1 Introduction to the Artificial Neural Network

1.1 Introduction
Artificial Neural Networks are relatively crude electronic models based
on the neural structure of the brain. The brain basically learns from
experience. It is natural proof that some problems that are beyond the
scope of current computers are indeed solvable by small energy efficient
packages. This brain modelling also promises a less technical way to
develop machine solutions. This new approach to computing also provides
a more graceful degradation during system overload than its more
traditional counterparts.

These biologically inspired methods of computing are thought to be the

next major advancement in the computing industry. Even simple animal
brains are capable of functions that are currently impossible for
computers. Computers do rote things well, like keeping ledgers or
performing complex math. But computers have trouble recognizing even
simple patterns much less generalizing those patterns of the past into
actions of the future.

Now, advances in biological research promise an initial understanding of

the natural thinking
mechanism. This research shows that brains store information as patterns.
Some of these patterns are very complicated and allow us the ability to
recognize individual faces from many different angles. This process of
storing information as patterns, utilizing those patterns, and then solving
problems encompasses a new field in computing. This field, as mentioned
before, does not utilize traditional programming but involves the creation
of massively parallel networks and the training of those networks to solve
specific problems. This field also utilizes words very different from
traditional computing, words like behave, react, self-organize, learn,
generalize, and forget.

Artificial neural networks (ANN) are among the newest signal-processing

technologies in the
engineer's toolbox. The field is highly interdisciplinary, but our approach
will restrict the view to the engineering perspective. In engineering, neural
networks serve two important functions: as pattern classifiers and as
nonlinear adaptive filters. We will provide a brief overview of the theory,
learning rules, and applications of the most important neural network
models. Definitions and Style of Computation

An Artificial Neural Network is an adaptive, most often nonlinear system

that learns to perform a function (an input/output map) from data.
Adaptive means that the system parameters are changed during
operation, normally called the training phase. After the training phase the
Artificial Neural Network parameters are fixed and the system is deployed
to solve the problem at hand (the testing phase). The Artificial Neural
Network is built with a systematic step-by-step procedure to optimize a
performance criterion or to follow some implicit internal constraint, which
is commonly referred to as the learning rule. The input/output training
data are fundamental in neural network technology, because they convey
the necessary information to "discover" the optimal operating point.

An input is presented to the neural network and a corresponding desired

or target response set at the output (when this is the case the training is
called supervised). . The error information is fed back to the system and
adjusts the system parameters in a systematic fashion (the learning rule).

The process is repeated until the performance is acceptable. It is clear

from this description that the performance hinges heavily on the data. If
one does not have data that cover a significant portion of the operating
conditions or if they are noisy, then neural network technology is
probably not the right solution.

On the other hand, if there is plenty of data and the problem is poorly
understood to derive an
approximate model, then neural network technology is a good choice. This
operating procedure should be contrasted with the traditional engineering
design, made of exhaustive subsystem specifications and
intercommunication protocols. In artificial neural networks, the designer
chooses the network topology, the performance function, the learning
rule, and the criterion to stop the training phase, but the system
automatically adjusts the parameters. So, it is difficult to bring a priori
information into the design, and when the system does not work properly
it is also hard to incrementally refine the solution. But ANN-based
solutions are extremely efficient in terms of development time and
resources, and in many difficult problems artificial neural networks provide
performance that is difficult to match with other technologies. Denker 10
years ago said that "artificial neural networks are the second best way to
implement a solution" motivated by the simplicity of their design and
because of their universality, only shadowed by the traditional design
obtained by studying the physics of the problem. At present, artificial
neural networks are emerging as the technology of choice for many
applications, such as pattern recognition, prediction, system identification,
and control.

1.4 Neural networks versus conventional computers

Neural networks take a different approach to problem solving than that of

conventional
computers. Conventional computers use an algorithmic approach i.e. the
computer follows a set of instructions in order to solve a problem. Unless
the specific steps that the computer needs to follow are known the
computer cannot solve the problem. That restricts the problem solving
capability of conventional computers to problems that we already
understand and know how to solve. But computers would be so much
more useful if they could do things that we don't exactly know how to do.

