Professional Documents
Culture Documents
AECL-7523 Rev. 1
i
ATOMIC ENERGY aT33 L'ENERGIE ATOMIQUE
1 OF CANADA LIMITED T m J DU CANADA LIMITEE
I
I EDDY CURRENT MANUAL
VOLUME 1
I
TEST METHOD
TEST METHOD
AECL-7523
REV. 1
L'ENERGIE ATOMIQUE DU CANADA, LIMITEE
Volume 1
Mthode d'essais
Rsum
Novembre 1981
Revis September 1983
AECL-7523
REV. 1
1
I ATOMIC ENERGY OF CANADA LIMITED
I VOLUME 1
I TEST METHOD
ABSTRACT
1981 NOVEMBER
REVISED 1983 SEPTEMBER
AECL-7 523
REV. 1
I -iii-
I
I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I
I
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.6 SUMMARY 30
3.7 WORKED EXAMPLES 31
3.7.1 Probe Impedance in Air 31
3.7.2 Probe Impedance Adjacent to Sample 32
3.7.3 Voltage-Current Relationship 32
I
I
I CHAPTER 4 - INSTRUMENTATION
PAGE
I 4.1
4.2
INTRODUCTION
BRIDGE CIRCUITS
33
34
4.2.1 Simple Bridge Circuit 34
4.2.2 Typical Bridge Circuit in Eddy Current
Instruments 36
4.2.3 Bridge Circuit in Crack Detectors 37
4.10 SUMMARY 53
4.11 WORKED EXAMPLES 54
4.11.1 Impedance at Resonance 54
-vi-
a
1
CHAPTER 5 - TESTING WITH SURFACE PROBES
'AGE
1
5.1
5.2
INTRODUCTION
SURFACE PROBES
55
55 1
5.2.1
5.2.2
Probe Types
Directional Properties
56
59 I
5.2.3
5.2.2.1 Sensitivity at Centre of a Coil
Probe Inductance
60
61
I
5.3 PARAMETERS AFFECTING SENSITIVITY TO DEFECTS
65
65
1
5.3.1 Sensitivity with Lift-off and Defect Depth
5.4
5.3.2 Effect of Defect Length
COMPARISON BETWEEN SURFACE AND THROUGH-WALL INSPECTION
66
67
1
5.5 IMPEDANCE GRAPH DISPLAY
5.5.1
5.5.2
Effect of Resistivity
Effect of Permeability
69
72
72
I
5.5.3
5.5.4
5.5.5
Effect of Thickness
Effect of Frequency
Effect of Probe Diameter
72
72
73
1
5.5.6 Comparison of Experimental and Computer
Impedance Diagrams 73
74
i
5.6 CHARACTERISTIC PARAMETER
5.7
5.8
DEFINITION OF "PHASE" TERMINOLOGY
SELECTION OF TEST FREQUENCY
77
78 if
5.8.1
5.8.2
5.8.3
Inspecting for Defects
Measuring Resistivity
Measuring Thickness
78
80
83
a
5.8.4
5.8.5
Measuring Thickness of a Non-conducting Layer
on a Conductor
Measuring Thickness of a Conducting Layer on
a Conductor
84
84
I
5.9
5.10
PROBE-CABLE RESONANCE
SUMMARY
85
86
1
5.11 WORKED EXAMPLES
88
i
5.11.2 Characteristic Parameter 88
i
i
i
-vii-
I
I CHAPTER 6 - SURFACE PROBE SIGNAL ANALYSIS
PAGE
6.1 INTRODUCTION 89
9.1
9.2
INTRODUCTION
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
' 163
163
I
9.2.1
9.2.2
Factors Affecting Resistivity
Material Sorting by Resistivity
163
166
I
9.3 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
9.3.1
9.3.2
Magnetic Hysteresis
Magnetic Permeability
168
169
17U
I
m
9.3.3 Factors Affecting Magnetic Permeability 172
9.4 TESTING MAGNETIC MATERIALS 174
9.4.1 Simplified Impedance Digrams 174 I
9.4.2 Impedance Diagrams 176
9.4.3 Material Sorting by Magnetic Permeability 178
9.4.4 Testing for Defects in Magnetic Materials 178 ft
9.5 SUMMARY 184
I
I NOMENCLATURE
Characteristic or Limit
g frequency hertz
fr Resonant frequency hertz
H Magnetic field intensity amperes/meter or
(Magnetizing force) lenze
I Current amperes
J Current density amperes/meter
L Self Inductance henry
N Number of turns (Windings) dimens ionless
Pc Characteristic Parameter dimensionless
R Res'is tance ohm
R
L Resistive load ohm
V Electric potential volt
X Depth below the surface metre
xL Inductive Reactance ohm
Li
Capacitive Reactance ohm
Z Impedance ohm
<5 Standard Depth
of Penetration met re
V Permeability henry/meter
p Resistivity microhm-centimet re
0 Conductivity siemens/meter
$ Magnetic flux weber
n Fill Factor dimensionless
3 Phase Lag radians
Angular frequency radians/second
0 Angle between Z & R degrees
I
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
I 1.1 EDDY CURRENT TESTING
Eddy current testing (ET) Is a nondestructive test technique
based on Inducing electrical currents In the material being
Inspected and observing the Interaction between those
currents and the material. Eddy currents are generated by
electromagnetic coils in the test probe, and monitored
simultaneously by measuring probe electrical impedance.
Since it's an electromagnetic induction process, direct
electrical contact with the sample is not required; however,
the sample material has to be conductive.
I
consistently illustrated on impedance plane diagrams (the M
display used in modern eddy current test instruments) and to
aid explanation, the parameter "eddy current phase lag" is
int roduced. _
I
-3-
VI<
THERE MUST BE DEFECTS IN
THESE TUBES SOMEWHERE
I SAW SQU/GGLES Oh' THE EDDV
CURRENT SCREEN/
I
I
I
I
I
1
I
I
I
I
f
I
I -5-
I
CHAPTER 2 - EDDY CURRENT FUNDAMENTALS
OSCILLATOR VOLTMETER
I
Depending upon the type of inspection, an eddy current probe
can consist of a single test coil, an excitation coil with a
separate receive (sensing) coil, or an excitation coil with a
Hall-effect sensing detector, as shown in Figure 2.2.
I
VOLTMETER VOLTMETER VOLTMETER I
I
I
/ HALL
/ DETECTOR
I
I
I
(A) SELF-INDUCTANCE (B) SEND-RECEIVE <C) MAGNETIC REACTION
I
Fig. 2.2: Eddy Current Inspection Systems
2.2.1 Introduction
I
In this section the topic of the magnetic field surrounding a
coil carrying current is introduced together with the
I
mechanism by w.iich eddy currents are induced and how they are
measured.
I
2.2.3 Equations Governing Generation of Eddy Currents
In any electrical circuit, current flow is governed by Ohm's
Law and is equal to the driving (primary circuit) voltage
I
divided by primary circuit impedance.
I V /Z (2.1)
I
P P
I sin(wt) (2.2)
I
o
II
SAMPLE
(secondary
circuit)
I
Fig. 2.4: Coil Carrying Alternating Current Adjacent
To a Test Sample
f
II
I -9-
V =-N ^
s p dt
d<}>
where ~dt *s t ie
* rate
^ change in with time.
