INTRODUCTION TO GEARS

The history of gears is probably as old as civilization itself. Still today, the
importance of gears in the manufacturing industry is undiminished and even
continues to grow.
The purpose of this handbook is to provide an outline of gear fundamentals for
those who want to acquire knowledge about the mechanics of gears. In reading
through this handbook, if you have any questions please refer them to us and we
would be happy to respond.
We hope this handbook will act as a starting point for you in understanding gears.

TYPES OF GEARS

Types of Gears

There are many types of gears such as spur gears, helical gears, bevel gears, worm
gears, gear rack, etc. These can be broadly classified by looking at the positions of
axes such as parallel shafts, intersecting shafts and non-intersecting shafts.

It is necessary to accurately understand the differences among gear types to

accomplish necessary force transmission in mechanical designs. Even after
choosing the general type, it is important to consider factors such as: dimensions
(module, number of teeth, helix angle, face width, etc.), standard of precision grade
(ISO, AGMA, DIN), need for teeth grinding and/or heat treating, allowable torque
and efficiency, etc.

Besides this page, we present more thorough gear technical information under
Gear Knowledge (separate PDF page). In addition to the list below, each section
such as worm gear, rack and pinion, bevel gear, etc. has its own additional
explanation regarding the respective gear type. If it is difficult to view PDF, please
consult these sections.

It is best to start with the general knowledge of the types of gears as shown below.
But in addition to these, there are other types such as face gear, herringbone gear
(double helical gear), crown gear, hypoid gear, etc.

SPUR GEARS

Metric Spur Gears the most suitable for machine design

Spur gears are the most easily visualized common gears that transmit motion
between two parallel shafts. Since the tooth surfaces of the gears are parallel to the
axes of the mounted shafts, there is no thrust force generated in the axial direction.
Also, because of the ease of production, these gears can be made to a high degree
of precision.

The unit to indicate the sizes of spur gears is commonly stated, as specified by
ISO, to be module. In recent years, it is usual to set the pressure angle to 20
degrees. In commercial machinery, it is most common to use a portion of an
involute curve as the tooth profile.
Even though not limited to spur gears, profile shifted gears are used when it is
necessary to adjust the center distance slightly or to strengthen the gear teeth. They
are produced by adjusting the distance between the gear cutting tool called hobbing
tool and the gear in the production stage. When the shift is positive, the bending
strength of the gear increases, while the negative shift slightly reduces the center
distance. The backlash is the play between the teeth when two gears are meshed
and is needed for the smooth rotation of gears. When the backlash is too large, it
leads to increased vibration and noise while the backlash that is too small leads to
tooth failure due to the lack of lubrication.

All KHK spur gears have involute tooth shape. In other words, they are involute
gears using part of the involute curve as their tooth forms.
Looking generally, the involute shape is the most wide-spread gear tooth form due
to, among other reasons, the ability to absorb small center distance errors, easily
made production tools simplify manufacturing, thick roots of the teeth make it
strong, etc.

HELICAL GEARS

Helical Gears excel in quiet operation

Helical gears are one type of cylindrical gears with slanted tooth trace. Compared
to spur gears, they have the larger contact ratio and excel in quietness and less
vibration and able to transmit large force. A pair of helical gears has the same helix
angle but the helix hand is opposite.

When the reference section of the gear is in the normal plane, by tilting the
hobbing tool, the spur gear hobbing machine and hobbing tool can be used to
produce helical gears. Because of the twist of teeth, their manufacturing has the
disadvantage of more difficult production.

The helical gears made by KHK can be classified into two groups by the reference
section of the gears being in the rotating plane (transverse module) and normal
plane (normal module). If the reference section is in the rotating plane, the center
distance is identical to spur gears as long as they are the same module and number
of teeth. This allows for easy swapping with spur gears. However, in this case, they
require special hobbing cutters and grinding stones, leading to higher production
cost. On the other hand, if the reference section is in the normal plane, it is possible
to use spur gear hobbing tools and grinding stones. However, the same module and
number of teeth in spur gears no longer match the center distance of helical gears,
and swapping becomes very difficult. In addition, the center distance is usually not
an integer.

While spur gears do not generate axial thrust forces, because of the twist in the
tooth trace, helical gears produce axial thrust force. Therefore, it is desirable to use
thrust bearings to absorb this force. However, combining right hand and left hand
helical gears making double helical gears will eliminate the thrust force.

Helical gears are often used in automotive transmissions by replacing spur gears.