Neural networks process information in a similar way the human brain

does. The network is
composed of a large number of highly interconnected processing
elements (neurones) working in parallel to solve a specific problem. Neural
networks learn by example. They cannot be programmed to perform a
specific task. The examples must be selected carefully otherwise useful
time is wasted or even worse the network might be functioning incorrectly.
The disadvantage is that because the network finds out how to solve the
problem by itself, its
operation can be unpredictable.

On the other hand, conventional computers use a cognitive approach to

problem solving; the way the problem is to solved must be known and
stated in small unambiguous instructions. These instructions are then
converted to a high level language program and then into machine code
that the computer can understand. These machines are totally
predictable; if anything goes wrong is due to a software or hardware fault.

Neural networks and conventional algorithmic computers are not in

competition but complement each other. There are tasks are more suited
to an algorithmic approach like arithmetic operations and tasks that are
more suited to neural networks. Even more, a large number of tasks,
require systems that use a combination of the two approaches (normally a
conventional computer is used to supervise the neural network) in order
to perform at maximum efficiency.

1.5 What are (everyday) computer systems good at... .....and not
so good at

Advantages:
A neural network can perform tasks that a linear program cannot.
When an element of the neural network fails, it can continue without
any problem by
their parallel nature.
A neural network learns and does not need to be reprogrammed.
It can be implemented in any application.
It can be implemented without any problem.

Disadvantages:
The neural network needs training to operate.
The architecture of a neural network is different from the architecture of microprocessors
therefore needs to be emulated.
Requires high processing time for large neural networks.

2.2 Artificial Neurons and How They Work

The fundamental processing element of a neural network is a neuron. This
building block of
human awareness encompasses a few general capabilities. Basically, a
biological neuron receives inputs from other sources, combines them in
some way, performs a generally nonlinear operation on the result, and
then outputs the final result.
Figure 2.2.1 shows the relationship of these four parts.

Within humans there are many variations on this basic type of neuron,
further complicating
man's attempts at electrically replicating the process of thinking. Yet, all
natural neurons have the same four basic components. These components
are known by their biological names dendrites , soma, axon, and
synapses. Dendrites are hair-like extensions of the soma which act like
input channels. These input channels receive their input through the
synapses of other neurons. The soma then processes these incoming
signals over time. The soma then turns that processed value into an
output, which is sent out to other neurons through the axon and the
synapses.
Recent experimental data has provided further evidence that biological
neurons are structurally more complex than the simplistic explanation
above. They are significantly more complex than the existing artificial
neurons that are built into today's artificial neural networks. As biology
provides a better understanding of neurons, and as technology advances,
network designers can continue to improve their systems by building upon
man's understanding of the biological brain.

But currently, the goal of artificial neural networks is not the grandiose
recreation of the brain. On the contrary, neural network researchers are
seeking an understanding of nature's capabilities for which people can
engineer solutions to problems that have not been solved by traditional
computing.
To do this, the basic unit of neural networks, the artificial neurons,
simulates the four basic
functions of natural neurons. Figure 2.2.2 shows a fundamental
representation of an artificial
neuron.

In Figure 2.2.2, various inputs to the network are represented by the

mathematical symbol, x(n).
Each of these inputs is multiplied by a connection weight. These weights
are represented by
w(n). In the simplest case, these products are simply summed, fed
through a transfer function to generate a result, and then output. This
process lends itself to physical implementation on a large scale in a small
package. This electronic implementation is still possible with other
network structures which utilize different summing functions as well as
different transfer functions.