Since coil current varies sinusoidally with time, total
magnetic flux in the coil also varies sinusoidally,
<j> = $ sin(tot)
T
s - VZs (2 6)
'
where I g is current flowing through the sample, V s is
induced voltage and Z s is the sample's impedance
or opposition to the flow of current.
and *E = *p - *B (2.8)
Z *E (2.9)
I
C01L
(a) (b)
V2J = (2.11)
1ft
where J is current density, is conductivity, \i is magnetic
permeability and V is a differential operator
of second order.
-12-
j /j e~x/& (2.12b)
x o
which describes the exponential decrease in eddy current
density with depth,and
sin (wt-x/S) (2.12c)
I
The depth at which eddy current density has decreased to 1/e or
I 36.8% of the surface density is called the standard depth of
penetration. The word 'standard' denotes plane wave
electromagnetic field excitation within the test sam, i.e
(conditions which are rarely achieved in practice). The
standard depth of penetration is given by
8 = 50/p/fU , mm (2.13a)
r
2i/p/fyr , inches (2.13b)
or
where p is electrical resistivity in microhm-centimetres,
f is test frequency in hertz, and y r is relative magnetic
permeability (dimensionless)*.
-s- = 0 . 0 1
5= '
2.0
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
t
(a) PLATE (URGE COIL. O > I O t > (U) TUBE (LONG ENCIRCLING COIL./ >St)
EQUATION 2 12 ( b ) Jo = EDDY CURRENT DENSITY AT SURFACE
ACTUAL
Jx OR Jr = EDOY CURRENT DENSITY AT LOCATION
x OR r BELOW THE SURFACE
J
o .4
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
= x/6 x 57 (2.14b)
or
<f>o sin
1 .0
/3 = 4 x 57, DEGREES
o
20
_ =0.7
40
60 -
v N
= 2,0 80 0.8 5 S
100 i i
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
x
t
rD~i 1 L
PLATE GEOMETRY
1.0
ACTUAL CURVES
(c) ROD CALCULATED, EQUATION 2 . 1 4 ( b )
2.5 SUMMARY
Eddy current testing is based on inducing electrical currents
in the material being inspected and observing the interaction
between these currents and the material.
, mm (2.13a)
where p is electrical resistivity, microhm-centimetres;
f is test frequency, hertz;
and y r is relative magnetic permeability, dimensionless.
Eddy currents also lag in phase with depth into the material.
Phase lag depends on the same material properties that
govern depth of penetration and is given by
x
B = x/6 = , radians (2.14a)
5O/p/fUr
where x is distance below surface, mm.
V
50^/ 72
100 x 10 3 x 1
= 50(7.2 x10 -4 ) = 1 . 3 mm
= ^ x 57 = 64 degrees
(3.2b)
I
(3.3) I
where, N is number of coil turns
<j)p
I
k,
is
is
is
magnetic flux (weber)
current (ampere)
a geometric factor .
I
A
I
is
is
coil's planar surface area (mm )
coil's axial length (mm) I
The self-inductance of a coil is proportional to coil
windings squared (N 2 )and planar surface area (A), and
inversely proportional to coil length (J.) .
I
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE: (symbol: X L , units: ohm, Q)
(3.4b) I
where, f is frequency of alternating current
(hertz), and to is angular frequency
(radians/second)
I
CAPACITIVE REACTANCE (symbol: X c , units: ohm, Q) I
Opposition to changes in alternating voltage
across a capacitor is called capacitive
reactance. I
Eddy current coil capacitive reactance is
normally negligible. However, capacitance can
be important when considering impedance of probe
I
cables (Sections 5.9 and 7.2.5).
X
c =
2iTf C ( 3 5)
I
where,
IMPEDANCE:
C
(symbol:
is capacitance (farad)
Z, units: ohm, ft)
I
The total opposition to alternating current flow
is called IMPEDANCE. For a coil,
f
V*2 (3.6)
f
-21-
X
T
and 6 = Arctan -^ (3.7)
where |z| is magnitude of Z, and 6 Is phase of Z
(described in next section).
VT = VR + VL . (3.8)
= I(R + jwL) (3.9a)
where j ts a mathematical operator (rotates a vector
CCW by 90)
V - 1R
I
(BATTERY) CURRENT AND VOLTAGE CAN BE
DESCRIBED BY MAGNITUDE ONLY
I
() DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUIT
ALTERNATING CURRENT
I
CURRENT MUST BE DESCRIBED BY
AMPLITUDE AND PHASE
I
I
I
( M ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUIT
I
V r (=IZ)
I
VOLTAC-E GRAPH DISPLAY OF PHASORS !O
SCSISTASCF. F.
IMPEDANCE 'jRAPH DISPLAY
I
Fig. 3.1; Representation of Direct Current and
I
Alternating Current Circuit Parameters
I
t
-23-
X = wL =
Reactive component: L IZI sin 9
(3.10)
From the previous section the probe and test sample can be
modelled as a transformer with a multi-turn primary (coil)
and single turn secondary (sample), Figure 3.3(a)r. This
circuit can be simplified to an equivalent circuit where the
secondary circuit load is reflected as a resistive load in
parallel with the coil's inductive reactance, Figure 3.3(b).
This circuit is an approximate model of a real coil adjacent
to a conductor. It is assumed that all of the magnetic flux
from the primary coil links the test sample; the coupling is
perfect (100%). It is also assumed that there is no skin
depth attenuation or phase lag across the sample thickness.
L. . I
. - Z1Z2
P zx + z 2
I
where Zj I
and Z2 =
N R X
|
This can be viewed as a series combination, in the primary
circuit, of resistance R L and inductive reactance X_ or
Z p = RL + jXp (3.12b) |
I
I
I
I -27-
Co " x o G
2
where G l/NpRg Is equivalent circuit conductance.
1+C 1 +C_
C,
P (OPERATING POINT)
NORMALIZED RESISTANCE
Therefore, p constant x Rs
I
An increase in electrical resistivity will move the W
operating point UP the impedance curve. The opposite is
true for an increase in electrical conductivity. See
Figure 3.5(a). |
For thin wall tubes or plates of thickness t, _
Rs = p/A pirV/tw
I
-29-
4. Co = o)L0/NpRs = constant xw
O.S R, / v _ 0
IRFftCE *
PROBE Tr-
DECREASING F I L L FACTOR
OR INCREASING LIFT-OFF
0 0.5 R. -v 01 0.5 R.
I
l
l
NORMALIZED
INDUCTANCE
\
OPERATING POINT
I
REACTANCE
A
\
I
-, t , f ,D
l
I
NORMALIZED RESISTANCE, I
Fig. 3.6: Impedance Graph Display l
l
I -31-
SOLUTION:
a) XL - 2 TTfL - (2 ir ) (50 x 10 3 ) (60 x 1 0 " 6 )
Xi * 18.8 ohms
e 2irfL 18.8
c) Arctan = Arctan
R 15 = Arctan 1.253
e - 51.4 degrees
-32-
I
I
3.7.2 Probe Impedance Adjacent to Sample
PROBLEM: An eddy current test is carried out on brass using
a surface probe at 50 kHz. Coil resistance in air
I
is 15 ohms and its inductance in air is 60
microhenries. Probe impedance with the probe on
the brass sample is measured as Z p = 2A.5 ohms
I
and 6 " 35 degrees.
Calculate:
and
a) X p , inductive reactance
b) R L , resistive load
I
SOLUTION: a) x = Z sin6
P P
I
b) R
= 24.5 sin 35 = 14.1 ohms
= Z cosG - R,,.
