Vocabulary: English forNursing

Word
part of speech Meaning Examplesentence

This amount of weight loss

abnormal
not normal for the human body is abnormal for women
adj
your age.

ache I can't sleep because my

pain that won't go away
noun/verb knees ache in the night.

We knew the baby was

acute coming right away because
quick to become severe/bad
adj the woman's labour pains
were acute.

a body's abnormal reaction to

allergynoun Your son is extremely
certain foods or environmental
allergicadj allergic to peanuts.
substances (eg causes a rash)

We called the ambulance

ambulance emergency vehicle that rushes
when Josh stopped
noun people to a hospital
breathing.

I can't remember the

amnesia a condition that causes people to
accident because I had
noun lose their memory
amnesia.

We had to amputate his

amputationnoun
permanent removal of a limb leg because the infection
amputateverb
spread so quickly.

anaemianoun occurs when the body doesn't I have low energy because
anaemicadj have enough red blood cells I am anaemic.

My throat infection went

antibiotics medication that kills bacteria
away after I started the
noun and cures infections
antibiotics.

The anti-depressants
anti-depressant medication that helps relieve
helped me get on with life
noun anxiety and sadness
after Lucy died.

I've made you an

appointment a scheduled meeting with a appointment with a
noun medical professional specialist in three week's
time.
 Human Body
One of the first things you need to know when working in English is the parts of the body. You
will need to learn the names of the internal (inside the skin) and external body parts. You will also
need to learn the words for the functions of each of these body parts. Here are the basics to get you
started.

Head
Inside the head is the brain, which is responsible for thinking. The top of a person's
scalp is covered with hair. Beneath the hairline at the front of the face is the forehead.
Underneath the forehead are the eyes for seeing, the nose for smelling, and the mouth
for eating. On the outside of the mouth are the lips, and on the inside of the mouth are the teeth for
biting and the tongue for tasting. Food is swallowed down the throat. At the sides of the face are
the cheeks and at the sides of the head are the ears for hearing. At the bottom of a person's face is
the chin. The jaw is located on the inside of the cheeks and chin. The neck is what attaches the
head to the upper body.

Upper Body
At the top and front of the upper body, just below the neck is the collar bone. On
the front side of the upper body is the chest, which in women includes the
breasts. Babies suck on the nipples of their mother's breasts. Beneath the ribcage
are the stomach and the waist. The navel, more commonly referred to as the
belly button, is located here as well. On the inside of the upper body are the heart for pumping
blood and the lungs for breathing. The rear side of the upper body is called the back, inside which
the spine connects the upper body to the lower body.

Upper Limbs (arms)

The arms are attached to the shoulders. Beneath this area is called the armpit or underarm. The
upper arms have the muscles known as triceps and biceps. The joint halfway down the arm is
called the elbow. Between the elbow and the next joint, the wrist, is the forearm. Below the wrist
is the hand with four fingers and one thumb. Beside the thumb is the index finger. Beside the
index finger is the middle finger, followed by the ring finger and the little finger. At the ends of
the fingers are fingernails.

Lower Body
Below the waist, on left and right, are the hips. Between the hips are
the reproductive organs, the penis (male) or the vagina (female). At the back of the lower body are
the buttocks for sitting on. They are also commonly referred to as the rear end or the bum
(especially with children). The internal organs in the lower body include the intestines for
digesting food, the bladder for holding liquid waste, as well as the liver and the kidneys. This
area also contains the woman's uterus, which holds a baby when a woman is pregnant.

Lower Limbs (legs)

The top of the leg is called the thigh, and the joint in the middle of the leg is the knee. The front of
the lower leg is the shin and the back of the lower leg is the calf. The ankle connects the foot to
the leg. Each foot has five toes. The smallest toe is often called the little toe while the large one is
called the big toe. At theends of the toes are toenails.

Medical Supplies and Tools

Here is a list of some of the most common supplies found in doctor's offices, operating rooms, and
medical kits.

Antiseptic liquid used to sterilize (clean) the surface of the skin

a cloth covering that is placed over a wound to prevent bleeding,

Bandage
swelling and infection
bandagescissors tool used to cut bandages

bloodpressure
a tool that measures the force of blood flow through a person's body
monitor

dressing protective covering that is placed over a wound

elastic tape a thin roll of stretchy material that is sticky on one side

a poster of letter, word, and number combinations of various sizes used

eye chart
to test a person's eyesight

instrument used during operations and medical procedures (assists the

forceps
doctor in pulling, holding, and retrieving)

gauze thin, netted material used for dressing wounds

sharp pointed metal piece that pricks the skin (attached to a syringe),
hypodermicneedle
used for taking blood or administering medicine