Some applications require "black and white," or binary, answers. These

applications include the recognition of text, the identification of speech,
and the image deciphering of scenes. These applications are required to
turn real-world inputs into discrete values. These potential values are
limited to some known set, like the ASCII characters or the most common
50,000 English words. Because of this limitation of output options, these
applications don't always utilize networks composed of neurons that
simply sum up, and thereby smooth, inputs. These networks may utilize
the binary properties of ORing and ANDing of inputs. These functions, and
many others, can be built into the summation and transfer functions of a
network.
Other networks work on problems where the resolutions are not just one
of several known
values. These networks need to be capable of an infinite number of
responses. Applications of this type include the "intelligence" behind
robotic movements. This "intelligence" processes inputs and then creates
outputs, which actually cause some device to move. That movement can
span an infinite number of very precise motions. These networks do
indeed want to smooth their inputs which, due to limitations of sensors,
come in non-continuous bursts, say thirty times a second. To do that, they
might accept these inputs, sum that data, and then produce an output by,
for example, applying a hyperbolic tangent as a transfer function. In this
manner, output values from the network are continuous and satisfy more
real world interfaces.
Other applications might simply sum and compare to a threshold, thereby
producing one of two possible outputs, a zero or a one. Other functions
scale the outputs to match the application, such as the values minus one
and one. Some functions even integrate the input data over time, creating
time-dependent networks.

2.4 Artificial Network Operations

The other part of the art of using neural networks revolves around the
myriad of ways these
individual neurons can be clustered together. This clustering occurs in the
human mind in such a way that information can be processed in a
dynamic, interactive, and self-organizing way.
Biologically, neural networks are constructed in a three-dimensional world
from microscopic
components. These neurons seem capable of nearly unrestricted
interconnections. That is not true of any proposed, or existing, man-made
network. Integrated circuits, using current technology, are two-
dimensional devices with a limited number of layers for interconnection.
This physical reality restrains the types, and scope, of artificial neural
networks that can be implemented in silicon.
Currently, neural networks are the simple clustering of the primitive
artificial neurons. This
clustering occurs by creating layers, which are then connected to one
another. How these layers connect is the other part of the "art" of
engineering networks to resolve real world problems.

Basically, all artificial neural networks have a similar structure or topology

as shown in Figure 2.4.1. In that structure some of the neurons interface
to the real world to receive its inputs. Other neurons provide the real world
with the network's outputs. This output might be the particular character
that the network thinks that it has scanned or the particular image it
thinks is being viewed. All the rest of the neurons are hidden from view.
But a neural network is more than a bunch of neurons. Some early
researchers tried to simply
connect neurons in a random manner, without much success. Now, it is
known that even the
brains of snails are structured devices. One of the easiest ways to design
a structure is to create layers of elements. It is the grouping of these
neurons into layers, the connections between these layers, and the
summation and transfer functions that comprises a functioning neural
network.
The general terms used to describe these characteristics are common to
all networks.
The way that the neurons are connected to each other has a significant
impact on the operation of the network. In the larger, more professional
software development packages the user is allowed to add, delete, and
control these connections at will. By "tweaking" parameters these
connections can be made to either excite or inhibit.