I
L p DL
= 24.5 cos 35 - 15.0 = 5.1 ohms I
3.7.3 Voltage - Current Relationship
PROBLEM: For the above probe impedance problem calculate
voltage drop across the probe if test current is
I
100 milliamperes.
I CHAPTER 4 - INSTRUMENTATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
All the information about a test part is transmitted to the
test coil through the magnetic field surrounding it. The
impedance eddy current method monitors voltage drop across
the primary coil, V p - I p z p as coil impedance changes
so will the voltage across the coil if current remains rea-
sonably constant. The send-receive eddy current method moni-
tors voltage developed across a sensing coil (or Hall effect
detector) placed close to the excitation coil, see Figure 2.2.
X-Y
MONITOR
OSCILLATOR
TRANSFORMER
At balance,
i2z2
and
from which the following relationship is obtained:
(4.1)
I
I
I
T
-39-
I
r At resonance,
2
R
K X
X
(4.2)
R 2 + ( X -X ) 2
P c
hence Z - > when R - 0
X = X o r wL = 1/toC (4.3a)
c
P
or a) = 1/v^LC (4.3b)
f - i (4.4a)
2irAc
fr -!L-3- <***)
X
where Q = r-E- , quality factor.
R
BRASS
1
ALUMINIUM
COPPER STORAGE MONITOR
BALANCING I
OUTPUT
I
O I
I
Fig. 4.6: Typical Eddy Current Instrument With
Storage Monitor
Most bridges can tolerate a coil impedance between 10 and 200
I
ohms. The BALANCING controls, labelled X and R in some
instruments, are potentiometers R^ and R in Figure 4.3.
They match coil impedance to achieve a null when the probe is
I
in a defect free location on the test sample. Some
instruments have automatic balancing. I
1
-41-
OUTPUT
0.8 0 . 9 1 . 0 1 . 11 . 2
OSCILLATOR FREQUENCY, _L
f
VN
WALL THICKNESS /
/
t = 0 .5 mm
1
INDUCTIVE
REACTANCE
JFAV.
OFF\
V^ y t * 1 ram I
IRESISTIVITY
I
0
RESISTANCE
I
Fig. 4.8: Unbalanced Bridge Method Showing Selection
of Operating Point
I
*This is achieved by subtracting a signal equal to OP from the
signal 0A.
I
I
I -45-
I
With this type of instrument only the magnitude of the
impedance change is measured. This instrument is effective
for conductivity and wall thickness measurement (and deep
defects) and is Simple to operate. It has only two basic
controls: balance and sensitivity.
4.5 SEND-RECEIVE EDDY CURRENT SYSTEMS
RECEIVE CO I LS
777777Z77,
TEST ARTICLE
It COS wt (2.5)
P
I
I
Fig. 4.10: Hall Detector Circuit
I
I
1
I
I -47-
r V
Pick-up
cc f
V(t)
PROBE SIGNAL. L I F T - OFF = 0
V(t)
OEFECT IN TEST ARTICLE
L I F T - 0 F F = 0 . 1 mm
X-Y
STORAGE
MONITOR
o
EDDY CURRENT
INSTRUMENT
PROBE
X? ?Y
o Tl 6
X i v
2-CHANNEL FM TAPE
CHART RECORDER RECORDER
X-Y Recorders
Signal analysis for signal discrimination and defect depth
estimation is normally done on X-Y signal patterns. The CRT
storage monitors have a frequency response of at least 1 kHz
and therefore do not restrict maximum inspection speed.
However, to obtain a permanent visual record of the signal,
it must be recorded on X-Y recorders. The fastest recorders
have a speed of response of 8 Hz for small signals. This
drastically limits inspection speed if used on-line. It is
therefore only used in the laboratory or to record playback
from tape recorders (this is done by recording at the highest
tape speed and playing back at the lowest, a factor of 8:1
for most tape recorder). One solution to on-line recording
of X-Y signals is to photograph the CRT display; however,
this is not practical for recording many signals.
FM Tape Recorders
Tape recorders allow storage of eddy current signals (on
magnetic tape) for subsequent retrieval. They have a
frequency response proportional to recording speed. The
lowest recording speed is 24 mm/sec (15/16 ips)' giving a
frequency response of 300 Hz, and the fastest,, 380 mm/s (15
ips), will respond to 4.8 kHz.
I -53-
4.10 SUMMARY
Basic eddy current equipment consists of an alternating
current source (oscillator), voltmeter and probe. When the
probe is brought close to a conductor or moved past a
defect, the voltage across the coil changes and this is read
off the voltmeter. The oscillator sets the test frequency
and the probe governs coupling and sensitivity to defects.
WORKED EXAMPLES
I
4.11.1 Impedance at Resonance
PROBLEM: In a parallel L-C circuit, inductance is 80 x 10
i
henries, capacitance is 5 x 10~ 9 farads and
resistance is negligible. Calculate (a) resonant
frequency, (b) inductive reactance and (c) capacitive
I
reactance.
i
SOLUTION:
(a) f (4.4a) t
27T x10" )(5 x10~ ) 6 9
252 kHz I
(b) Inductive Reactance, X L = 2irfL (3.4b) t
2TT x 252 x 10 3 x 80 x 10~ 6 126.5 ohms
I
(c) Capacitive Reactance,
1
= l/2irfC (3.5)
I
x
c - 2TT x 252 x 1 0 3 x 5 x 10" 9
= 126.5 ohms
n
-55-
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The goal of this chapter Is to present a practical approach
to eddy current inspections using surface probes. The
emphasis is on test variables such as test frequency, probe
size and type; these are normally the only variables an
inspector has at his control. These selections are usually
determined by skin depth considerations, defect size, and
probe size.
Simple Probes
Surface probe designs can vary from a simple, single coil
attached to lead wires, to complex arrangements, as shown in
Figure 5.1. Most eddy current instruments require two
tis
FERR1TC CORE
/, TEST COIt
ZIRCWIUU TEST
1HIIUE
-SURFACE COILS
TEST TUBE / .TORROIDAL REFERENCE COIL
- PROBE CENTERING DISCS
TEST COILS
(a)
DIFFERENTIAL SURFACE PROBE
MULTI SURFACE -COIL PROBE
. FERROMAGNETIC
CORE
'COILS
COMPENSATING
COIL
PIGK-UP COILS
(WOUND OPPOSING
EACH OTHER)
ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS
(c)
Send-Receive Probes
Figure 5.3(a) shows a through-transmission probe arrangement.
Current flowing in the SEND coil produces a magnetic field,
part of which is transmitted through the test article. The
field is detected by the RECEIVER coil, inducing a voltage.
