Precipitation hardening, also called age hardening, is a heat
treatment technique used to increase the yield strength of malleable
materials, including most structural alloys
of aluminium, magnesium, nickel,
titanium, and some stainless steels. In super alloys, it is known to
cause yield strength anomaly providing excellent high-temperature
strength. It relies on changes in solid solubility with temperature to
produce fine particles of an impurity phase, which impede the
movement of dislocations, or defects in a crystal's lattice.
Alloy is a mixture or solid solution composed of a metal and another
element. An alloy contains one or more of the three: a solid solution
of the elements (a single phase); a mixture of metallic phases (two or
more solutions); an intermetallic compound with no distinct boundary
between the phases. Examples of alloys are solder, brass, pewter,
phosphor bronze and an amalgam.
Alloying Elements in steel are usually considered to be the metallic
elements added for the purpose of modifying the properties.
Aluminum is an efficient deoxidizer, an alloy in nitriding steels
( nitralloys) and it promotes fine grain size.
Boron-in very small amounts (0.001% or less) is an economical
hardenability agent in low-or medium carbon deoxydized steels. It
has no effect in tensile strength.
Chromium- improves hardenability economically, resistance to
corrosion (with other alloys), strength at high temperatures, and
wearing properties (high carbon).
Cobalt- improves red hardness.
Anisotropy is the characteristic of exhibiting different properties
when tested in different directions (as tensile strength with grain
or across the grain.
Brittleness is the tendency of a material to fracture or fail upon the
application of a relatively small amount of force, impact, or shock.
Cold shortness-Brittleness when metal is at a low temperature.
Damping Capacity-is the ability of the material to absorb or damp
vibrations, which is a process of absorbing kinetic energy of vibration
owing to hysteresis. The absorbed energy is eventually dissipated to
the surrounding as heat.
Columbium- is often used to stabilize stainless steel (that is, it pre-
empts the carbon and forestalls the formation of undesired carbides).
Copper- improves steels resistance to atmospheric corrosion; up to
4% Cu, it increases the fluidity of the melt; it improves tensile
strength and the yield ratio in the normalized condition.
Lead-improves machinabilty, but affects different alloys differently.
Manganese-improves strength and increases hardenability
moderately, counteracts brittleness from sulfur. Present in all steels,
manganese becomes an alloying elements when its amount exceeds
about 0.6%.
Molybdenum- increases hardenability markedly and economically,
tends to counteract temper brittleness, improving creep strength and
red hardness; it improves wear by forming abrasion-resistant
particles.
Nickel- strengthens unquenched and annealed steels, toughness
steel (especially at low temperatures), and simplifies heat treatment
by lessening distortion. It is the most effective alloy for improving
strength at high temperatures. It is one of the principal alloys for
stainless steel.
Phosphorus- increases hardenability, strengthens low-carbon steels,
improves machinability of free-cutting steels, and improves
resistance to corrosion.
Selenium- improves machinability of stainless steel; also added to
leaded resulfurized carbon steels for the same purpose.
Silicon-strengthens low alloy steels and improves resistance to high-
temperature oxidation; it is a good general purpose deoxidizer and
promotes fine grain.
Tantalum- is a stabilizer.
Titanium- is used for deoxidation and for stabilizing austentic
stainless steels (preventing intergranular corrosion and
embrittlement); it increases the hardness and strength of low-carbon
steel and improves creep strength.
Tungsten- increases hardenability markedly in small amounts and
improves hardness and strength at high temperature. An expensive
alloy, it is used only where a particular advantage results, as in hign
speed tool steel in which it forms a hard, abrasion resisting carbide.
Vanadium-promotes fine grain structure, improves the ratio of
endurance strength to ultimate strength of medium carbon steels,
increases hardenability storngly when dissolved, and results in
retention of strength and hardness at high temperature; it is the
most effective element in retarding softening during tempering.
Cold working is the process of deforming a metal plastically at a
temperature below the recrystalization temperature and at a rate to
produce strain hardening. Cold drawn steel is frequently used
because it increases strength and machinability, and improves
surface finish. It reduces ductility. Commercial amounts of cold
working steel are at the order of 10-20%.
Decarburization is a loss of carbon from the surface of steel,
occurring during hot rolling, forging, and heat treating, when the
surrounding medium reacts with the carbon (as oxygen and carbon
combining).