4 Artificial Neural Network Processing

4.1 Gathering Data for Neural Networks
Once you have decided on a problem to solve using neural network you
will need to gather data for training purposes. The training data set
includes a number of cases, each containing values for a range of input
and output variables. The first decisions you will need to make are: which
variables to use, and how many (and which) cases to gather.
The choice of variables (at least initially) is guided by intuition. Your own
expertise in the
problem domain will give you some idea of which input variables are likely
to be influential. As a first pass, you should include any variables that you
think could have an influence - part of the design process will be to whittle
this set down.
Handling non-numeric data is more difficult. The most common form of
non-numeric data
consists of nominal-value variables such as Gender={Male, Female}.
Nominal-valued variables can be represented numerically. However,
neural networks do not tend to perform well with nominal variables that
have a large number of possible values.
For example, consider a neural network being trained to estimate the
value of houses. The price of houses depends critically on the area of a
city in which they are located. A particular city might be subdivided into
dozens of named locations, and so it might seem natural to use a nominal-
valued variable representing these locations. Unfortunately, it would be
very difficult to train a neural network under these circumstances, and a
more credible approach would be to assign ratings (based on expert
knowledge) to each area; for example, you might assign ratings for the
quality of local schools, convenient access to leisure facilities, etc.
Other kinds of non-numeric data must either be converted to numeric
form, or discarded. Dates and times, if important, can be converted to an
offset value from a starting date/time. Currency values can easily be
converted. Unconstrained text fields (such as names) cannot be handled
and should be discarded.
Many practical problems suffer from data that is unreliable: some
variables may be corrupted by noise, or values may be missing altogether.
Neural networks are also noise tolerant. However, there is a limit to this
tolerance; if there are occasional outliers far outside the range of normal
values for a variable, they may bias the training. The best approach to
such outliers is to identify and remove them (either discarding the case, or
converting the outlier into a missing value). If outliers are difficult to
detect, a city block error function (see Bishop, 1995) may be used, but this
outlier-tolerant training is generally less effective than the standard
approach.
4.2 Learning
We can categorize the learning situations in two distinct sorts. These are:
Supervised learning or Associative learning in which the network is
trained by
providing it with input and matching output patterns. These input-output
pairs can be
26
provided by an external teacher, or by the system, which contains the
neural network
(self-supervised)

Unsupervised learning or Self-organization in which an (output) unit

is trained to
respond to clusters of pattern within the input. In this paradigm the
system is supposed to
discover statistically salient features of the input population. Unlike the
supervised
learning paradigm, there is no a priori set of categories into which the
patterns are to be
classified; rather the system must develop its own representation of the
input stimuli.
Reinforcement Learning This type of learning may be considered as
an intermediate
form of the above two types of learning. Here the learning machine does
some action on
the environment and gets a feedback response from the environment. The
learning system
grades its action good (rewarding) or bad (punishable) based on the
environmental
response and accordingly adjusts its parameters. Generally, parameter
adjustment is
continued until an equilibrium state occurs, following which there will be
no more
changes in its parameters. The self-organizing neural learning may be
categorized under
this type of learning

4.4 Transfer Function

The behavior of an ANN (Artificial Neural Network) depends on both the
weights and the inputoutput function (transfer function) that is specified
for the units. This function typically falls into one of three categories:
linear (or ramp)
threshold
sigmoid
For linear units, the output activity is proportional to the total weighted
output.
For threshold units, the output is set at one of two levels, depending on
whether the total input is greater than or less than some threshold value.
For sigmoid units, the output varies continuously but not linearly as the
input changes. Sigmoid units bear a greater resemblance to real neutrons
than do linear or threshold units, but all three must be considered rough
approximation

4.5 Pre- and Post-processing

All neural networks take numeric input and produce numeric output. The
transfer function of a unit is typically chosen so that it can accept input in
any range, and produces output in a strictly limited range (it has a
squashing effect). Although the input can be in any range, there is a
saturation effect so that the unit is only sensitive to inputs within a fairly
limited range. The illustration below shows one of the most common
transfer functions, the logistic function (also sometimes referred to as the
sigmoid function, although strictly speaking it is only one example of a
sigmoid - S-shaped - function). In this case, the output is in the range
(0,1), and the input is sensitive in a range not much larger than (-1,+1).
The function is also smooth and easily differentiable, facts that are critical
in allowing the network training algorithms to operate (this is the reason
why the step function is not used in practice).
The limited numeric response range, together with the fact that
information has to be in numeric form, implies that neural solutions
require preprocessing and post-processing stages to be used in real
applications (see Bishop, 1995). Two issues need to be addressed:
Scaling. Numeric values have to be scaled into a range that is appropriate
for the network.
Typically, raw variable values are scaled linearly. In some circumstances,
non-linear scaling may be appropriate (for example, if you know that a
variable is exponentially distributed, you might take the logarithm). Non-
linear scaling is not supported in ST Neural Networks. Instead, you should
scale the variable using STATISTICA's data transformation facilities before
transferring the data to ST Neural Networks.