There will be no signal variation from the receiver coil when
a defect-free test article is moved anywhere between the two
coils as long as the coil-to-coil spacing remains constant.
r TEST PLATE
V - - N^
s dt
- (B)(irr2)
therefore,
Vs = - mr2 dtg
r V a r
2
s
-i r
LJ u
Ac
-61-
or
and V?7
Z = JR + (toL)
s
= R ,
s
at low test frequency
or 1 cc r
s
D
o = 1. 6 mm = 3.2 mm D = 6.3 mm D = 12.7mm
0 0
D = 25.4 .mm
0
L * 5.8 L = 12 L = 23 L = 47 L = 94
R = 4 R = 2 R = 1 R = 0.5 R = 0.3
N = 98
46 AWG 40 AWG 34 AWG 28 AWG 22 AWG
(0 .040 mm) (0 .080 mm) (0 .16 mm) (0 .32 mm) (0 .64 mm)
L = 11 L = 23 L = 45 L = 90 L = 180
R = 9 R = 3 R = 2 R = 0.9 R = 0.5
N = 136
48 AWG 41 AWG 36 AWG 29 AWG 23 AWG
(0 .031 mm) (0 .071 mm) (0 .13 mm) (0 .29 mm) (0 .57 mm)
L = 24 L = 49 L = 97 L = 195 L = 390
R = 17 R = 8 R = 4 R = 2 R = 1
N = 200
49 AWG 43 AWG 37 AWG 31 AWG 25 AWG
(0 .028 mm) (0 .056 mm) (.0 .11 mm) (0 .23 mm) (0 .45 mm)
->. p
-E = D, = 0 . 2 D r
t
-63-
LQ is self-inductance in henries
where Vr is relative permeability of core (normally =1.0)
A is coil's planar surface area, millimetres^
I is coil length, millimetres.
Lo r= 4iry r N 2 (n ^-
K.
- 2) 1 0 ~ 1 0 (5.1b)
D
where -r is mean coil radius = o +;D i , mm
and K - 0.112 (2 + D + D. ) , mm
L N2D2 (5.2)
v x /v x = 0
o c3
o o c C3 o
"3 ro co > <
OJ a> O ro cn a> o
00 o
<3
cn
II
cn o
cn
C3
II
m f
UllU
/
. ^ V
C3 o r
a S
/
n>
r>
cn cn f
/ /
to ro
as
ro / /
/
CO
f
ID CO II -n
o " *
/
ro cn i I
ro 3 y
3
cn
To CJI
1/
cn
w m /
n> CO
a /
ea ro o
STANCE (mir
r
OEFECT
/
3 a /
CO
/ a m CO
o cn a m \v cn C
r
m m ~t vsN i
/
""
y \ \\^
O
V \
t C3
I
]
12.5 mm
ro
/ cn t
/
\
cn cn /
1
cn
o o
\ ] en /
3
( {_
.ONG
a
CW
cn cn
u
CJ)
DEPTH_^^
ro
3 3
o
CO .
I o>
LIF T - O F F - *-
-65-
I 5.3.1 Sensitivity
in magnetic flux density with distanceDepth
with Lift-Off and Defect resulting from finite
probe diameter. Figure 5.5(a) shows the extent of this
decrease for three probes of different diameters.. Note,for
example, the sensitivity of the smallest probe (5 mm
F diameter) decreases a factor of four when moved about 1 mm
from the surface.
The sensing area of a probe is the area under the coil plus
an extended area due to the magnetic field spread. The
effective diameter, D e jf.of a probe is approximately equal to
the coil diameter, D c > plus four skin depths,
1008
7 mm PROBE DIAMETER
s
1 MHz = 0.36 mm
8
l0OKHz = 1.16 n
10 12 14 22
I
l
50% 75%
1 VOLT [
l.D. GROOVE
1
HOLES. 0 . 8mm D 1 A , 1 3 mln LONG
I
The Y-amplitude presentation in Figure 5.7(b) shows defect
signal amplitude does not change significantly with defect
depth. It is important to note the phase of the signals does
not change with defect depth when using the send-receive
raethod as shown in the X-Y display.
V = - N | (2.4)
= - Ldl/dt since <j> = LI/N.
r
I x l IX
1
r
ixi ixi
AIR
TEST ARTICLE
INDUCTIVE
REACTANCE
luL AIR
TEST ARTICLE
TEST ARTICLE
RESISTANCE
I I
3
1
c111
\=
The impedance curve in Figure 5.11, from the knee down, makes
a reversal swirl as the probe moves across a conductor with
increasing thickness. This is due to skin depth and phase
lag effects which overshadow all basic movements of the
impedance point.
5.5.A Effect of Frequency
F i g u r e 5.13 s h o w s e f f e c t of c o i l d i a m e t e r (a p r o b e
parameter). N o t e i n c r e a s i n g c o i l d i a m e t e r m o v e s the
i m p e d a n c e p o i n t d o w n the c u r v e , s i m i l a r to i n c r e a s i n g
frequency. W h e n test c o n d i t i o n s d i c t a t e u s e of a low
f r e q u e n c y , t h e o p e r a t i n g p o i n t c a n o f t e n be b r o u g h t d o w n the
c u r v e to t h e d e s i r e d k n e e r e g i o n by i n c r e a s i n g c o i l d i a m e t e r
( p r o v i d e d test c o n d i t i o n s w i l l p e r m i t a l a r g e p r o b e ) .
LIFT-OFF
.^3
0, = 0.2 Do
I = 0.2 Do
Frequency = 5 0 kHz
NORMALIZED RESISTANCE
T h e i m p e d a n c e g r a p h s s h o w n in F i g u r e 5.9 to 5 . 1 2 , p r o d u c e d by
c o m p u t e r s i m u l a t i o n , can be v e r i f i e d u s i n g a s t a n d a r d eddy
current instrument. F i g u r e 5.14 s h o w s p r o b e r e s p o n s e to
various test v a r i a b l e s : resistivity, permeability, lift-off,
and test f r e q u e n c y . The s o l i d l i n e s a r e o u t p u t v o l t a g e
t r a c e s g e n e r a t e d by v a r y i n g p r o b e - t o - t e s t a r t i c l e s p a c i n g
( l i f t - o f f ) f r o m i n f i n i t y to c o n t a c t w i t h v a r i o u s c o n d u c t i n g
s a m p l e s , w h i l e k e e p i n g test f r e q u e n c y c o n s t a n t at 10 k H z , and
a g a i n at 100 k H z . T h e d a s h e d l i n e s , c o n n e c t i n g the p o i n t s
w h e n the p r o b e w a s in c o n t a c t w i t h the s a m p l e s , w e r e s k e t c h e d
i n to s h o w t h e s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e s e g r a p h s and the
n o r m a l i z e d i m p e d a n c e g r a p h s in t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n . Note
that t h e p o i n t s m o v e d o w n t h e c u r v e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
c o n d u c t i v i t y and a l s o w i t h i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y . For example,
t h e o p e r a t i n g p o i n t f o r 304 SS m o v e d from the top of the
i m p e d a n c e d i a g r a m at 10 kHz to n e a r the k n e e at 1 0 0 k H z .
-74-
LIFT-OFF
L FERRITE
T
SAMPLE (p.fi)
IRON
MONEL 400
MONEL 400
INDUCTIVE INDUCTIVE
REACTANCE REACTANCE
304 SS
f =100 kHz
f =10 KHz
RESISTANCE RESISTANCE
(a)
r (5.4)
z El
5 riwtj.o- = CONSTANT -
L I F T - O F F CONSTANT
r = COIL MEAN RADIUS
t, = LIFT-OFF/r
ANGULAR FREQUENCY
MAGNETIC
PERMEABILITY
ELECTRICAL -
CONDUCTIVITY
Test 1 Test 2
-76-
i
I
I
I
I
STORAGE
OSCILLOSCOPE
DISPLAY
I
I
NOMENCLATURE
V - VOLTAGE
I
- CURRENT
- ANGULAR FREQUENCY
(a. = 2irf)
I
- PROBE INDUCTANCE
IN AIR
- PROBE WIRE I CABLE
I
DC RESISTANCE
R3 -SFECIMEN AC RESISTANCE I
SUBSCRIPTS:
T - TOTAL
L - INDUCTANCE
I
R - RESISTANCE
P - PRIMARY
S - SECONDARY I
I
Fig. 5.16: Coil Impedance/Voltage Display
I
I
I
I -77-
I
f Test conditions with the same P c value have the same
operating point on the normalized impedance graph. If, for
example, test article resistivity measurements were required
(for checking consistency of alloying elements for intance),
I the best accuracy would be achieved by operating near the
knee of the curve where there is good discrimination against
lift-off. (Equation 5.4 does not include skin depth effects,
which may be an overriding consideration).