GEAR RACK
Gear Rack creation of linear motion

Gear racks are utilized to convert rotating movement into linear motion. A gear
rack has straight teeth cut into one surface of a square or round section rod with a
pinion, which is a small cylindrical gear meshing with the gear rack. There are
many ways to use gears. For example, as shown in the picture, a gear is used with
the gear rack to rotate a parallel shaft.

KHK has many types of gear racks in stock. If the application requires a long
length requiring multiple gear racks in series, we have racks with the tooth forms
correctly configured at the ends. These are described as gear racks with machined
ends. When a gear rack is produced, the teeth cutting process and heat treatment
can cause it to try & go out of true. We can control this with special presses &
remedial processes.

There are applications where the gear rack is stationary, while the pinion traverses
and others where the pinion rotates on a fixed axis while the gear rack moves. The
former is used widely in conveying systems while the latter can be used in
extrusion systems and lifting/lowering applications.
As a mechanical element to transfer rotary into linear motion, gear racks are often
compared to ball screws. There are pros and cons. The advantages of a gear rack is
its mechanical simplicity, large load carrying capacity, no limit to the length, etc.
One disadvantage though is the backlash. The advantage of a ball screw is the high
precision and lower backlash while the shortcomings include the limit in length
due to deflection.

BEVEL GEARS

Spiral and Straight Bevel Gears for machine designers

The standard definition of a Bevel Gear is a cone-shaped gear which transmits

power between 2 intersecting axels.

Looking at bevel gears from the differences in helix angles, they can be generally
classified into straight bevel gears, which do not have helix angles, and spiral bevel
gears (including zerol bevel gears), which do have helix angles. However, because
of the fact that manufacture facilities for straight bevel gears are becoming rare and
the fact that straight bevel gears teeth cannot be polished, making spiral bevel
gears which can be polished superior in terms of noise reduction, spiral bevel gears
are likely to become more common in the future.
Bevel gears can be generally classified by their manufacturing methods, namely
the Gleason method and Klingelnberg method, which each have differing teeth
shapes, and presently most gears use the Gleason method. Incidentally, all gears
manufactured by KHK use the Gleason method.

Furthermore, there are also variations in gears in terms of teeth pitch (modules,
etc.), whether polished or not, and materials used. For example in the case of
materials, S45C of machine structural carbon steel, SCM415 of machine structual
alloy steel and MC901 of engineering plastic, etc. are often used, and duracon, etc.
are used for plastic molded parts.

SCREW GEARS

Screw Gears Used for Non-Intersecting Shafts

Screw gears, also sometimes called crossed helical gears, are helical gears used in
motion transmission between non-intersecting shafts. The helical gears used in
parallel shafts have the same helix angle but in the opposite directions. For shaft
angles other than parallel, an arbitrary helix angle can be chosen, and, assuming no
profile shift, the intersecting angle of the shafts is the sum of the respective helix
angles. Helical gears have point contacts and have lower efficiency than parallel or
perpendicular shaft gears and cannot transmit heavy loads. Also, if the same
material is used in screw gears, it could lead to friction and galling. Therefore,
KHK recommends the use of different materials in a pair. Besides, unlike bevel
gears, there are no restrictions on the numbers of teeth combinations and the speed
transmission ratio becomes the number of teeth of the driving gear divided by the
number of teeth of the driven gear. Please consult the Gear Applications pages
for the actual working of screw gears.

MITER GEARS

Miter gear changes transmission direction only

Miter gears are one type of bevel gears where the two rotational axes intersect.
When speaking of narrow definition of bevel gears with ability to increase or
decrease speed, miter gears do not have that ability due to the pairs same number
of teeth. Their purpose is limited to the change in transmission direction. Because
they are a type of bevel gears, the basic characteristic of bevel gears exist such as
presence of gear forms of straight cut, spiral cut and zerol types.

Also, because the shafts can be set to any angle, there are miter gears with non-90
degree (non-perpendicular) angle called angular miter gears. KHK is capable of
producing angular miter gears with shaft angles in the range of 45 to 120 degrees.

Because a pair of straight tooth miter gears has the same number of teeth, with the
exception of minor differences such as set screw holes and key ways, the same two
gears can mate with each other. However, in the case of spiral miter gears, even
when the number of teeth are the same, the twisting directions are different.
Therefore, the same gear cannot be meshed together, and it is necessary to pair the
right and left handed pairs.