Prediction problems may be divided into two main categories:

Classification. In classification, the objective is to determine to which of
a number of discrete classes a given input case belongs. Examples include
credit assignment (is this person a good or bad credit risk), cancer
detection (tumor, clear), signature recognition (forgery, true). In all these
cases, the output required is clearly a single nominal variable. The most
common classification tasks are (as above) two-state, although many-
state tasks are also not unknown.
Regression. In regression, the objective is to predict the value of a
(usually) continuous variable: tomorrow's stock price, the fuel
consumption of a car, next year's profits. In this case, the output required
is a single numeric variable

INTRODUCTION
Antenna is an essential part of any wireless communication system. It is used to transmit
information in the form of electromagnetic wave that propagates through free space.
Microstrip patch antenna is a widely used type of antenna. Microstrip patch antenna is
popular because of its compact size and ease of fabrication. Microstrip antenna [1] is a single
layer design consisting four parts i.e. patch, substrate, ground plane and feeding part. Once
the frequency is given, characteristics of the antenna such as radiation pattern, input
impedance are fixed, thats why it is classified as single element resonant antenna. Patch is
located on one side of a thin non conducting substrate. It is basically a very thin (t<< where
is the free space wavelength) radiating metal strip or an array of strips. Same metal is also
located on the other side of substrate that is called ground plane. The material normally used
to make the patch is a thin copper foil plated with corrosion resistive metal. Thickness of the
substrate is usually 0.01 to 0.05 of free space wavelength. It provides proper spacing between
patch and ground plane, and mechanical support to the antenna as well. To reduce the size of
antenna high value of dielectric constant is used. Insertion loss of the substrate should be low
(typically less than 0.005). These substrate materials are classified into 3 categories as
follows:

1:- Substrate materials with relative dielectric constant in the range of 1.0 to 2.0 such as air,
polystyrene foam, or dielectric honeycomb.
2:- Substrate materials with relative dielectric constant in the range of 2.0 to 4.0 such as
fiberglass or reinforced Teflon.
3:- Substrate materials with relative dielectric constant in the range of 4 to 10 such as
ceramic, quartz, or alumina.

Small size, low profile and light weight are main attractive features of microstrip antenna. It
is compatible with both planer as well as nonplaner surfaces. It requires very little volume
and is very cheap in manufacturing using printed circuit technology.

Low efficiency and narrow bandwidth are some prominent drawbacks of microstrip antenna.
It is not apt for high power application as it has low RF power due to small separation
between patch and ground plane.

Types of patch
Choosing the geometry of the patch is an important consideration in designing microstrip
antenna. Specific characteristics can be obtained by choosing the right geometry for the
patch. Rectangular, square and circle are generally used as patch because of their ease of
analysis.
Choosing the right substrate material is also important as it should be compatible with the
environmental conditions of operating. Substrate material thickness has an significant impact
on the characteristics like resonant frequency and bandwidth of the antenna. Bandwidth is
increased by increasing the thickness of the substrate.
FEED TECHNIQUES
Feeding is the process of providing power to the patch that it radiates in the form of
electromagnetic wave. There are various methods of feeding the microstrip antenna. These
methods are classified into two categories. 1:- Contacting methods 2:- Non contacting
methods.
In contacting methods a contacting element such as microstrip line is used to feed RF power
directly to the patch. In non contacting method electromagnetic field coupling is used to feed
RF power to the radiating element. Four most popular methods are microstrip line feed,
coaxial probe feed (both contacting) and aperture coupling, proximity coupling (non
contacting) [3] [4].