To operate at the knee position in Figure 5.15 a probe
diameter and frequency combination are selected such that
P c 1 0 . The value of P c in equation 5.4 is given in SI
units; we can use the following version using more familiar
units.
Pc = 7.9 x 10" 4 7 2 f/p (5.5)
I -79-
mm (2.13a)
COIL
LIFT-OFF SURFACE CRACK
SUBSURFACE
VOID ( A )
SUBSURFACE
VOID ( B )
INCREASING
SUBSURFACE
VOID ( A )
SUBSURFACE X -Y DEFECT SIGNALS
SURFACE VOID ( B )
CRACK
(a) (b)
REFERENCE SAMPLE
" IMPEDANCE POINT ~
s.
1 1
iff IMPE ANCE POINT
'S r F UNKNOWN
INCREAS ING
FF
.
REFERENCE"
SAMPLE
\
MONITOR 1 [
DISPLAY
<D) EDDY CURRENT INSTRUMENT MONITOR DISPLAY
RESISTANCE
I
I Figure 5.18 shows the method of manipulating test conditions
to best deal with lift-off. Figure 5.18(a) shows the
resistivity impedance curve with a frequency and probe
selected to operate near the knee. Figure 5.18(b) i: an
enlarged section of the curve rotated so lift-off signals are
approximately horizontal. This is the view on an eddy
current instrument monitor.
t >3s
f >12|00 p , H2
I
I
I
(b) MODIFIED C-SCAN DISPLAYING Y-COMPONENT
OF COIL IMPEDANCE VECTOR FROM A Ci.ANGE
IN ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
I
Fig. 5.19; Eddy Current Signals from a Change in E l e c t r i c a .1
Resistivity on the Surface of a Zr-Nb Test A r t i c l e . Test
Frequency = 300 kHz.
I -83-
which converts to
1.6 p/t: kHz (5.7a)
where o"
is skin depth, mm
t
is test article thickness, mm
P
is electrical resistivity, microhm-centimetres
fis frequency, kHz
y
is relative permeability (Pr = 1 for non-
ferromagnetic material).
In testing thick material, this equation can similarly be
used to choose a test frequency to separate lift-ofi and
subsurface defect signals by 90. Equation 5.7(a) can be
used by replacing t with x,
f 1.6 p/x 2 kHz (5.7)
INCREASING
RESISTIVITY
[HICKNESS
DFft<
LIFT-OFF
1
.BALANC POINT
FOF NOI INAL 1 KK ASING
SS-I
- T H I CKNI Ti IICK NESS
RESISTANCE
1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
.B94
.892
=s 5 20-.
-
RESISTIVITY
_8OI
.BSD
~3
.8BB %
.775\
10-
-
I i 1 L> <
,11 > < r J! TO
-7S0 B2S
/ ^ i t RESISTIVITY 3
AIR GAP n TO 37
20. cm }
.EBB
50..^J K Y ~ -20
" A I R GP
,c (
) RESIST IVITY 3 = 5 r 2D-. p i l - cm
.BB4 -
-*% * -RES STIVITY 3
2C .4C- -
.8B2
1 .BBQ
; / 0
RANGE OF VARIABLES SHDIN I N CDHPUTDR PLOTS
FREQUENCY = ID kHz
.8TB _
,876
i 1 1 1 1 i i i ~
.052D .0540 .0560 .0590 .0600 .0620 .0640 .B560 .OEBO -O7D0
NDRMLIZED RESISTANCE. - ^ L
(i)L = l/u)C
is
wnere is angular frequency, in radians/second. L coil
inductance in henries and C is total cable
capacitance in farads.
-86-
5.10 SUMMARY
and
(b) testing brass ( P = 6.2 microhm-cm) at 10 kHz,
SOLUTION:
(a)
(2.13a)
0.30 mm
2 x 10 x 1
D = D
eff c '2 = 6#2 mm
10 mm
eff
therefore, f = 50 kHz.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
TEST PLATE
TEST PLATE
EDDV CURRENT DISTORTION
AT CRACK
CRACK
EDDV CURRENTS TAKE THE PATH OF LEAST RESISTANCE
UNDER DR AROUND A DEFECT
SURFACE COIL
TEST PLATE
CRACK
(a) EODV CURRENT FLOK UNDER A CRACK (b) EDDY CURRENT FLOW AROUND A
SUBSURFACE VOID
CONSUNT JHPUITUDE
SHLLOI OEFECT
5US5UBFHCE OEFECT-
OEFECT POSITIDK
3 = x/6 (2.14)
For each test, one must decide on the test frequency to use
and on the phase setting. The conventional way of setting
-94-
7 mm
LIFT-OFF 1.5 mm
2 . 0 mm
-At
LIFT-OFF LIFT-OFF LIFT-OFF
LIFT-OFF
0 . 2 5 mm '-.. I 2 mm
\
V
p - 72 ^
A/> - -25
At > 25
\
0.25 mm\
200 kHz
(a)
\ -.
" - |- 1 ' -5
0.25 Mi * * 10 kHz
0.7
>" ^ \
\ \
\ \
p = 72 ]
I \ \
a M = .25.
\ \ u '1.0
\ \
0.25
0.4
(b)
Fig. 6.5; Computer Simulation of Probe Response to
Various Test Parameters
-96-
R AL
E CALIBRATION
CRACK/ CRflCKS
5 mm 71 I
2 mm
SAMPLE : p = 50 j i f l , cm
/ir = 1.00
CRACK
CRACK 2 mm DEEP NOTCH
2 mm DEEP NOTCH
LIFT-OFF LIFT-OFF
0 . 5 mm DEEP NOTCH 0 . 5 mm DEEP NOTCH
The first rwo types of defects would have made defect depth
predictions seriously inaccurate, and the last three types of
ferromagnetic Indications could have been mistaken for
defects such as cracks or pitting.
FERROMAGNETIC
/ INCLUSION FERROMAGNETIC
INCLUSION
PROBE D1A = 7 mm
SMIPLE p =
2 mm DEEP
0.5 nu DEEP
0 0.D5 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
R
NORMALIZED RESISTANCE i
To summarize:
(a) Many nominally "non-magnetic" alloys can exhibit
ferromagnetic properties and almost any alloy can pick up
magnetic inclusions or contamination during manufacture or
service.
(b) At normal eddy current test frequencies magnetic
indications will often appear similar to defects.
(c) Magnetic indications can be distinguished from defects by
retesting at a reduced test frequency.
1 VOLT
1 VOLT
i i i i i r
0 . 2 mm 1.0 mm 0.1 mm
0 05 mil 0 . 1 mm .01 mm
/ / /
/ / / / / / / / /
ERRITE|/>=120 f/>= 70 |c=50 [ P=2i | P- ~"
1 \ P = 4 |/>=1.7
**
r
E
2 mm - /tfl - cm in
1 . 5 mm
0 . 7 mm - 1 0.12 0 25
1
0.5 10
|
2.0 4 0
\
d = 1 mm DEPTH, mm
3
_ _ 0 . 5 mm
1
3d = 2 mm
I
1.
