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OXFAM Technical Brief Domestic and Refugee Camp Waste Management Collection and Disposal 1
ponds and pools with floating waste which presents a Wastes generated from the disaster itself, such as
nuisance and a point of pollution and contamination of sludge, debris, bodies, etc (disaster waste is dealt
shallow wells and water sources. with in a separate Technical Brief Note (TBN 17)).
Waste Hierarchy
There is a hierarchy of approaches to solid waste
management that should be considered. However,
effective solid waste management requires a balanced
approach which takes into account the specific
circumstances of the IDP camp or permanent settlement.
In a emergency situation an approach should be taken
that eliminates immediate risks to health and safety first,
for example, removing waste which presenting an
immediate risk to health and the environmental and
appropriately disposing of it, is more important than
setting up householder composting bins
OXFAM Technical Brief Domestic and Refugee Camp Waste Management Collection and Disposal 2
o Are there medical facilities and activities producing while men may be involved (paid or unpaid) as waste
waste? How are these disposed of and who is loaders or in waste collection roles.
responsible?
o Is mass burial of human bodies and animals Waste pickers
required?
In many communities individuals are already involved
o Are insects and vectors causing a nuisance? informally in waste picking and recycling waste items, as
o Is there evidence of increased morbidity, which they have a resale value. In developing a waste
can be linked to poor waste management management strategy, its important to ensure such
practices? individuals are consulted and included in project
Who are the external agencies involved in waste implementation. Any existing salvaging and waste picking
management? What are their roles and responsibilities should be protected and an integral part of any new
and have these changed as a result of the emergency waste management system.
situation?
A significant part of the audit can be undertaken by Example:
refugee camp residents or householders, such as In some countries a stigma is attached to waste
identifying where camp waste is piling up, the sources handling and it is expected that only certain groups,
and reasons why waste is being disposed of, e.g. such as sweepers will handle the waste. This was the
material excess, packaging from relief supplies, etc. case following the earthquake emergency in Pakistan
in 2005. Here it proved difficult to engage the
Minimum Standards general population in clearing refuse. Clearing refuse,
as well as cleaning of public toilets, are generally
tasks assigned to a group of people who are
Sphere standards: considered at the bottom of the social scale and
known as sweepers. The people whose job means
Key indicators that they were known as sweepers did an excellent
People from the affected population are job in response to the emergency, but it meant that
involved in the design and implementation of involving volunteers in the cleaning of communal
the solid waste programme refuse or latrines proved difficult.
Household waste is put in containers daily for
regular collection, burnt or buried in a
specified refuse pit Waste Management Options
All households have access to a refuse
container and/or are no more than 100 Remember the four Rs
meters from a communal refuse pit Reduce
At least one 100-litre container is available Re-use
per 10 families where domestic refuse is not Repair
buried on site
Recycle
Refuse is removed from the settlement
The approaches described below are in order of most to
before it becomes a nuisance or a health risk
least desirable and reflects the priorities as set out in the
waste hierarchy. However, as mentioned above the
priority in an emergency should be for immediate health
Many countries will have their own standards and legal and safety. It should also be recognised that even with
requirements governing waste management, and it is active pursuit of the 4Rs there will always be some
important to consult with the local authorities to ensure element of waste residual, which will require proper
these standards and legal requirements are respected. disposal.
OXFAM Technical Brief Domestic and Refugee Camp Waste Management Collection and Disposal 3
traditional baskets made by the families, which
Example: can then be covered;
Following the Asian tsunami in 2004, relief supplies simple plastic buckets with handle and lids;
where brought to refugee camps in particular bottled sacks from rice, rations etc. that can be securely
drinking water. Although in the immediate aftermath tied;
this was an essential supply, once locally supplied plastic bags that can be secured.
water was available the continued supply of bottle
water presented an enormous waste problem in terms
of the large volume of discarded plastic bottles that Photo: Examples of Household Waste Container in
resulted. a Basket and in Sacks
Waste reuse
Opportunities should be explored with the beneficiaries
for reusing items, which may otherwise be thrown out as
waste. Many materials can be reused and opportunities
for reuse will dependant on culture, location and facilities
available. For example, wood from packaging can be
used as firewood or for shelter items (in Banda Aceh the
timber from packaging from water supply equipment was
used to make a bedstead), boxes and containers reused
for storage etc.
OXFAM Technical Brief Domestic and Refugee Camp Waste Management Collection and Disposal 4
When waste reaches just below the surface, the
waste should be compacted and covered with
At a communal level
soil Communal waste collection points &
containment
Figure: Basic Design of Household/Communal
Refuse Pit (courtesy of MSF) Collection points need to provide temporary containment
for solid waste from a number of households prior to it
being removed for disposal. These need to be sufficiently
robust to prevent vermin and other animals gaining
access or turning the container over and to prevent
waste blowing around. The container should be non-
flammable as people may burn waste either intentionally
or accidentally. In choosing a suitable container,
consideration should be given to locally available
materials and the types of containment used under
normal circumstances, (if applicable).
