//ELEC1
Net charge: Neutral
Electronics branch of science and
engineering that deals with the study
of the movement and behaviour of
electrons and its application
Types of Elements
Passive (RLC) not capable of
generating energy
Active capable of generating
energy
Types of Materials
Insulator does not allow flow
of current even under pressure
- Consists of 8 valence
electrons (most)
Semiconductor characteristics
between insulator and
conductor
- Consists of 4 valence
electrons
Conductor allows generous
flow of current under pressure
- Consists of 1-3 valence
electrons (least)
Enery Gap distance between the
conduction bond and valence bond
Semiconductor
Intrinsic made as pure as
possible
@ absolute zero temp (-273C)
very good insulator
@ room temp (27C) vibration
occurs
@ net charge: neutral
Extrinsic made pure by doping
process (a process of adding
impurities to a pure
semiconductor)
@ P-type (BIG, boron-indium-
gallium) trivalent/acceptor
atoms
Majority carriers: holes
Minority carriers: free
electrons
Net charge: Neutral
@ N-type (PAA, phosphorus-
antimony-arsenic)
pentavelent/donor atoms
Majority carriers: free
electons
Minority carriers: holes
Negative Temperature Coefficient as
temperature increases, resistance
decreases
Depletion Region region of
uncovered positive and negative ions
Barrier Potential knee voltage of a
diode
PN Junctions NPN, PNP
Diode Models (Forward Biased close
switch, Reversed Biased open
switch)
Ideal diode model
Practice diode model (with
barrier potential)
Complex diode model (with
internal resistance)
Breakdown voltage voltage where
avalanche occurs
Clippers diodes to clip away portion
of input signal w/o distorting the
remaining parts
Clampers diodes and capacitors that
shifts input signal to a different level
w/o changing its appearance
Block Diagram of Power Supply
Signal > Xformer > Rectifier >
Filter > Voltage Regulator > Load
Vpripp N 1
Xformer: =
Vsec N2
Rectifier: @ Half Wave =
0.318(Vsecp)
@ Full Wave =
0.636(Vsecp)
Filter: Capacitor Filter, AC Filter
Voltage Regulator: Load
Regulation, Line Regulation
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
- Linear amplifier
- Fast acting switch
- Current driven device
Regions of operation
1. Linear/Active
2. Saturation
3. Cut-off
Terminal Configurations
1. Common Emitter (universal
amp)
2. Common Base (voltage amp)
 3. Common Collector (current (Op-Amps are voltage amplifier, BJTs
amp, impedance matching are current amplifier, FETs are
device) transconductance amplifer)
DC Biasing application of DC power a. Voltage amplifier
to establish a fixed level of current and b. Current amplifier
voltage to determine level of c. Transconductance amplifier
d. Transimpedance amplifier
amplification
Classes of Amplifiers
a. Fixed Bias
a. Class A amount of output signal
b. Emitter Stabilized
c. Voltage Divider (Exact, flow varies for a full 360 of the
Approximate) cycle
d. Voltage Feedback b. Class B amount of output signal is
e. Miscellaneous Configurations 180
Field Effect Transistor (FET) c. Class AB output signal flows for
- Linear amplifier more than 180 but less than 360
- Faster acting switch d. Class C output signal flows less
- Voltage driven device than 180
- Unipolar devices e. Class D
Types of FET f. Class S
Junction FET (JFET) Other Classification of Amplifiers
Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET a. Accdg to Frequency Amplified
- D-MOSFET - DC amplifier
- E-MOSFET - RF amplifier
- Video amplifier
Shockleys Equation: b. Accdg to Signal Amplified
- Small signal amplifier
2
Vgs - Large signal amplifer
(
Id=Idss 1
Vp ) c. Accdg to Coupling Method
- Resistive-coupled amplifier
- Inductive-coupled amplifier
Pinch-off conditions where Id = 0A - Direct-coupled amplifier
Quiescent Point point that will be Other Amplifier Circuit Configurations
employed for amplification of the a. Cascaded amplifier stages of
applied signal amplifiers connected in series
fashion
//ELEC2 b. Cascode amplifier
c. Darlington amplifier
AMPLIFIERS an electronic circuit that is d. Differential amplifier
capable of increasing the signal amplitude e. Push-Pull amplifier two similar
w/o altering the signal waveform circuits operating in phase
characteristics opposition
f. Complementary-symmentry
Amplifier Classification amplifier
1. By Function g. Quasi-complementary amplifier
a. Voltage amplifier
b. Power amplifier OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
2. By Frequency Response
a. Audio amplifier 15Hz-20 KHz - One of the most versatile
b. RF amplifier (Radio Frequency) and widely used electronic
10K-100,000MHz device. Intended to perform
c. Video amplifier 10Hz-6MHz mathematical operation in
Types of Amplifiers analog computers
 @ Open loop produces square
waveform (squaring circuit)
@ Closed loop
- (-) inverting, for control of
gain
- (+) non-inverting, for
reduction of noise
Mode of Operations
- Single Mode
- Common Mode (Noise)
- Differential Mode (Desired)
Op-Amp Properties:
- Voltage between inverting
and non-inverting is zero
making them equal
- Current between inverting
and non-inverting is zero
making them equal
Design of Op-Amp Circuit
- Case 1: Rx is infinite (z is
positive)
- Case 2: Ry is infinite (z is