Ductility- is that property that permits permanent deformation
before fraction in tension. There is no absolute measure of ductility,
but the percentage elongation and the percentage reduction area are
used as indices; the higher these indices, the more ductile the
material. It is the opposite of brittleness.
Ductile material- elongation greater than 5% in 2-in gage.
Brittle material- elongation less than 5% in 2-in gage.
Elasticity- is the ability of the material to be deformed and to return
to the original state
Embrittlement- involves the loss of ductility because of a physical
or chemical change of the material.
Free Carbon- is that part of the carbon content of steel or iron that
is in the form of graphite or temper carbon.
Hard drawn- is a temper produced in a wire, rod, or tube by cold
drawing.
Homogenous material- (have homogeneity) have the same
structure at all points.
Isotropic- materials that have the same properties at all directions.
Killed steel- is the steel that has been deoxidized with a strong
deoxidizing agent, such as silicon or aluminum, in order to eliminate
a reaction between the carbon and oxygen during solidification.
Malleability-is a materials susceptibility to extreme deformation in
rolling or hammering. The more malleable the metal, the thinner the
sheet into which it can be formed.
Isotropic- materials that have the same properties at all directions.
Killed steel- is the steel that has been deoxidized with a strong
deoxidizing agent, such as silicon or aluminum, in order to eliminate
a reaction between the carbon and oxygen during solidification.
Machinability- is somewhat indefinite property that refers to the
relative ease with which a material can be cut.
Malleability-is a materials susceptibility to extreme deformation in
rolling or hammering. The more malleable the metal, the thinner the
sheet into which it can be formed.
Mechanical Properties- are those that have to do with stress and
strain.
Percentage elongation- is the extension in the vicinity of the
fracture of a tensile specimen, expressed as a percentage of the
original gage length, as 20% in 2 in.
Percentage of reduction area- is the smallest area at the point of
rupture of a tensile specimen divided by the original area.
Physical Properties-exclude mechanical properties, and are other
physical properties such as density, conductivity, coefficient of
thermal expansion.
Plasticity- is the ability of a metal to be deformed considerably
without rupture. In a plastic deformation, the material does not
return to its original shape.
Poissons ratio- is the ratio of the lateral strain (contraction) to the
longitudinal strain (extension) when the element is loaded with a
longitudinal tensile force.
Precipitation heat treatment- brings about the precipitation of a
constituent from a supersaturated solid solution by holding the body
at an elevated temperature, also called artificial aging.
Proof stress- is that stress which causes a specified permanent
deformation of material, usually 0.01% or less
Red shortness- is the brittleness in steel when it is red hot.
Relaxation- associated with creep, is the decreasing stress at a
constant strain; important for metals in high-temperature service.
Residual stress- are those not due to applied loads or temperature
gradients; the exist in various reasons, as unequal cooling rates, cold
working, etc.
Rimmed steel- is incompletely deoxidized steel. Ingots of these
steel have a surface layer quite free of slag inclusions and gas
pockets, which results in the optimum surface on rolled sheets.
Red shortness- is the brittleness in steel when it is red hot.
Relaxation- associated with creep, is the decreasing stress at a
constant strain; important for metals in high-temperature service.
Residual stress- are those not due to applied loads or temperature
gradients; the exist in various reasons, as unequal cooling rates, cold
working, etc.
Rimmed steel- is incompletely deoxidized steel. Ingots of these
steel have a surface layer quite free of slag inclusions and gas
pockets, which results in the optimum surface on rolled sheets.
Solution Heat Treatment- is the process of holding an alloy at a
suitably high temperature long enough to permit one or more
constituents to pass into solid solution and then cooling fast enough
to hold the constituents as a supersaturated solution.
Stiffness- is the ability to resist deformation. It measured by the
modulus of elasticity in the elastic range; the higher the modulus,
the stiffer is the material.
Strain Hardening- is increasing the hardness and strength by
plastic deformation at temperatures lower than recrystallization
range.
Solution Heat Treatment- is the process of holding an alloy at a
suitably high temperature long enough to permit one or more
constituents to pass into solid solution and then cooling fast enough
to hold the constituents as a supersaturated solution.
Stiffness- is the ability to resist deformation. It measured by the
modulus of elasticity in the elastic range; the higher the modulus,
the stiffer is the material.
Strain Hardening- is increasing the hardness and strength by
plastic deformation at temperatures lower than recrystallization
range
Temper- is a condition produced in a non-ferrous metal by
mechanical or thermal treatment; for example annealed temper
(soft), hard temper, spring temper.