Example:
In Internal Displaced People (IDP) camps in Banda
Aceh following the Asian tsunami prefabricated
concrete rings were used for temporary solid waste
containment. These were readily available and
inexpensive, although were not able to fully contain
waste in windy conditions. Also emptying waste
from these containers proved difficult.
Burning
Burning or incineration of waste is often used for the
disposal of combustible wastes. However, this should be
used as a last option and should only take place off-site
or at a considerable distance downwind of dwellings.
Burning of waste near dwelling can cause nuisance from
smoke and can be a fire hazard. Even away from
dwellings burning waste creates an environmental hazard
in relation to the gases, particularly CO2, emitted to the
atmosphere. However, burning of waste can reduce the
volume of waste when there is limited space for burial or
landfill.
If burning of waste is undertaken it should take place in
It should be noted that there are often problems with
pits and covered in soil once burnt as with burial. The
communal containers quickly overflowing, particularly
constraints, which apply for sitting household refuse pits
where packaging and low density wastes are being
also apply here.
disposed of, such as during the initial emergency. If at all
possible opportunities to reuse some of these materials
OXFAM Technical Brief Domestic and Refugee Camp Waste Management Collection and Disposal 5
should be explored and where disposal is still the only Load sizes of approx 5m3
option, consideration should be given to compacting or Suitable for steep slopes
shredding such material at or before the communal Rapid action for communal collection
collection point. This may be done either though direct Need approx 5 workers with hand tools for
labour or mechanically if such equipment is available. loading and off loading
Creating Cash-for-Work (CFW) schemes may be Expensive in terms of fuel and maintenance
appropriate in some circumstances? costs
Usually run in conjunction with municipality
Waste transfer and local government
Where waste cannot be disposed of on site it will need to Specialised waste collection trucks these may
be collected and transferred to a different location. Waste include waste compactors which can
collection should aim to empty household, communal or compress and carry large volumes of waste,
refugee camp waste daily where large amounts of waste Good for large areas
are created, or twice weekly for smaller volumes of Load sizes in excess of 5m3
waste. Depending on size, may or may not be
Transportation of waste should be simple, appropriate suitable for steep slope
and as low cost as possible. Examples of transportation Only suitable for large populations (Approx
options include: >50,000)
Very expensive in terms of fuel and
Handcarts - Wheelbarrows or small push carts
maintenance costs
with bins. Either locally available or locally
Usually run by municipality or local
made.
government
Max working area of about 1 km and
therefore a population of between 10,000
Example: Various Options for Waste
20,000.
Transportation
Load size of approx 0.5m3
Not suitable for hilly areas
Handcarts can be easily managed by the
affected population
Animal carts - Donkey, horse or Ox pulled
trailers.
Max working area of 3km
Load size of approx 2m3
Suitable for hilly areas
Only suitable if population traditional use
draught animals and they are available
Small powered vehicles - Trailers pulled by small
horticultural cultivators as used for local
transport can be adapted.
Good for areas over 5km
Load size of approx 3m3
Suitable for steep hills and small tracks
They need intensive maintenance and
external support
Requires on-going funds for fuel and
maintenance
Skip trucks and tractors with trailers - These
allow large waste containers to left in the
areas, which can be towed away.
Good for large areas
Load sizes of >3m3
Suitable for hills
Only suitable for large populations (Approx
>50,000)
Expensive in terms of fuel and maintenance
costs Waste disposal
Usually run by municipality or local Waste can be buried and/or incinerated where recycling
government and reuse options are not applicable. The choice of
Ordinary trucks - Hiring of local flatbed trucks method of disposal will be dependant on local conditions,
with 3 7 tonne capacity, fitted with high labour and equipment availability.
sides for refuse collection.
Good for large areas
OXFAM Technical Brief Domestic and Refugee Camp Waste Management Collection and Disposal 6
Burial of waste A cut-off drain around the pit boundary should
be provided to reduce surrounding
Waste can be buried in communal pits on site where environmental pollution
there is sufficient space and where it will not cause
health or environmental risks or cause nuisance to
nearby residents. Pits should be located at least 30m Incineration
away from the nearest dwelling. No medical waste Incineration should only be used as a last option.
should be disposed of in these pits. Care should be However, in reality informal burning of waste is often
taken in siting a burial pits to ensure that leachate does endemic in many parts of the world.