1
2. 4. 10
i:
LENGTH, mm
ll
3 d = 1 mm 25
d=2mm CONSTANT DEPTH = 0 .5 m \
> d = 0 . 5 mm
^ 9 COPPER
t=0 1 mm
IRON
O
VOID \
R0=50mm R.=5Q R . = 2 0 R ^ S Ro = 5 RO=IO Ro=25
0 . 5 mm DEEP
4 mm DEEP 4 mm DEEP
1 mm DEEP
0 . 5 mm DEEP
0.7 mm DEEP
1.5 mm DEEP
LirT-OFF
LirT-OFF
SUBSURFACE DEFECTS
(a) (b)
Fig, 6.10: Eddy Current Signals With (a) Absolute and (b)
Differential Surface Probes
-104-
6.7 SUMMARY
7.1 INTRODUCTION
CENTERING DISCS
TES' "OIL
REFERENCE COIL
REFERENCE COIL
Coll Size
COIL SPACING
* COIL WIDTH
'//A////
COIL THICKNESS _J
D (AVERAGE COIL DIAMETER)
TUBE-COIL
CLEARANCE
B
TRACE ITH ABSOLUTE PROBE
I"
WALL LOSS T 1 COMPONENT
TABLE 7.1
COMPARISON OF ABSOLUTE AND DIFFERENTIAL PROBES
ADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES:
ABSOLUTE PROBES
respond to both sudden and gradual - prone to drift from
changes in properties and dimensions temperature instability
combined signals are usually easy to - more sensitive to probe
separate (simple interpretation) wobble than a differential
show total length of defects probe
DIFFERENTIAL PROBES
EDDT CURRENTS
EDDY CURRENTS F L O I I N CLOSED PATHS tOm CURRENT FLDHS PARALLEL TO EDDY CURRENT FLO* DIMINISHES TO
LIMITED TO CONDUCTING MATERIAL COIL WINDINGS - NOT SENSITIVE ZERO AT THE CENTRE OF > SOLID ROD
TO PURELY CIRCUMFERENTIAL CRACKS NO SENSITIVITY 7 CENTRE
/COIL
L - 6.1 uH L - 11 UH L - 15 UH L - 20 uH L - 25 uH 31 AWG
N - 25 (0.23 mm)
R - 0.3 2 R - 0.4 n R - 0.5 a R - o.6 a R - o.7 a
L - 23 L - 42 L - 59 L * 77 L * 96 34 AWG
N - 49 (0.16 mm)
R = 1 R - 1.5 R - 2 R 2 R ' 3
DECREASING
FILL-FACTOR
INCREASING
RESISTIVITY (p) COIL
THIN -HALL TUBE
INCREASING
FREQUENCY (f) and
DIAMETER <D>
0.2
COIL
INCREASING RESISTIVITY
DECREASING FILL-FACTOR
INCREASING FREQUENCY
NORMALIZED RESISTANCE
INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY S =
4
s dt
<j> = BA
= (B)(TTr2)
theref ore,
or
V
s
Since by Ohm 1 s Law
Z
7.3.2 Tubes
The impedance diagram for an extremely thin-wall tube with
either an internal or external circumferential coil is a
semicircle. This shape is only obtained when wall thickness,
t, is much less than skin depth (t<<6 ), i.e. skin effect and
phase lag are negligible. This situation will rarely be
encountered in practice, especially at intermediate and high
test frequencies, but the concept is useful since it defines
one of the coil impedance limits.
With an external coil the other limit is defined by the
impedance curve for a solid cylinder (maximum possible wall
thickness). The impedance diagram for any tube tested with
an external coi1,hence,has to lie between the two broken
curves in Figure 7.8, for example the solid line applies to
ENCIRCLING COIL
M.
CYLINDER (0; = 0)
NORMALIZED RESISTANCE
_L
THICK WALL TUBE (DjD0)
THIN HALL (D i S ! 0 0 )
NORMALIZED RESISTANCE
kHz
(7.2c)
f/f = fD2/5.07p
8 (7.3a)
f/f = fDt/5.O7p
(7.3c)
i.o
i o\
THICK-HALL TUBE (INTERNAL COIL)
f / t g = f O , V 5 07^5
2 o\
16.0 \
3.0
4 D SOLID CYLINDER (EXTERNAL COIL)
5 0 f / l e = f D 0 ! / 5 07p
/9.0 V i a
I" r
0.4 - THIN-MLL TUBE
"7 (INTERNAL ( EXTERNAL COILS)
f / f E = fOjt /5.D7/O
0.2 -
4 0
NORMALIZED RESISTANCE
Fig. 7.10: Impedance Diagrams for Tubes and Rods with Long
Coils and Unity Fill-factor Showing Variation of Along
Impedance Loci
Figure 7.10 shows impedance diagrams for thin-wall tubes,
solid cylinders and thick-wall tubes with values of f/fg
(from 0 to infinity) on the curves. The impedance plots are
both different Jn shape and have drastically different
f/f_ ratios. For example, at the "knee" in the curves a
i ^ ^ _ 1. t _ _ _ fir* ^ i* __ _ _ -m * * r M W S"
thin-wall tube has f/fg =1, for a cylinder f/fg-a and a
thi^k-wall tube has f/rg= * These differences originate
in the defining equations which contain D o 2 , D/* and
D i t. To find the operating point on an impedance diagram
using frequency ratio one has to know the geometry (tube or
cylinder). For tubes which do not satisfy the conditions for
-122-
For cylinders, 2
f
l ol p 2 =
D
f
l D U P 2 " 2 D2 i2 Pl
i.ook-
i.04 0 OB Q.1
N0RU1U2EO RESISTKNCE
and converts to
f = 3p 2
90 /t kilohertz (7.4)
(a) (b)
TEST
COIL PLASTIC
BODY
REFERENCE SPRING
COIL
(b) ZIG-ZAG
COIL PROBE
WMr
(C) BOBBIN
COIL PROBE
-/vv'-J'vr-*"~'s-
7.6 SUMMARY
Test coils induce eddy currents and also sense the distortion
of their flow caused by defects. Encircling or bobbin probes
have test coil(s) mounted with their axes parallel to the tube
or rod axis. Since the coils are wound circuraferentially the
induced eddy currents also flow circumferentially. They cannot
be used to detect circumferential cracks, laminar defects, nor
defects in the center of a rod.
SOLUTION: f D
o
5.07P = 6 (7.3a)
6 x 5.07 x 10
therefore f =
52
12 kHz
90
(7.4)
t2
f/f (7.3b)
0.5
therefore
f = (0.5)(5.07p)/Dit
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Manufacturing and in-service inspection of tubes is one of
the most important applications of eddy current testing. For
in-service inspection of small-bore tubing in particular,
eddy current is by far the most frequently used method.
Access is usually limited to tube ends which makes other NDT
techniques difficult or impossible to apply.