Also, to produce straight tooth miter gears. KHK utilizes Coniflex made by
Gleason Company that allows the use of crowning method as in making bevel
gears which creates final products superior in quietness.
Incidentally, originally the hat worn by Catholic bishop is called mitre and in
woodworking the word miter joint is used.

WORM GEAR

Worm Gear compact design

Worm gears are usually used when large speed reductions are needed. The
reduction ratio is determined by the number of starts of the worm and number of
teeth on the worm gear. But worm gears have sliding contact which is quiet but
tends to produce heat and have relatively low transmission efficiency.

As for the materials for production, in general, worm is made of hard metal while
the worm gear is made from relatively soft metal such as aluminum bronze. This is
because the number of teeth on the worm gear is relatively high compared to worm
with its number of starts being usually 1 to 4, by reducing the worm gear hardness,
the friction on the worm teeth is reduced. Another characteristic of worm
manufacturing is the need of specialized machine for gear cutting and tooth
grinding of worms. The worm gear, on the other hand, may be made with the
hobbing machine used for spur gears. But because of the different tooth shape, it is
not possible to cut several gears at once by stacking the gear blanks as can be done
with spur gears.

The applications for worm gears include gear boxes, fishing pole reels, guitar
string tuning pegs, and where a delicate speed adjustment by utilizing a large speed
reduction is needed. While you can rotate the worm gear by worm, it is usually not
possible to rotate worm by using the worm gear. This is called the self locking
feature. The self locking feature cannot always be assured and a separate method is
recommended for true positive reverse prevention.
Also there exists duplex worm gear type. When using these, it is possible to adjust
backlash, as when the teeth wear necessitates backlash adjustment, without
requiring a change in the center distance. There are not too many manufacturers
who can produce this type of worm.

INTERNAL GEARS

Internal Gears used in mechanisms such as planetary gear drive

Internal gear is a gear with its teeth cut in the internal surface of a cylinder and
meshes with spur gears.

In its manufacturing, because of its shape, the usual hobbing machine used in spur
gear production cannot be used. Generally it is made with gear shaper (or gear
shaping machine) equipped with a pinion cutter. More recently, the efficiency of
internal gear cutting has been improved by a different process called skiving.

As it is seen from the precision class of JIS N9 of KHKs SIR ring gears, due to the
thinness of the ring, it is sometimes difficult to produce high precision. On the
other hand, gear grinding to improve precision grade is limited by the number of
manufacturers and their available grinding facilities leading to very high cost.

Also, although it is generally too expensive to make helical teeth internal gears,
KHK has made it possible to produce them by adopting equipment that can cut
them by simply making pinion cutters and not needing helical guides.

Normally, internal gears can be used with the same module spur gears, depending
on the number of teeth combinations, but it is necessary to note the possibilities of
getting involute, trochoid or trimming interferences. For using KHKs standard
stock gears, please consult the PDF formatted Technical Information of Internal
Gears section for usable number of teeth combinations.

Internal gears are often used in applications involving planetary gear drives and
gear couplings. There are three major types of planetary gear mechanisms:
planetary, solar and star types. Depending on the type and the pattern of which
shafts act as input and output, many variations of speed transmission ratios and
rotational directions are produced.


Worm

Worm wheel

Internal gear
 Gear coupling

Screw gear

Involute spline shafts and bushings

Miter gear

Spur gear

Helical gear

Ratchet

Pawl

Rack

Pinion

Straight bevel gear

Spiral bevel gear

There are three major categories of gears in accordance with the orientation
of their axes

Configuration :

1. Parallel Axes / Spur Gear, Helical Gear, Gear Rack, Internal Gear
 2. Intersecting Axes / Miter Gear, Straight Bevel Gear, Spiral Bevel Gear

3. Nonparallel, Nonintersecting Axes / Screw Gear, Worm, Worm Gear (Worm

Wheel)

4. Others / Involute Spline Shaft and Bushing, Gear Coupling, Pawl and
Ratchet

The difference between a gear and a sprocket

Simply said, a gear meshes with another gear while a sprocket meshes with a chain
and is not a gear. Aside from a sprocket, an item that looks somewhat like a gear is
a ratchet, but its motiion is limited to one direction.

Classification of types of gears from the point of positional relations of the

attached shafts

1. When the gears two shafts are parallel (parallel shafts)

Spur gear, rack, internal gear and helical gear, etc.
Generally they have a high transmission efficiency.

2. When the gears two shafts intersect each other (intersecting shafts)
Bevel gear is in this category.
Generally they have a high transmission efficiency.