Toughness- is the capacity of the material to withstand a shock load
without breaking.
Transverse strength- refers to the results of a transverse bend
test, the specimen being mounted as a simple beam; also called
rupture modulus. It is frequently applied to brittle materials,
especially cast iron.
Work hardening- is the same as strain hardening.
Wrought steel-is steel that has been hammered, rolled, or drawn in
the process of manufacture; it may be plain carbon or alloy steel.
Heat Treatment- is an operation or combination of operations
involving the heating and cooling of metal or an alloy in the solid
state for the purpose of altering the properties of material.
Aging- is a change in a metal by which its structure recovers from an
unstable or metastable condition that has been produced by
quenching or cold working.
Annealing- is a heating and slow cooling of a solid metal, usually
done to soften it. Other purposes include those of altering the
mechanical and physical properties, producing a particular
microstructure, removing internal stress (stress relieving) , and
removing gases.
Drawing-is often used to mean tempering.
Graphitizing- causes the combined carbon to transform wholly or in
part into graphitic or free carbon; it is applied to cast iron, sometimes
to high-carbon steel.
Hardening-is the heating of certain steels above the transformation
range and then quenching, for the purpose of increasing the
hardness.
Malleablizing- is an annealing process whereby combined carbon in
white cast iron is transformed wholly or in part to temper carbon.
Temper carbon is free (graphitic) carbon in the form of rounded
nodules, characteristics forms in graphitizing and malleablizing
Graphitizing- causes the combined carbon to transform wholly or in
part into graphitic or free carbon; it is applied to cast iron, sometimes
to high-carbon steel.
Hardening-is the heating of certain steels above the transformation
range and then quenching, for the purpose of increasing the
hardness.
Malleablizing- is an annealing process whereby combined carbon in
white cast iron is transformed wholly or in part to temper carbon.
Temper carbon is free (graphitic) carbon in the form of rounded
nodules, characteristics forms in graphitizing and malleablizing.
Spheroidizing-is any heating and cooling of steel that produces a
rounded or globular form of carbide. Typically, it is a prolonged
heating at a temperature slightly below the transformation range,
usually followed by slow cooling; or, for small objects of high-carbon
steel, it may be prolonged heating alternately within and slightly
below the transformation range.
Stress relieving-is the heating of a metal body to a suitable
temperature (generally just below the transformation range of steel)
and holding it at that temperature for suitable time ( 1 to 3 hours for
steel) for the purpose of reducing internal residual stresses.
Tempering-is a reheating of hardened or normalized steel to a
temperature below the transformation range, followed by any
desired rate of cooling.
Transformation range-for ferrous metals is the temperature
interval during which austenite is formed during heating; it is also
the temperature interval during which austenite disappear during
cooling.
Hardness is a measure of its resistance to indentation and is one
of the most significant properties because ,properly interpreted, it
says much about the condition of the metal.
Brinell Hardness number (BHN) is determined by a standard
pressure (3000 kgs. 500 kgs. For soft metal) applied to a 10 mm ball
which presses for 10 seconds or more on the surface of the matereial
being tested.
- The load in kilograms divided by the area of the surface of the
indentation square
(A) Carburizing. Carburizing is a process of adding carbon
to the surface of steel by exposing it to hot carbonaceous solids,
liquids, or tempering at 300-450 Fahrenheit for the purpose of
relieving residual stresses adding carbon are pack ( or box (B)
Cyaniding . As in liquid carburizing, cyaniding is accomplished by
immersing the part in a hot ( about 1550 Fahrenheit ) (C) Nitriding .
In surface hardening by nitriding, the machine and heat-treated part
is placed in a nitrogenous environment, commonly ammonia gas, at
temperature much lower than those used in the previously describes
processes, say 1000 Fahrenheit. This process avoids the distortion
that accompanies quenching sometimes a big advantage especially
for complicated shape. This process contain nitroalloys containing
aluminum as alloy and nitroalloy range 0.20-0.40% of carbon.
(D) Carbonitriding is a process of case hardening steel by the
simultaneous absorption of carbon and nitrogen from a surrounding
hot gaseous atmosphere. This is used for both batch and continous
processes. The use of small quantities of ammonia in combination
with quenching is cheaper than using larger amount of ammonia.