IV bag the pouch that contains liquids to be pumped into a patient's body

medicine cup smallplasticmeasuring cup

microscope equipment that makes small things appear larger than they are

otoscope a device used for looking into a patient's ears

oxygenmask equipment that fits over the nose and mouth and supplies oxygen

an object that is used to separate the doctor and patient from others in
privacyscreen
an open room

scales a device that measures a person's weight

stethoscope equipment for listening to a person's heart and lungs

a cylinder-shaped piece that attaches to a needle and can be filled with

syringe
liquid

table and head-rest paper that is placed on an examining table or head-rest to prevent the
paper spread of germs

glass cylinder that is filled with blood or other liquids and can be
test tube
capped and placed in a storage area
thermometer an instrument used to check a person's body temperature

vial a small bottle or container used for storing liquids

Matching Exercise
Match the comments with the supplies that are needed:

1 I can't catch my breath. a table and head-rest paper

Prepare the examining table for the next
2 b thermometer
patient.
3 We'll have to get a blood sample. c oxygenmask
4 I need to sterilize the wound. d hypodermicneedle
5 We'll have to feed him with liquids. e bandagescissors
6 Let's find out your weight. f scales
7 I need to examine the patient in private. g eye chart
8 Let'scheckyourvision. h antiseptic
9 Let's see if you are running a fever. i IV bag
1
Can you cut this gauze for me? j privacyscreen
0

Medical Specialists
Medical specialists are experts in certain fields of medicine. They either treat specific parts of the
body, such as the back or the brain, or they specialize in certain diseases, such as cancer. Family
doctors keep a list of local specialists and can help patients choose the right specialist for each
medical issue. In many cases specialists require a referral from a family doctor before they will
see a patient. Here is a list of the most common types of specialists. Study the list and then check
your understanding by taking the quiz.

allergist: specializes in determining food and environmental allergies

anesthesiologist: specializes in pain prevention during surgery
cardiologist: heartspecialist
chiropractor: back specialist
dentist: toothspecialist
dermatologist: skinspecialist
fertilityspecialist: helps people who have difficulty getting pregnant
gynecologist: specializes in women'sneeds
massagetherapist: specializes in musclerelaxation
midwife: helps women deliver babies in a natural way
naturopath: specializes in natural cures and remedies
neurologist: brainspecialist
obstetrician: specialistforpregnantwomen
occupationaltherapist: specializes in workplacehealth
oncologist: tumourspecialist, includingcncer
ophthalmologist: specializes in eyediseases
pediatrician: specialist for babies and children
physicaltherapist: specializes in the body's movement
podiatrist: foot specialist
psychiatrist: specialist in mental health
radiologist: specializes in imaging tests

Doctor's Diagnosis
Physician

Your test results have come in.

 I'm afraid the prognosis isn't good.

You have a long road to recovery.

We have several options to discuss.

The blood test came back negative.

The transfusion was a success.

It looks like you're ready to go home.

I'd like to keep you here over night.

We'll know more in a few days.

You're not in the clear yet.

We'veruledout diabetes.

I'm hoping to get to the bottom of this soon.

Patient

I don't understand what this means.

Am I going to need surgery?

Is it good news or bad?

When will the tests results come in?

How long do I have to stay in the hospital?

What is the success rate?

Are they going to run more tests?

Is this a common problem for people my age?

I'd like to discuss other options.

I'm going to get a second opinion.

SampleConversation
Doctor: Hi Jessica. How are you feeling today?
Patient
A bit better.
:
Doctor: That's good to hear. Are you still feeling nauseous?
Patient
No, I haven't felt sick to my stomach since you switched my medication.
:
Doctor: Great. Say, your test results came in this morning.
Patient
It's about time. Is it good news or bad?
:
Doctor: I guess it's a bit of both. Which do you want first?
Patient
Let's get the bad news over with.
:
Okay. It looks like you're going to need surgery to remove the tumour from your leg.
Doctor: After the operation you're going to have to stay off your feet for at least three weeks.
Thatmeans no soccer.
Patient
I was afraid you were going to say that.
:
Now for the good news. The biopsy shows that the tumour is benign, which means it's
Doctor:
not cancerous. We're going to take it out anyway just to be on the safe side.
Patient
Wow, that's a load off my mind. Thanks Doctor.
:
Doctor: Don't get too excited. We still need to get to the bottom of all of this weight loss.
Patient
I've probably just been so worried about this stupid lump.
:
These things often are stress related, but we're still going to do a few blood tests just to
Doctor:
rule a few things out.
Patient
Thingslikewhat? Cancer?
:
Doctor: Actually, I'm thinking more along the lines of a food allergy.
 Visiting Hours
Part of being a nurse, involves dealing with the people who are close to your patients. When a
patient is staying in a hospital or other health facility, it is often necessary to welcome, monitor,
and inform visitors on a daily basis. In many cases you may form stronger relationships with the
patients' visitors than the patients themselves. Depending on the condition of the patient, certain
loved ones will be allowed to visit, while others will not. It is a difficult time for people who have
loved ones in the hospital. Showing them compassion and explaining the rules is much easier if
you have the necessary English skills.

Study the different people that may come to visit the patient. Then read some typical concerns and
questions that visitors may have, and some appropriate responses that you may be able to give
them.