3. When the gears two shafts are not parallel or intersect (offset shafts)
Worm gear and screw gear belong in this group.
Because of the sliding contact, the transmission efficiency is relatively low.
Precision class of gears

When a type of gears is grouped by accuracy, precision class is used. The precision
class is specified by the standards set by ISO, DIN, JIS, AGMA, etc. For example,
JIS specifies each precision class pitch error, tooth profile error, helix deviation,
runout error, etc.

Existence of teeth grinding

Existence of teeth grinding greatly affects the performance of gears. Therefore, in

considering types of gears, teeth grinding is an important elememt to consider.
Grinding the teeth surface makes gears quieter, increases force transmission
capacity and affects the precision class. On the other hand, the addition of teeth
grinding process increases cost and is not suitable for all gears. To obtain high
precision other than by grinding, there is a process called shaving using shaving
cutters.

Kinds of tooth shape

To broadly classify types of gears by their tooth shape, there are involute tooth
shape, cycloid tooth shape and trochoid tooth shape. Among these, involute tooth
shape is most commonly used. They are easy to produce and has the characteristic
of being able to correctly mesh even when the center distance is slightly off.
Cycloid tooth shape is mostly used in clocks and trochoid tooth shape is mainly in
pumps.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GEARS
haracteristics of Gears

Spur Gear

The teeth are straight and parallel to the shaft axis. Transmits power and motion
between rotating two parallel shafts.

Features :
Easy to manufacture
There are no axial force
Relatively easy to produce high-quality gears
The most common type of gear

Applications :
Transmission components
Helical Gear

The teeth are twisted oblique to the gear axis.

Helix direction (helix hand) :

The hand of helix is designated as either left or right
Right-hand and left-hand helical gears mate as a set. But they must have the same
helix angle

Features :
Has higher strength compared with a spur gear
More effective in reducing noise and vibration when compared with a spur gear
Gears in mesh produce thrust forces in the axial direction
Applications :
Transmission components, automobile, speed reducers, etc.

Gear Rack

The rack is a bar containing teeth on one face for meshing with a gear.
The basic rack form is the profile of a gear of infinite diameter.
Racks with machined ends can be joined together to make any desired length.

Features :
Changes a rotary motion into a rectilinear motion and vice versa

Applications :
A transfer system for machine tools, printing presses, robots, etc.

Internal Gear
An annular gear having teeth on the inner surface of its rim.
The internal gear always meshes with an external gear.

Features :
When meshing two external gears, the rotation occurs in the opposite
directions. When meshing an internal gear with an external gear the rotation occurs
in the same direction
Care should be taken with regard to the number of teeth on each gear when
meshing a large (internal) gear with a small (external) gear, since three types of
interference can occur
Usually internal gears are driven by small external gears
Allows for a compact design of the machine

Applications :
Planetary gear drive of high reduction ratios, clutches, etc.

Bevel Gear

Picture : Bevel gear, apex and pitch cone

One of a pair of gears used to connect two shafts whose axes intersect, and the
pitch surfaces are cones.
Teeth are cut along the pitch cone.
Depending on tooth trace, bevel gear is classified as :
1. Straight bevel gear
2. Spiral bevel gear

1. Straight Bevel Gear

A simple form of bevel gear having straight teeth which, if extended inward,
would come together at the intersetion of the shaft axes.
Features :
Relatively easy to manufacture
Provides reduction ratios up to approx. 1:5
Applications :
Machine tools, printing presses, etc. Especially suitable for use as a
differential gear unit
2. Spiral Bevel Gear

Bevel gear with curved, oblique teeth to provide gradual engagement and
larger contact surface at a given time than an equivalent straight bevel gear.
Features :
Has higher contact ratio, higher strength and durability than an equivalent
straight bevel gear
Allows a higher reduction ratio
Has better efficiency of transmission with reduced gear noise
Involves some technical difficulties in manufacturing
Applications :
Automobiles, tractors, vehicles, final reduction gearing for ships.
Especially suitable for high-speed, heavy load drives
Miter Gears

A special class of bevel gear where the shafts intersect at 90 and the gear ratio is
1:1.
It is used to change the direction of shaft rotation without change in speed.

Screw Gear

A helical gear that transmits power from one shaft to another, nonparallel,
nonintersecting shaft.