This process is used as a low-cost substitute for cyaniding and
produces a product of good quality. The result of this process have
been reported to wear many times longer than the best cyanided or
carburized case.
(E) Induction Hardening. Induction hardening consist of heating a
thin surface layer, preferably of annealed or normalized steel, the
transformation range by electrical induction and then cooling, as
required, in water, oil, air, or gas. This process heats a thin layer of
the surface, leaving the core relatively cool, this process is widely
used for surface hardening of steels whose carbon range os 0.35-
0.55% carbon content. This process is appropriate for cams and
gears because it follows well contour part being heated.
(D) Carbonitriding is a process of case hardening steel by the
simultaneous absorption of carbon and nitrogen from a surrounding
hot gaseous atmosphere. This is used for both batch and continous
processes. The use of small quantities of ammonia in combination
with quenching is cheaper than using larger amount of ammonia.
This process is used as a low-cost substitute for cyaniding and
produces a product of good quality. The result of this process have
been reported to wear many times longer than the best cyanided or
carburized case.
(E) Induction Hardening. Induction hardening consist of heating a
thin surface layer, preferably of annealed or normalized steel, the
transformation range by electrical induction and then cooling, as
required, in water, oil, air, or gas. This process heats a thin layer of
the surface, leaving the core relatively cool, this process is widely
used for surface hardening of steels whose carbon range os 0.35-
0.55% carbon content. This process is appropriate for cams and
gears because it follows well contour part being heated.
(F) Flame Hardening. Flame hardening, like induction heating, is a
process of heating the surface of an iron-base alloy, which is
preferably annealed or normalized, and then quenching it. Neutral
acetylene flames are played upon the surface to be hardened
followed by jets of waters for cooling. This process is applicable for
0.45% of carbon and it is used for both small and large parts.
Advantage for large parts where selected surfaces are hardened, the
resulting surface hardness should be of the order of 500 Brinell for
0.45% C steels and distortion is negligible.
Work hardening is the result of a metal being stressed at
some point into its plastic range, usually ordinary temperatures
( below recrystallization temp ) : metal cold worked in this manner
becomes stronger and more brittle. cold finished had its cross
section reduced by cold rolling. Additional remarks concerning cold
working of other metals are found below. The cold working of
surfaces ( plastic deformation limited to a thin surface layer ) by
peening and rolling.
WROUGHT IRON. Wrought iron is made by burning the
carbon from molten iron and then putting the product through
hammering and rolling operations. Contain 1-3% slag and 0.1%
carbon and this material is very soft and ductile and is easily forge
welded. It is used principally for rivets, welded steams and water
pepes and general forging purposes. Its most advantageous
properties are its ductility and resistance to corrosion compared to
steel.
CAST IRON. Cast iron in a general sense includes white
cast iron, malleable iron, and nodular cast iron. Cast iron is used
without a qualifying adjective, gray cast or gray iron.
MALLEABLE IRON. Malleable iron is heat-treated white
cast iron. This is obtained not by chilling but by using the proper
composition in the melt. The heat treatment of this is substantially all
carbon combines to form iron carbide by annealing or malleabilizing .
This producesstrong, ductile and easily machined castings at low
cost quantity. Pearlitic and normal malleable iron differs on there
alloys and heat treatment.
NODULAR CAST IRON. Nodular cast iron, also called
ductile iron, has the castability ( for complex forms ), machinability
and wearability of gray iron but higher ductility and strength. This is
used for a wide variety of items, including casings, crankshafts, hubs,
forming dies. It has a good resistance to thermal shock and it
responds well to flame or induction hardening, perhaps with Rc >
55.
CAST STEEL. The combination of highest strength and
highest ductility in a cast ferrous metal is obtained in cast steel.
When this are heat treated, the carbon content generally falls with
range 0.25-0.50%. Steel casting may be plain carbon or alloys steels.
not all grade of cast steel are adapted to welding and a minimum
heat treatment is annealing or normalizing.
STAINLESS STEEL. Stainless steel is relatively expensive,
but where the environment is significantly corrosive or at high or
quite low temperature. There are 3 classes : Austenitic steel ( 200
and 300 series-that includes 3.5-22% nickel for its stabilizing of
austenite).
Martensitic Steel ( usually with no nickel, but some typres
have 2.5% max), and ferritic steels (no nickel) that do not harden by
quenching and tempering. All classes contain chromium ( 4-26%).