not contaminate ground water and should be located at
least 30m away from water courses and wells. Incineration should only be considered when the
following conditions have been fulfilled:
The main source of leachate is from rainwater percolating
All plastic products are removed before
through the waste into the surrounding soil, which will
incineration
occur in soils other than clay. To reduce this problem,
where possible the pit should be lined with clay or other Incineration takes place downwind of dwellings
similarly impermeable material. The local area is not suitable for burial of waste
Covering the waste with an impermeable soil such as clay Incineration can be undertaken at a basic level using
or providing a shelter to protect the pit can contain the barrel incinerators or garden type incinerators, which
volume of leachate. Covering of waste should take place increase burning temperatures and efficiency compared
daily with a thin layer of soil/earth. This further prevents with open burning. However, these often do not reach
attracting flies and vermin. Where faecal materials, such sufficiently high temperature to obtain full combustion
as childrens faeces/ nappies is being disposed of these and air pollution is often a hazard.
must be immediately covered.
Photo: Example of an Incinerator in the
The area being used for on-site burial pits should be Maldives (courtesy of Peter Lingwood)
fenced off to prevent accidents and access from children
or animals.
Pit sizing (based on self compaction):
volume of the pit = volume of waste produce per
person per day population
number of days until camp closure
or as estimate for long-term use, use 6m3 per 50 people
per week.
The volume will denote the size and number of pits
required. The pit depth must be determined by the
height of ground water and the surrounding soil
conditions. The groundwater level should be a minimum
of 5m below the pit bottom at the end of the rainy
season. Where this cannot be achieved burial should not
be used as an option. The soil/ground conditions will also
affect the depth of the pit. The sides of the pit need to
be stable and should be at 45 degrees unless a
geotechnical expert advises otherwise.
All hazardous waste, including batteries should not be
included in a household waste burial pit.
OXFAM Technical Brief Domestic and Refugee Camp Waste Management Collection and Disposal 7
Off-site disposal and linking the water is being used as a water source lining
of the landfill will be essential)
with existing services Waste to be covered with 0.5m of soil daily to
Every effort should be made to identify official, controlled reduce smells, flies, rodents, etc
solid waste disposal services. Co-ordination with the local A fence should be constructed around the site to
authorities and other aid agencies will be essential in avoid accidents and scavenging
ensuring that such facilities are accessible and
appropriately managed. Health and Safety
Uncontrolled landfill should be avoided at all cost. For those who are involved in working and handling
These present a risk to Oxfams reputation and also waste, protective clothing must be provided. At the very
cause poor environmental and public health control. Care minimum this should include appropriate footwear,
should be taken to ensure if employing contractors to gloves and overalls or other suitable clothing. A dust
collect and dispose of waste that they are not illegally mask should also be considered. Facilities should be
dumping the waste, which may be an easier and cheaper provided for worker to wash and change wherever
option for them. possible.
Controlled landfill: Use of controlled landfills should be Care should be taken to ensure that lifting of loads takes
undertaken in co-ordination with local authorities and place, for example lifting waste onto a collection vehicle,
other aid agencies to ensure that appropriate disposal that loads are not excessive for a single person lift (for
access is provided and that the landfill is well managed example, in the UK the maximum load permitted for one
from an environmental, public health, health and safety person to lift at one time is 25kg ref: Health & Safety
point of view. Executive).
Controlled or sanitary landfill is an off-site disposal Appropriate tools must be provided to enable those
method. Waste is placed into a large excavation in the transporting and collecting waste to undertake their job
ground, which is back-filled with excavated soil each day properly. These may include shovels, buckets, etc.
waste is tipped. The cover soil should be 0.5m deep to
prevent animals digging up the waste and lies breeding Provision should be made to ensure that appropriate size
and should cover all the deposited refuse. clothing and equipment are available for women who are
actively involved in implementation and delivery of waste
The landfill location should be decided upon through management.
consultation with local authorities and the affected
population. Its location will be largely dependant on When working on landfill sites to deliver waste particular
availability of land, collection and transportation systems. care should be taken. Accidents involving vehicles
The site may have been used before the emergency by running over landfill workers and waste-pickers are not
the local authority and assistance may be required to get uncommon where landfills are not well managed and in
the system operational again. many developing countries where waste-pickers are
commonly found on landfill sites.
Figure: EU funded Engineered Landfill, Romania
Further reading
Guidance for Solid Waste Management, prepared
by the Sanitation Task Force, March 2006
Engineering in Emergencies a practical guide for
relief workers, Jan Davis & Robert Lambert
Guidelines for Solid Waste Management in
Emergencies An Oxfam Technical Guidelines
Emergency Sanitation Assessment and
Programme Design by Peter Harvey, Sohrab
Baghri and Bob Reed, WEDC, Loughborough
University, UK, 2002
Public Health Engineering in Emergency
Situations, MSF
OXFAM Technical Brief Domestic and Refugee Camp Waste Management Collection and Disposal 8