Features :
Can be used as a speed reducer or as a speed increaser
 Due to sliding contact, has higher friction
Not suitable for transmission of high horsepower

Applications :
Driving gear for automobile. Automatic machines that require intricate
movement

Worm Gear

Picture : Worm, Worm Gear and Center distance

Worm is a shank having at least one complete tooth (thread) around the pitch
surface and is the driver of a worm wheel.
Worm Gear (worm wheel) is a gear with teeth cut on an angle to be driven by a
worm.
The worm gear pair is used to transmit motion between two shafts which are at
90to each other and lie on a plane.

Features :
Provides large reduction ratios for a given center distance
Quiet and smooth meshing action
 It is not possible for a worm wheel to drive a worm unless certain conditions are
met

Applications :
Speed reducers, antireversing gear devices making the most of its self-locking
features, machine tools, indexing devices, chain blocks, portable generators, etc.

GEAR TERMINOLOGY
Gear Terminology

Important Gear Terminology in this picture :

Center distance

Length of path of contact (Line of action)

 Backlash

Interference point

Pitch point

Reference pitch

Center line

Tip circle

Reference circle

Base circle

Root circle

Tip diameter

Reference diameter

Base diameter

Root diameter

Pressure angle

Face width

Tooth depth
 Addendum

Dedendum

Tooth thickness

Gear Module

1. Reference diameter

2. The number of teeth

Module is the unit of size that indicates how big or small a gear is. It is the ratio
of the
reference diameter of the gear divided by the number of teeth.
Thus m = d/z (Module = Reference diameter/Number of teeth)

The mutual relation between the module and the reference diameter, etc. is as
follows :
Reference diameter d = mz (Reference diameter = Module Number of teeth)
Number of teeth z = d/m (Number of teeth = Reference diameter / Module)
Reference pitch p = m (Reference pitch = x module)

Then, what is the reference pitch ?

It is equal to the circumference divided by the number of teeth.
Reference pitch = Circumference (d) / Number of teeth (z)

1. Circumference

2. Reference pitch

3. Diameter

Then, what is the reference circle ?

Assume that there are two friction pulleys in contact whose diameters are equal to
the reference diameters. As the surfaces are smooth, the rotation will not go
properly when great force is applied. This problem will be solved if there are teeth
on the periphery of the friction pulley. And this is the concept of gearing.

1. Friction pulley (Reference circle)

2. Both reference circles come in contact

Summary
(1) The module describes the size of a gear.
(2) A pair of gears can only mesh correctly if and when the base pitch is the same.
Practicing What Youve Learned

Spur Gear

Module m = 3
Pinion z1 = 15
Gear z2 = 55

1. Reference diameter
Number of teeth x Module =
z1 ? x ? = ??
z2 ? x ? = ??

2. Tip diameter
Reference diameter + 2 x module =
z1 ? +2 x ? = ??
z2 ? + 2 x ? = ??

3. Center distance
Add reference diameters then divide by two ? + ? / ? = ??

Helical Gear

Module m = 3
Pinion z1 = 15
Gear z2 = 55
Helix angle = 1615 / then cos = 0.96
 1. Reference diameter
z1 ? x ? / ? = ??
z2 ? x ? / ? = ??

2. Tip diameter
z1 ? + 2 x ? = ??
z2 ? + 2 x ? = ??

3. Center distance ? + ? / ? = ??

INVOLUTE TOOTH PROFILE

Involute Tooth Profile

Imagine pulleys with simple indentations on their periphery equally spaced by

pitch.
These pulleys, when moved, would :

slip at the contact point

 not rotate smoothly

produce vibration and noise

They are improperly suited for use as gears. Satisfactory gears must transmit power
smoothly by rolling action. The involute curve meets all the requirements for a
gear-tooth profile.

The involute curve

If a cord is wrapped around a cylinder, as shown in this figure, a point on the cord,
as it is unwrapped from the cylinder, traces a curve called an involute.
The circle from which the string is unwound is called the base circle.

Let us try to make a simple drawing of an eight-toothed gear :

First, divide a cylinder into eight equal parts. Then, from each part unwrap a cord
drawing a line with a pencil.
After you have completed eight lines, do the same manual work from the opposite
side.
The diagram thus drawn is the involute tooth profile.
Involute Gear

This figure indicates how two involute teeth in mesh are moving to transmit rotary
motion.

Important terminologies in this figure :

Tangent

Root circle
 Base circle

Reference circle

Drive gear

Driven gear

Rotational sequence of the gears : P1 -> P2 -> P3

When Gear 1 drives Gear 2 by acting at the instantaneous contact point, the contact
point moves on the common tangent in the order of P1 -> P2 -> P3.
You can see that the contact point rolls along the involute curves of the gears.
Moreover, the points P1, P2 and P3 lie on the common tangent to the two base
circles.
It is similar to the point, P, on a criss-crossed belt as the disks rotate.
In effect, the involute shape of the gear teeth allows the contact point to move
smoothly, transmitting the motion. Therefore, the involute curve is the ideal shape
for gear teeth.