2irrp/t (8.1a)
CWSTIHI HIPLITUOE
SUBSURFACE DEFECT
2 3 5
DEFECT POSITION
(a)
SUBSURFACE
DEFECT (X2>
(b)
FILL -FACTOR
NORMALIZED RESISTANCE
OD DEFECT
THROUGH-WALL -X -* +x
DEFECT
10 DEFECT
(c) Z t 9 0
STEEL
SUPPORT PLATE
P - 98 ufl- cm
H0
, LE OUTSIDE
DECREASING
FILL FACTOR
ABSOLUTE DIFFERENTIAL
J <r
SUPPORT
V CHANNEL
A \r
DISTANCE
I CHANNEL
O.D. DEFECT
I.D. O.D.
DEFECTS DEFECTS THROUGH
HOLE
1.0. OEFECT
(b) ABSOLUTE
THROUGH
H0LE
UJ
o O.D. DEFECT
10 (c) DIFFERENTIAL
(a)
CORROSION
DEFECTS
30 -.10 PL-
50% 01)
CONCENTRIC
GROOVE
CRACK
SIGNAL
CALIBRATION
DEFECTS
0D GROOVE
CARBON
STEEL
BAFFLE
(a) (b)
OD GROOVE
DEFECT
(c) (d)
DEFECT
SIGNALS
OD
GROOVE D
GROOVE
HAM-Lt
ABSOLUTE DIFFERENTIAL
MAXIMUM GAP
50? 0D
"ECCENTRIC GROOVE
OD GROOVE
OD GROOVE
BAFFLE WITH
MAXIMUM (SAP
BRASS BAFFLE
IN CONTACT
MAGNETIC
BAFFLE
(b)
Fig. 8.13; Wear Under (a) Non-Ferromagnetic and (b)
Ferromagnetic Baffle Plates
addition being valid (Section 8.4). Sensitivity can be
improved by employing special probes as will be shown in
Section 8.2.6.
8.2.5 Tube Inspection at Tubesheets
Heat exchanger tubesheets are usually made of carbon steel,
eddy current response should therefore appear similar to a
baffle signal. In addition, a large fill-factor (tube
expansion) signal is also obtained as a result of tubes being
rolled into tubesheets. Rolling eliminates corrosion prone
crevices and also helps hold tubes in the tubesheet. With
carbon steel tubesheets, expansion usually yields the largest
signal component, the tubesheet only contributes appreciably
at test frequencies below f90 Figure 8.14 shows tube
configuration at a tubesheet and typical eddy current
s ignals.
TUBESHEET x ,
END OF
N
Nx x J ROLLED JOINT
IKi [
153 f
EXPANSION SIGNAL
TUBESHEET
CONVENTIONAL SURCACE
PROBE PROBE
50?, OD
ECCENTRIC
GROOVE
BAP
CALIBRATION
BAFFLE
(MAXIMUM RAP)
0 B 1 D
GROOVE GROOVE
12.7mm
'
1.0.
i.D. D.D.
DECREASING FILL FACTOR "
O.OS O.IO 0. IS
NORMALIZED RESISTANCE. J!i_
50 kHz
INCLUSION
INCLUSION
10 kHz
Fig. 8 . 1 8 ; D e f e c t and M a g n e t i c I n c l u s i o n S i g n a l s O b t a i n e d
f r o m a N e w I n c o n e l 600 T u b e ( D n = 13 m m , t = 1.1 m m ) w i t h an
Absolute External Coil. fqo = 2 5 0 kHz
T h o u g h one might c o n s i d e r a m a g n e t i c i n c l u s i o n a d e f e c t ,
there are s e v e r a l reasons why it is important to identify the
o r i g i n of an i n d i c a t i o n . E v e n very s m a l l , perhaps i n s i g n i f i -
c a n t , m a g n e t i c i n c l u s i o n s can yield s i z e a b l e eddy current
s i g n a l s b e c a u s e of the e x t r e m e s e n s i t i v i t y to m a g n e t i c p e r m e -
ability. A second reason to d e t e r m i n e defect o r i g i n is so
m e a s u r e s can be taken to m i n i m i z e f u r t h e r d a m a g e ; m a g n e t i c
i n c l u s i o n s are nearly a l w a y s m a n u f a c t u r i n g d e f e c t s . Figure
8.18 shows the s i g n a l from a m a g n e t i c i n c l u s i o n in new I n c o n -
e l . 6 0 0 tubing at various test f r e q u e n c i e s . These results
w e r e obtained w i t h an e x t e r n a l e n c i r c l i n g p r o b e ; this ex-
plains the r e v e r s a l in a p p e a r a n c e of ID and 0D defects from
p r e v i o u s e x a m p l e s . The m a g n e t i c inclusion yields a signal
w h o s e a n g u l a r s e p a r a t i o n from the f i l l - f a c t o r d i r e c t i o n
i n c r e a s e s as test f r e q u e n c y is reduced. The response of real
d e f e c t s is just o p p o s i t e .
-152-
O.D. DEFECT
I.D. DEFECT
INTERNAL
MAGNETITE
250 kHz
MAGNETITE
I.D.
MAGNETITE
50 kHz
MAGNETITE
O.D.
I.D.
10 kHz
Fig. 8.19: Defect and Magnetite Signals from an Inconel 600
Tube (Dp - 13 mm, t - 1.1 mm) Obtained with an Absolute
Internal Probe. f on - 250 kHz)
Figure 8.20 shows the eddy current signals from a Monel 400
steam generator tube with external wall thinning near a tube
support. The tube was inspected with an absolute saturation
probe and the signals recorded with wall thinning giving a
vertically upward signal. At 50 kHz the vertical component
of the complex signal is from wall thinning and the
horizontal signal is primarily from magnetic deposit. At 200
kHz (2 fgo) the vertical component is again from wall
thinning but the horizontal signal is primarily from an
increase in tube magnetic permeability because of incomplete
magnetic saturation under the carbon steel tube support.
At 400 kHz eddy currents just barely penetrate through the
wall. In this case the signal is primarily from tube
magnetic permeability variations.
-153-
0 . 0 . GROOVE
MfiGNETITE
f 2 = 200 kHz f3 = 400 kHz
f , =50 kHz
Fig. 8.20: Eddy Current Signals from Monel 400 Tube at Baffle
Plate Location. (fqf) " 100 kHz)
T h e most p r o b a b l e c o n d u c t i n g d e p o s i t w h i c h may be e n c o u n t e r e d
d u r i n g i n - s e r v i c e t u b e t e s t i n g is c o p p e r . Copper taken into
s o l u t i o n in one part of a c o o l i n g c i r c u i t , from brass t u b e s for
e x a m p l e , c a n r e - d e p o s i t at a n o t h e r l o c a t i o n at the e x p e n s e of a
less n o b l e m e t a l such as i r o n . An e x a m p l e is s h o w n in F i g u r e
8.21 w h i c h is a c o p p e r - a l l o y t u b e from an a i r c o n d i t i o n e ' ' i-
exchanger. C o p p e r d e p o s i t s o c c u r n e a r t u b e s u p p o r t s , me. a
t h i c k n e s s was 0.05 mm. E v e n s u c h a t h i n d e p o s i t y i e l d s s. _.rge
eddy c u r r e n t s i g n a l s i n c e c o p p e r is a good c o n d u c t o r . Figure
8.21 s h o w s r e s p o n s e from both a b s o l u t e and d i f f e r e n t i a l
internal probes. The a b s o l u t e p r o b e g a / e eddy c u r r e n t s i g n a l s
w i t h no +Y c o m p o n e n t , c l e a r l y i n d i c a t i n g the n o n - d e f e c t n a t u r e
of the a n o m a l y .
