistant coatings
Suitable for joint thickness up to 15 mm

Use
Easy and cheap to be automated for high production rates (automotive)
Easy to use also for not specialised workmen

Needs
No FM needed, no powders, no protective atmosphere or finishing
Surface cleaning recommended

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Resistance roller welding

Copper rollers ( = 50 600 mm):


compression
feed
Electrical connection to transformer by
brushes
Electronic device to dispense current
impulses at fixed time intervals
if toff 0
continuous resistance welding

Advantages
sealed joints
suitable for almost all metals and alloys (no copper)
Drawbacks
sheets must not vary in thickness

Advanced Manufacturing Processes


Resistance spot projection welding

Similar to resistance spot wending, but on one metal sheet is made a relief
(for thin sheets 0.25 - 3.5 mm)

PosiGoning and approach Welding RetenGon ResGng


Advantages compared to resistance spot welding:
reduced electrode wear
better joint quality
less time-consuming welding
Drawbacks compared to resistance spot welding:
relief preparation time
high power welding equipment needed

Advanced Manufacturing Processes

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