Features :
 Conjugate action is relatively independent of small errors in center distance

Can be manufactured at low cost since the tooth profile is relatively simple

Its root thickness makes it strong

A typical tooth profile used almost exclusively for gears.

PRESSURE ANGLE

ressure Angle

1. Pressure angle

The pressure angle exists between the tooth profile and a radial line to its pitch
point. In involute teeth, it is defined as the angle formed by the radial line and the
line tangent to the profile at the pitch point. Here = . Therefore, is also the
pressure angle.
1. Normal to the profile

2. Tangent to the reference circle

3. Tangent to the profile

4. Radial line
This figure indicates the meshing of a gear A and a gear B at the pitch point.

1. Common normal

2. Reference circle

3. Reference circle

At the pitch point, the gear A is pushing the gear B. The pushing force acts along
the common normal of the gear A and the gear B. The pressure angle can be
described as the angle between the common normal and the line tangent to the
reference circle.

PROFILE SHIFTED GEARS

Profile Shifted Gears

When the number of gear teeth to be cut becomes small, the generating tool will
sweep out its path, removing some of the profile, and producing an undercut tooth
form.
To prevent undercut, some correction must be introduced, and it is called
profile shifting.
Profile shifting can not only prevent undercut, but also can adjust center distance
between two gears.

Left : example of undercut gear

Right : example of gear without undercut

An example of profile shifting is given here.

m=3, z1=10, z2=60, =20
The positive correction of 0.5 is to be made on 10-toothed gear (z1=10, x1=+0.5)
The calculations to be made are :
1. Determine working pressure angle

2. Find center distance modification coefficient, y

3. Determine center distance a

 4. Find tip diameter da

There is both positive and negative shifting. There will be change in

tooth thickness; In the case of positive shifting (+), tooth thickness will become
thicker, while in the case of negative shifting (-), it will become thinner.
The tooth depth will not change.

Left : Negative shifting (tooth thickness is thinner)

Right : Positive shifting (tooth thickness is thicker)

Important gear terminology :

Standard gear

Shifted gear
 Amount of shift

Reference circle

Tooth depth

This figure shows a gear that is negative shifted and a pinion that is positive
shifted, and the absolute value of profile shift is identical.
Attention is to be paid that there is no change in center distance.
If there is a condition that center distance is invariable and the pinion tooth has
undercut, profile shifting will solve the problem as illustrated here.

Important gear terminology :

Negative shift

Positive shift
 Center distance

The meshing of standard spur gears means reference circles of two gears contact
and roll with each other.
The same of the profile shifted spur gears means working pitch circles of two gears
contact and roll with each other.
The pressure angle at the working pitch circle is called working pressure angle.
And this is different from standard pressure angle.
In designing profile shifted gears this working pressure angle will be an important
factor.

Reference circle and Working pitch circle

Features :

1. Prevents undercutting when the number of teeth is small

2. Helps adjusting center distance

 3. For large gear ratio pairs, the pinion will wear out much faster than the gear.
It is possible to equalize the strengths of a pinion and a gear by profile
shifting;
Make correction (shifting) of the pinion positive. Then make correction of
the gear negative.
This results in thicker tooth thickness of the pinion and the thinner tooth
thickness of the gear, or equalization of the wear life.

ACCURACY OF GEARS TESTING AND

Accuracy of Gears Testing and Inspecting

At KHK, the following measuring instruments are used to test and inspect the gear
accuracy.

1. Gear measuring machineTo measure the accuracy of tooth profile, tooth

trace (flank line), pitch and runout

2. 3-D coordinate measuring machineTo measure the pitch accuracy

of racks

3. Composite gear testerTo test composite deviation

Left : 3-D coordinate measuring machine
Right : Gear measuring machine

The measuring equipment used while working on gear production are :

Vernier calipers, Micrometer calipers, Cylinder gaugeTo measure inside

and outside diameters and tooth thickness

Runout testerTo measure side face runout, and circumference (radial)

runout

Hardness testing machineTo measure hardness

Micrometer calipersTo find span measurement

Gear tooth vernier calipersTo measure tooth thickness of worm

Worm gear testerTo measure tooth contact and backlash

Bevel gear testerTo measure tooth contact and backlash

Vernier calipers

Micrometer calipers

Cylinder gauge

Gear tooth vernier calipers

Runout tester

Gear Accuracy in 3D :