-154-
CALIBRATION
DEFECT SIGNALS
ABSOLUTE DIFFERENTIAL
DEPOSIT SIGNALS
THROUGH BAFFLE
PL TE
WALL HOLE *
ID GROOVE 0 D GROOVE
MAGNETITE '-3 m
1 \ J DENT J
15.5 mm
CALIBRATION TUBE R3
100% . o .D.
1 D. ^ >v
I
DEFECTS ^ V ^ j
1E1
(s^^MAI
3NETI
I.D
^
100%
\ \
C
\BAFFLE
DENT
\ \ PLATE
BAFFLE \
PLATE \
\ MAGNETITE
\
f t =20 kHz f 2 =100 kHz f , =500 kHz
(c)
h '3
c, = f2 - f,
c2 = c, . f3
'* \
MAGNETITE
BAFFLE
PUTE
BAFFLE
PLATE
C 2 =Ci-f 3 /
Figure 8.28 traces the above sequence for two defective tubes,
and shows the eddy current signal becoming simpler to analyze
with each step. On comparing defective tube signals with those
from a calibration tube, one observes the ^2 defect signal is
distorted by the baffle plate, dent and/or magnetite deposit.
The C^ signal is only distorted from the dent signal,and C2
is a clear signal indicating 0D pits approximately 50% deep.
Even an inexperienced inspector could analyze these results.
-161-
I00S 0D 00
10.
CALIBRATION TUBE
DENT
DE
BAFFLE NT M f l G r ^T|TE
V PLATE c, = 1 , 1,
f , -- 100 kH2
OEFECTIVE
TUBE NO. 2
8.5 SUMMARY
Defect signal amplitude is a function of its axial and
circumferential extent as well as depth. Defect signal phase
is primarily a function of depth. For general purpose
volumetric inspection of heat exchanger tubes, a suitable
test frequency is
9 .1 INTRODUCTION
R = pJl/A ohms
% IACS - 172/p
p = P Q ( 1 + aAT)
60 /
metres )
/TITANIUM
50 / a 0.04
u 40
I
1 y a 0.004
|
i
30
~1 ,/
RESISTIV ' I T Y
20
~ /
COPPER
10 aft*0.005 -
Ul.i "1 i 1 1 1 1-
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
TEMPERATURE ( K )
MANGANESE
MAGNESIUM
TOO -
COPPER/NICKEL ALLOYS
6-3
40 60 100
HEIGHT % COPPER
Fig. 9.3: Variation in Electrical Conductivity of Nickel-
Copper Alloys with Composition
v>
cc
I 10 100 1000
TIME AT TEMPERATURE ( h i
y = B/H
V = 4TT x 10 webers/ampere-met re
when B is in teslas* (T) or webers/metre^ and H is in
ampere/metre (A/in) .
(dimensionless)
AB/AH
0.8 -
S 0- 6 -
0.4 -
0. 2 -
MAGNETIZING FORCE (A / m )
^r " U i = M
A
In eddy current testing, test coil inductance and depth of
penetration are influenced by incremental permeability not
normal permeability. However, throughout this report it is
assumed that the eddy current test is performed without DC
bias and with a low magnetizing force (low alternating coil
current). In this case, y r = V& , and for simplification
purposes y r is used in the skin depth and inductance
equations and impedance diagrams; y r is used throughout the
manual to denote incremental permeability (y,) unless
otherwise stated.
Q.3
3 Re 60
--"
'
0. 2 - -
0. 1 - -
/
/
I 1 1 i i 1 I 1
60 - B/ H -
~
SO
UJ
X
40 1 ^ \
\ ^
-
JJ ~-
o. \
~
CU
20 = a B/ a H -
JJ
i : i i 1 1 1 1
H x 10" (4 In )
I / ' ' 1 L 1
1 / 5 10 i. 25 30
UBE 1-250
D.G - -
I 1
1 1
_/
"
10 12 14 IB 18 20
H OERSTEDS
1. 0
40 60 80 100
% COLD DORK
I. 5
6 MPa NO STRESS
_ 1.0
0. 5 ~
I
25 50 75 100
MAGNETIZING FORCE (A I mI
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
R L /wLp
(b) CYLINDER (c) PLATE
70
329 STAINLESS STEEL
10 kHz
100 kHz
I
10 20 30
NORMALIZED RESISTANCE
I N C R E A S I N G PROBE
DIAMETER
INCREASING
FREQUENCY
INCREASING
PERMEABILITY
INCREASING
RESISTIVITY
NORMALIZED RESISTANCE
6 cc l//fin
SUPPORT
O.D. PLATE FLAT PITS
DEFECT HOLE
CALIBRATION
7 TUBE
EDDY CURRENT
TEST WITHOUT
SATURATION
SLIGHT BEND
IN TUBE
EDDY CURRENT
TEST WITH
MAGNETIC
SATURATION
(10 X ABOVE GAIN)
A BC D
A PROBE WOBBLE
8 THROUGH HOLE
C O.D. GROOVE
D I.D. GROOVE
MAGNETIZING CURRENT I A)
Fig. 9.15; Eddy Current Signals from E-Brite 26-1 Tube With
Increasing Saturation, (fgp 100 kHz at Complete Saturation)
BALANCE POINT
IN^AIR
WILL-
INCREASING
FLUX DENSITY ,
(DECREASING
PERMEABILITY)
MAGNETIZING /
CURRENT (AMPS)\
\ \
\ 10
A - PROBE WOBBLE
B - THROUGH HOLE
C - 0. D. GROOVE
D - I. D. GROOVE
B C D
Fig. 9.16: Eddy Current Signals from E-Brite 26-1 Tube with
Increasing Saturation, fgp = 100 kHz
-183-
50%
\ \
75% HOLE
5 mm 1 mm 3mm 2mm 0
9.5 SUMMARY
Eddy current testing can be used to measure electrical
resistivity and magnetic permeability. This parameter, in
some cases, can be correlated to a material's chemical
composition, hardness, heat treatment, etc. and therefore
provide an indirect measurement of material properties.
Material sorting by electrical resistivity can be done with
general purpose eddy current instruments or with special
instruments with meter output calibrated in % IACS. Care
must be taken to obtain reliable results. Material sorting
by magnetic permeability is not simple. It requires a sound
knowledge of magnetic properties and eddy current testing.
Most of the commercial equipment make use of hysteresis
distortion and the method is empirical. It is more reliable
to use general purpose eddy current equipment to roughly
measure magnetic permeability and then correlate to material
property.
SOLUTION:
9.6.3 PROBLEM:
Calculate standard eddy current depth of
penetration in carbon steel at a test frequency of
10 kHz (a) without saturation and (b) with complete
saturation. P .= 15 microhm-centimetres, p. = 300
SOLUTION: yA = y r i
6 = 50 /pTfy",
15
50
10 x 300
= 0.11 mm (0.004")
50
/ 15
I104 x 1.0
= 1 . 9 4 mm ( 0 . 0 7 7 " )
-187-
10.1 DEFINITIONS
DISCONTINUITY - A defect.
10.2 REFERENCES
10.3 INDEX
To identify individual documents in the series Pour identifier les rapports individuels faisant
we have assigned an AECL- numbsr to each. partie de cette sene nous avons assigne
un numero AECL- a ohacun.
Please refer to the AECL- number when re- Veuillez faire mention du numero AECL- si
questing additional copies of this document vous demandez d'autres exemplaires de ce
rapport
from
2909-83