negative)
- Case 3: Rx and Ry is infinite
(z is zero)
Z=xy1
COMPARATORS
- Used to compare the
amplitude of one voltage to
another
a. Zero Level Detection determines
when an input voltage exceeds a
certain level
b. Non-Zero Level Detection detects
voltages other than zero
Hysteresis circuit at the positive
feedback for noise reduction
Schmitt Trigger comparator with
hysteresis
Output Bounding process of limiting
the output range
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
(Comparator Application)
- Common interfacing process
often used when a linear
analog system must provide
inputs to a digital system is
A/D conversion
- Large # of comparators
provides fast conversion
time
of comparators=2n 1
Summing Amplifiers has two or more
inputs, and its output voltage is
proportional to the negative of the
algebraic sum of the input voltages
Digital-to-Analog Conversion (Scaling
Adder Apllication)
- An important interference
process for converting digital
signals to analog (linear)
signals
INTEGRATOR simulates mathematical
integration, basically a summing process that
determines the total area under the curve of
fuction
DIFFERENTIATOR simulates mathematical
differentiation, process of determining the
instantaneous rate of change of a function
ACTIVE FILTERS
- Uses transistors/op-amps combined
with passive RL,RC or RLC circuits
- Active devices produce voltage gain,
passive circuits produce frequency
selectivity
Filters circuits that are capable of
passing signals w/ certain selected
frequencies while rejecting signals w/
other frequencies. This property is
called selectivity.
Categories of Active Filters (Basic Filter
Response)
Low Pass Fiter Response
- Pass Band ( 0 Hz up to critical
frequency, fc)
- Output voltage is 70.7% of pass band
voltage
High Pass Filter Response
- Attenuates all frequencies below fc
and passes all frequencies above fc.
Band Pass Filter Response
- Passes all signals between lower and
upper frequencies, and rejects all
other frequencies that are outside the
specified band.
- Center frequency pass band is
centered, fo
fo= fc 1 fc 2
- Quality Factor an indication of the
selectivity of a band pass filter.
o Higher Q, narrower BW, better
selectivity
o BPF are narrowband (Q>10) or
wide-band (Q<10)
fo 1 be 0 degrees.
Q= or
Q=
BW DF
where DF= dampling factor
Band Stop Filter Response
- Also known notch, band-reject, band-
elimination
- Opposite of band pass filter, as
frequencies between certain
bandwidth are rejected and outside
bandwidth are passed.
Butterworth Characteristics
- Provides very flat amplitude in pass
band
- Roll-off rate of 20 dB/decade/pole
- Used when frequency in the pass band
must have same gain
- Referred as maximally flat response
Chebyshev Characteristics
- Roll-off rate greater than
20dB/decade/pole
- Characterized by overshoot/ripple in
the pass band(depending on # of
poles)
- Less linear phase response than
butterworth
Bessel Characteristics
- Exhibits linear phase characteristics,
meaning phase shift increases linearly
with frequency.
- No overshoot on the output w/ a pulse
input
- Used for altering pulse waveform w/o
distorting the shape of waveform.
OSCILLATORS
- Circuits that generate output signal
w/o an input signal
- Used as signal sources
- Produces types of outputs/repetitive
waveforms (sine, square, triangular,
sawtooth wave)
- Widely used in most communication
systems
- Based on principle of positive
feedback (portion of output voltage id
fed back to the input w/o phase shift,
resulting in a reinforcement of output
signal)
Conditions for oscillations
- Phase shift around feedback loop must
- Voltage gain around closed feedback
loop must equal to 1 (unity)
Oscillators with RC feedback circuits
(frequency up to 1MHz)
1 Wien-bridge oscillator (most widely
used)
2 Phase-shift oscillator
3 Twin-T oscillator
Oscillators with LC feedback circuits
(higher frequency)
1 Colpitts (BJT as the gain element)
2 Clapp
3 Hartley
4 Armstrong
5 Crystal-Controlled (most stable and
accurate type that uses
piezoelectric crystal in the
feedback loop to control frequency)
Non-sinusoidal Oscillator
1 Triangular wave oscillator uses
dual-polarity switched input
2 Square wave relaxation oscillator
its operation is based on the
charging/discharging of a capacitor
DIGITAL TIMER/CONTROL CIRCUITS
- Timing (everything in digital circuits)
- Clock oscillator (generates square
wave clock signal)
1 Astable Multivibrator
- Commonly used as clock oscillator
- Used to produce an alternating two-
state square or rectangular output
waveform
- Called as free-running multivibrator,
because it requires no input signal to
start its operation.
2 Monostable Multivibrator
- When triggered, will generate a
rectangular pulse of a fixed duration.
- One-stable state
- Will remain in stable state indefinitely
until a trigger is applied and forces it
into its unstable state
- Called as one-shot multivibrator
3 Bistable multivibrator
- A digital control device that can either
set or reset
- Two-stable state
- Two inputs, set and reset
- A pulse on the set input will flip the
circuit into set state, while a pulse on
the reset input will flop the circuit
into its reset state.