1. Radial direction relevant to tooth proile and tooth depth

 2. Axial direction relevant to lead error and unevenness

3. Circumferential direction relevant to tooth thickness and spacing

In order to test gear accuracy, three-dimensional measurements are necessary, and

the following measuring instruments and/or apparatus are to be used properly.
1. Radial direction . Gear measuring machine, 3-D coordinate measuring
machine
2. Axial direction . Gear measuring machine, 3-D coordinate measuring machine
3. Circumferential direction . Micrometer calipers, gear tooth vernier calipers,
pins (rollers), and ball micrometer calipers
Shown in this figure is the correlation between each individual errors.
There is a strong correlation between each pitch error.
Also, runout error widely influences each individual error.

Correlation between Errors

Figure : Correlation between each individual error (in case of ground gear)
(Deviation and Error)

Single pitch deviation

Adjacent pitch deviation

Base pitch deviation

Total profile deviation

Total helix deviation

 Total cumulative pitch deviation

Runout error of gear teeth

MATERIALS FOR GEARS AND HEAT

Materials for Gears and Heat Treatment

The materials herein described are generally used in Japan.

Case-hardening steel

The carbon content of case-hardening steel is low, usually about 0.15 to 0.20% .
Case-hardening steel also contains Ni, Cr, Mo, Mn, etc. It is suitable for
carburizing and quenching.

Aluminium bronze casting

Description : Aluminium bronze casting Type 2

Applications : Gear, bearing, bushing, valve seat, impeller, propeller for ships,
etc. (Suitable for those which require strength and rust, erosion and/or wear
resistance.)

Bronze casting

Description : Bronze continuous casting Type 6

Applications : Valve cock, machine parts etc. (Suitable for those which require
pressure resistance, machinability and suitability to casting.)
Carbon steels for machine structural use

The most commonly used material. KHK mainly uses S45C. Suitable for high-
frequency induction hardening.

Chromium molybdenum steel

Chromium molybdenum steel is thermal-refined and then hardened by high-

frequency induction hardening.

Quenching

Quenching is a process to surface-harden tooth areas to increase their strength.

Cited here are two processes among others (a) carburizing and quenching, and
(b) high frequency induction hardening.

Carburizing and Quenching The suitable material is SCM415 etc.

Carburizing Quenching Cleaning Tempering Shot blast Testing/Inspecting

By heating low carbon steel in carbon gas atmosphere to high temperature and
holding, carbon molecules are diffused into the surface making the material similar
to S45C.
This, in turn, allows the surface to be hardened by quenching.
Surface hardness55 60HRC
Depth of surface hardeningApprox. 1.0mm
(Use thicker depth as the load increases)

Features :
Carburizing and Quenching produces a hard, wear-resistant surface with
progressively softer core which retain ductility.

Left : Carburizing & quenching furnace

Right : Hardened layers

High-Frequency Induction Hardening The suitable material S45C, SCM440

etc.
Left : One-shot entire perimeter hardening
Center : One-shot single tooth hardening
Right : Continuous hardening

Thermal refining Hardening Tempering

Features :
When heated with the induction coil, the steel is hardened. But the hardened area is
limited to the surrounding area of the coil.
In order to reduce the chance of cracking, it is desirable to have material with low
sulphur (S) and phosphorus (P) content and carbon content of less than 0.55%.
Various types of induction coils are used depending on the shape of the gear. Some
experience is required to do this work as cracking and/or deformation are apt to
happen.
Left : Hardening apparatus
Right : Tempering furnace

GEAR NOISE

Gear Noise

This figure indicates the results of a survey conducted by a manufacturer that

produces
gears for automobile, machine tools and speed reducers.