Microstrip Line Feed

A conducting strip of much smaller width (microstrip feed line) is used to transfer power to
the patch. This conducting strip is connected directly to the edge of the patch. This provides a
planer structure as the feed line can be etched on the same substrate on which the patch is
etched.
Modeling and fabrication of this feeding technique is easy. Inset cut is used to provide
impedance matching to the antenna. Inset position is controlled to achieve impedance
matching. This method doesnt require any additional matching element. Spurious feed
radiation and surface wave radiation also increase with increasing thickness of dielectric
substrate. This can reduce the bandwidth of the antenna(typically 2-5%) and can be a cause
of undesired cross polarization radiation.

Coaxial Feed
In this method a coaxial line is used for feeding purpose. The inner conductor is etched to
radiating patch and outer conductor is etched to the ground plane. The coaxial line passes
through the substrate. This is also a widely used feed technique for microstrip patch antennas.
This method is also known as probe feed method.
Feed can be placed at any position inside the patch thus impedance matching becomes much
easier. Spurious radiation is avoided in this method which was the drawback of microstrip
feed line method and it is very easy to fabricate as well. Disadvantages of this method are
that it provides narrow bandwidth and is very difficult to model.
A hole has to be drilled through the substrate for coaxial line as a result the connector
protrudes outside the ground plane. Thus for thick substrate this structure becomes non
planer. More thickness of the substrate causes one more problem that the input impedance
becomes more inductive which can cause impedance matching problem.
Broad bandwidth is achieved only by thick dielectric substrate but for thick dielectric
substrate both the contact methods suffer some disadvantages. This problem is avoided by
introducing non contact methods of feeding.

Aperture Coupled Feed

A slot or aperture is used for coupling in this method. The patch and the feed line are separate

by the ground plane. Patch is etched on the top of the upper substrate and the feed line at the
bottom of lower substrate. This structure is the most difficult of the four to fabricate because
of layered structure.
Energy of the microstrip feed line is coupled to the patch through a slot on the ground plane.
Generally the bottom substrate is a high dielectric material and the top substrate is
comparatively low dielectric substrate and thicker than the bottom substrate. The amount of
coupling is determined by the shape, size and the location of the aperture.
Spurious radiation is minimized in this feeding method as the ground plane separates the
patch and the microstrip feed line. Layered structure increases the thickness of antenna. Feed
line width, slot size and position are used to optimize the design. This feed technique also
provides narrow bandwidth.

Proximity Coupled Feed

This method is also known as electromagnetic coupling scheme. Feed line is placed between
the two substrate used and the radiating patch is placed on the top of the upper substrate.
Elimination of spurious feed radiation and a very high bandwidth (typically up to 13%) are
main advantages achieved by this feeding technique. Choices between two different dielectric
media is provided by this scheme because of the significant increase in the thickness of
microstrip patch antenna. Individual performances of the patch and the feed line can be
optimized in this way.
Width-to-line ratio of the patch and the length of the microstrip feed line is optimized to
achieve impedance matching. This method use two different dielectric substrate which causes
a need of proper alignment that makes this method a difficult one to fabricate. A significant
increase in the thickness of the antenna is also a major drawback of this feeding mechanism.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Use of microstrip patch antenna is increasing extensively in the field of wireless
communication system. These are very apt for embedded antennas in hand held wireless
devices. These antennas are widely used in satellite communication also.

Some of the main advantages are as follows.

1) Microstrip antenna is lighter in weight and has low volume.
2) It has planer configuration which can be embedded to any device easily.
3) Fabrication cost is low and can be manufactured in large quantity.
4) Compatible with microwave integrated circuits.
5) Dual and triple frequency operation can be performed.
6) It supports both linear as well as circular polarization.
7) It exhibits robustness when mounted on rigid surfaces.
Some of the major disadvantages of microstrip patch antennas are as follows.
1) It has low gain.
2) Its efficiency is not much.
3) It has narrow bandwidth of operation.
4) Its power handling capacity is low.