Chauvinism, in its original and primary meaning, is an exaggerated, bellicose pa

triotism and a belligerent belief in national superiority and glory.[1] It is an

eponym of a French soldier Nicolas Chauvin who was credited with many superhuma
n feats in the Napoleonic wars.
By extension, it has come to include an extreme and unreasoning partisanship on
behalf of any group to which one belongs, especially when the partisanship inclu
des malice and hatred towards rival groups. Jingoism is the British parallel for
m of this French word, when referring to nation.[1]
A contemporary use of the term in English is in the phrase male chauvinism.[2]
Contents [hide]
1 Chauvinism as nationalism
2 Male chauvinism
2.1 As sexism
2.2 Male chauvinism in the workplace
2.3 Male chauvinism in the home
2.4 Religio-cultural and geographic spread
2.5 Role of women in perpetuating male chauvinism
2.6 Causes of male chauvinism
3 Female chauvinism
4 See also
5 References
[edit]Chauvinism as nationalism
See also: The White Man's Burden
In "Imperialism, Nationalism, Chauvinism", in The Review of Politics 7.4, (Octob
er 1945), p. 457, Hannah Arendt, the political theorist, describes the concept:
Chauvinism is an almost natural product of the national concept in so far as it
springs directly from the old idea of the "national mission." ... [A] nation's m
ission might be interpreted precisely as bringing its light to other, less fortu
nate peoples that, for whatever reason, have miraculously been left by history w
ithout a national mission. As long as this concept did not develop into the ideo
logy of chauvinism and remained in the rather vague realm of national or even na
tionalistic pride, it frequently resulted in a high sense of responsibility for
the welfare of backward people.
Technical Chauvinism has been used for those examples where inventors of a parti
cular nationality have been idolised, one case being that of the ship's propelle
r. It had no sole inventor, but claims have been made for the Swede John Ericsso
n and the Czech Josef Ressel. The latter even has a national monument to him.
[edit]Male chauvinism
[edit]As sexism
See also: Sexism, Masculism, and Feminism
Male chauvinism is the belief that men are superior to women. This is closely as
sociated with sexism and misogyny, and other forms of perceiving women as inferi
or to men, especially intellectually. The unqualified term chauvinism is not mor
e likely to refer to male chauvinism than female chauvinism in the context of ch
auvinism as sexism.
Male chauvinism has been defined as a "blind allegiance and simple minded devoti
on to one's maleness that is mixed with open or disguised belligerence toward wo
men. It is also usually associated with an unconscious magical ritual to ward of
f anxiety engendered by these same women." [3]
Male chauvinism was apparent long before the feminist movement, and studies indi
cate that it has been as long-believed and practiced as racism and religious per
secution.[4][5]
[edit]Male chauvinism in the workplace
The balance of the workforce in America changed during World War II through the
dramatic rise of women s participation as men left their positions to enlist in th
e military and fight in the war. After the war ended and men returned home to fi
nd jobs in the workplace, male chauvinism was on the rise. Previously, men had b
een the main source of labor, and they expected to come back to their previous e
mployment, but women had stepped into many of their positions to fill the void.[
5]
As they integrated back into the workforce, men returned to predominantly holdin
g positions of power, and women worked as their secretaries, usually typing dict
ations and answering telephone calls. This division of labor was understood and
expected, and women typically felt unable to challenge their position or male su
periors.[3][5] There is less chauvinism seen in the general modern workplace, th
ough it is still found in more personal relationships within businesses.
[edit]Male chauvinism in the home
Michael Korda, author of Male Chauvinism! How It Works, compared chauvinistic hu
sbands to the hedgehog from a well-known Russian fable, The Hedgehog and the Fox
; they have one way of thinking, and it is so engrained that they cannot change
it. Chauvinistic men see marriage as a particular type of relationship, with def
ined responsibilities for each spouse. These expectations often match culturally
endorsed Gender Roles with women expected stay home to cook, clean, and raise c
hildren, and men to work outside of the home, and are permitted to have whatever
job they choose.
[edit]Religio-cultural and geographic spread
Male chauvinism is seen in different cultures. It is a classical concept of the
Jewish religious tradition, and the Christian faith has long been criticized for
the general superiority complex of males. Arab tradition expects their women to
be subservient and it is their societal norm for women to reveal little, if any
of their face. The religion of Islam (at least nominally) encourages male chauv
inism and opposes the equality of genders,[6] The status of women in countries o
r areas with observant Muslim majority populations or under Islamic law remains
extremely poor even into the 21st century. Although Hindu religion and Indian cu
ltural practice does not strictly dictate the status of women, many conservative
leaders and gurus continue to hold and espouse deeply misogynistic views public
ly,[7] leading to clashes with more liberal Indians, both verbal[8] and otherwis
e.[9]
[edit]Role of women in perpetuating male chauvinism
Some women are comfortable with being subjugated and/or relieved from positions
of responsibility by men, and do not feel comfortable when they or other women a
re in power or authority.[10] Such attitudes may be passed on to children, inclu
ding female children, and lead to self-perpetuation. These attitudes may have re
sulted from centuries of historical or religious conditioning into the subservie
nt role,[11] or may be a backlash to the feminist movement of the past century,
but creditable research on this topic is rare to non-existent.[citation needed]
[edit]Causes of male chauvinism
Ann Turkel believes that chauvinistic attitudes of men stem from the early mothe
r-child relationship, and that the concept of breast envy in men is crucial to u
nderstanding the connection between envy and devaluation, and thus the root of c
hauvinistic attitudes in men. Devaluation is a defense mechanism for envy.[5]
Chauvinism is also seen as an influential factor in some psychological personali
ty tests, such as the TAT. Through cross-examinations, the TAT exhibits a tenden
cy toward chauvinistic stimuli for its questions and has the potential for unfavo
rable clinical evaluation for women.[12]
An often cited study done in 1976 by Sherwyn Woods, Some Dynamics of Male Chauvi
nism, attempts to find the underlying causes of "male chauvinism."
Male chauvinism was studied in the psychoanalytic therapy of 11 men. It refers t
o the maintenance of fixed beliefs and attitudes of male superiority, associated
with overt or covert depreciation of women. Challenging chauvinist attitudes of
ten results in anxiety or other symptoms. It is frequently not investigated in p
sychotherapy because it is ego-syntonic, parallels cultural attitudes, and becau
se therapists often share similar bias or neurotic conflict. Male chauvinism was
found to represent an attempt to ward off anxiety and shame arising from one or
more of four prime sources: unresolved infantile strivings and regressive wishe
s, hostile envy of women, oedipal anxiety, and power and dependency conflicts re
lated to masculine self-esteem. Mothers were more important than fathers in the
development of male chauvinism, and resolution was sometimes associated with dec
ompensation in wives.[13]
[edit]Female chauvinism
Female chauvinism is the symmetrical attitude that women are superior to men. Th
e term female chauvinism has been adopted by critics of some types or aspects of
feminism; second-wave feminist Betty Friedan is a notable example.[14] Ariel Le
vy used the term in similar, but opposite sense in her book, Female Chauvinist P
igs, in which she argues that many young women in the United States and beyond a
re replicating male chauvinism and older misogynist stereotypes.[