Cause of noise and vibration :

 1. Accuracy of gears

2. Accuracy of assembly

3. Tooth surface finish

4. Configuration of gearbox

5. Lubrication of gears

6. Bearing

7. Material of gears

8. Design of gears

9. Motor and variation of load

10.Driving condition

11.Shaft and shaft alignment

12.Configuration of gears

13.Wear of gears

14.Surface damage on gears

15.Others

Broken down by the factors contributing to gear noise, it becomes :

 Design35%

Fabrication30%

Usage..20%

Assembly.15%

Causes (Items assumed to have effects on noise) :

Bad tooth contact

Large pitch error

Large tooth profile error

Oscillating torque load on the gear shaft

Poor tooth surface finish

Center distance is too small

Rotation is too fast

Ball and roller bearings are causing noise

Gearbox is amplifying noise

Deformation of gear due to heat treating

In order to manufacture gears that minimize noise during operation :

Reduce the pitch error

Reduce the tooth profile error

Reduce the runout error

Reduce the lead error

Modify tooth surface by crowning

Tip relieving may correct pitch error from tooth deformation

Remove sharp corners of tooth by chamfering

Eliminate the roughness on the tooth surface

Increase the contact ratio bigger contact ratio lowers the noise

Try to design gearboxes as close to round shape as possible

Use a flexible coupling between the prime mover and the gearbox

Machine the mounting holes of gearbox precisely so that gears can be

mounted accurately

When assembling gears into gearbox, care must be taken that gears come in
contact properly to avoid edge contact
To improve surface finish, gears are generally shaved or ground. Spiral bevel
gears are lapped or ground.

Left : Crowning of tooth

Right : Chamfering of tooth

Example of edge contact

This figure shows an example of data regarding noise level as a result of test on
KHK stock gears.
S45C without heat treatment
(SS2.5-24, SS2.5-48)
Plastic
(PS2.5-24, PS2.5-48)
S45C Tooth surface high-frequency induction hardened and ground
(SSG2.5-24, SSG2.5-48)
 SCM415 Overall carburizing and quenching, tooth surface ground
(MSGB2.5-24, MSGB2.5-48)

Noise level of KHK stock gears1984 1985

Vertical line Decibel (db)
Horizontal line n 1(rpm)

RODUCTION PROCESSES OF SPUR GEAR

KHK Gears > Gear Knowledge > Introduction To Gears > Production
Processes of Spur Gear

2-1 Production Processes of Spur Gear

Illustrated here is a typical process of making spur gears.

Raw Materials :
Raw materials bought from material suppliers are kept in stock.
The materials are six meters in length.

Sawing :
The materials are cut to size.

Turning :
With a lathe, a cut workpiece is shaped into a gear blank.
Gear Cutting :
Gear cutting is done with a gear hobbing machine.
The hobbing usually leaves burrs on the teeth.

Deburring :
Burrs on the teeth have been removed with a deburring machine.

Black Oxide Finish :

The black oxide finish is somewhat effective in preventing rust.
Packaging :
To ensure delivery in good condition each and every spur gear is
individually packaged.

PRODUCTION PROCESSES OF GEAR RACK

Production Processes of Gear Rack

Illustrated here is a typical process of making gear racks.

Raw Materials :
Raw Materials bought from material suppliers are kept in stock.
Gear Cutting :
Gear cutting is done with a rack cutting machine.
The cutting usually leaves burrs on the teeth.

Deburring :
Burrs on the teeth are removed with a deburring machine.

Straightening :
To straighten warping, pressure is applied on racks with a hydraulic press.
Machining Ends :
Both ends are machined so that racks can be butted against each other to make any
desired length.

Processing holes :
Mounting screw holes are drilled for easier assembly.

Black Oxide Finish :

The black oxide finish is somewhat effective in preventing rust.
Packaging :
To ensure delivery in good condition, each and every rack is
individually packaged.

PRODUCTION PROCESSES OF BEVEL GEAR

Production Processes of Bevel Gear

Shown here is a typical process of making bevel gears.

Raw materials :
Raw materials bought from material suppliers are kept in stock.
The materials are six meters in length.
Sawing :
The materials are cut to size.

Turning :
With a lathe, a cut workpiece is shaped into a gear blank.

Gear Cutting :
Gear cutting is done with a Coniflex generator.
The cutting usually leaves burrs on the teeth.
Deburring :
Burrs on the teeth are being removed with a deburring machine.

Black Oxide Finish :

The black oxide finish is somewhat effective in preventing rust.

Packaging :
To ensure delivery in good condition, each and every bevel gear is individually
packaged.

GEAR PRODUCTION FACILITIES

Gear Production Facilities

Shown here are examples of machines and equipment used in gear making.

CNC Rack Grinding Machine (NRG-100)

CNC Dry Cut Gear Hobbing Machine (N60)

CNC Rack Cutting Machine (NR-18S)

Gear rack cutting hob

CNC Gear Grinding Machine (TAG400)

CNC Dry Cut Hobbing Machine (GP130)

CNC Hypoid Grinding Machine (PH-200G)

Gear grinding stone