Immediate family

Mother and Father (patient's parents)

Husband or Wife (the man or woman the patient is married to)
Son and Daughter (children of the patient, boy and girl)
Brother and Sister/siblings (other children of the patient's parents)
Extended family

Grandmother and Grandfather (mother and father of patient's parents)

Aunt and Uncle (brother and sister of patient's parents)
Niece and Nephew (girl and boy child of patient's siblings)
Cousins (children of patient's aunt or uncle)

Friends and other loved ones

Best friend (patient's closest friend)

Room-mate (a person the patient lives with)
Neighbour (a friend who lives near the patient)
Co-worker (a person who works with the patient)
Boyfriend or Girlfriend (the man or woman the patient loves/dates)
Fianc (the man or woman the patient is engaged to marry)

Questions and Concerns of Loved Ones

We'reMichael'sgrandparents.

Could you tell me which room MrsSmythe is in?

Is my child going to be okay?

When can we speak with the doctor?

What time are visiting hours?

I'm trying to locate my sister. (I'm trying to find my sister's room.)

Is there anything you can do to make him more comfortable.

My child would like something to drink.

Is there somewhere I can lie down for a while.

Could you tell me where the chapel is?

Please tell her to get well soon.

Questions and Responses from Nurses

What is your relation to Jessica?
 You'll have to come back during visiting hours.

Ms Lee is too tired for visitors.

Room 7 is down the hall to your right.

I'll give you two some privacy now.

Does your daughter need anything?

I'm afraid she's not having a very good day today.

We do the best we can around here.

There's a quiet room for families down the hall.

The doctor would like to have a word with you. (The doctor wants to speak to you.)

She's doing much better this morning.

He's in isolation because of the transplant.

We had to transfer your mother-in-law to the ICU.

It's in your brother's best interest.

SampleConversation
Nurse: I'm afraid visiting hours are over, sir
Visitor
My wife's in room 3B.
:
Nurse: Sorry, you'll have to come back in the morning.
Visitor
And leave her all alone overnight?
:
Nurse: I'm afraid that's the policy, sir.
Visitor
Surely you can make an exception? What if she needs me in the night?
:
Nurse: Don't worry, we'll look after her. What she really needs is her rest.
Visitor
Some of her friends want to see her too. When can they come?
:
 Visiting hours are from 9 to 11 in the morning and 4 to 7 in the evening, but I'm afraid
Nurse: while your wife is on bedrest the doctor has requested that only immediate family
members come in to see her.
Visitor
Can't her friends even stop by to bring her flowers?
:
Flowers are not permitted in this ward. We just can't risk any germs that might come in
Nurse:
with them.
Visitor
Well, I guess it's all in her best interest.
:
Thanks for understanding. Now, I'm going to bring your wife her dinner. Why don't you
Nurse:
head home and get something to eat yourself?
Visitor
Okay. I really hate to leave her, but that's probably a good idea.
:
She's in good hands here. I'll tell her you were here and that you'll see her in the
Nurse:
morning
 Booking a Doctor's Appointment
Patient

I need to make an appointment.

I need to see the doctor.

When is the doctor free?

I need to renew my prescription.

Do you think the doctor could squeeze us in today?

I need to make an appointment for my husband.

My child needs to come in for a check-up.

The doctor wants to see me again in two week's time.

Receptionist

What is your chart number?

What is the appointment regarding?

Which day/what time is good for you?

Is January the 3rd okay with you?

How does four o'clock sound?

 We'llseeyouthen.

I'm sorry the doctor is not taking new patients.

We'll call you if there are any cancellations.

We're running an hour behind schedule.

Dr Jones is away. You'll be seeing Dr Lindsay.

SampleConversation
Receptionist
Doctor's office. Jane speaking. How can I help you?
:
Caller: I need to make an appointment with Dr. Harris.
Receptionist
Do you know your chart number?
:
Caller: No, sorry. It's at home and I'm at work right now.
Receptionist
No problem. What's your name, please?
:
Caller: George Mason.
Receptionist
Okay Mr Mason. Hold one moment while I grab your chart, please.
:
Caller: Sure.
Receptionist
Thanks for waiting. Now, what do you need to see the doctor about?
:
Well, I've been fighting a cold for more than a week, and I think I might have a
Caller:
chest infection or something. Mycoughisgettingworseeachday.
Receptionist
Hmm. Doctor Harris is off tomorrow. Do you think it can wait until Wednesday?
:
Oh, I was really hoping to get in today or tomorrow in case I need some
Caller:
antibiotics. Maybe I'll have to go to the walk-in-clinic instead.
Receptionist Actually, we had a cancellation for 2:00pm today if you can get away from the
: office.
Caller: Gee, it's almost 1:00pm already. I think I can make it if I leave right now.
Receptionist We're running a bit behind schedule, so you can probably count on seeing the
: doctor around 2:30.
Caller: That's great. Thanks for fitting me in.
Receptionist
No problem, Mr. Mason. We'll see you in an hour or so.
:

THE HUMAN BODY

Abdomen. Stomach area

Appendix. Part of the large intestine and located on the lower right side of
the abdomen

Appendicitis. Infection of appendix

Artery. Blood vessel

Blood vessels. Tubular canals through which blood circulates

Bronchus.Two main branches of the trachealeading directly to the lungs.

Cartilage. Connective tissue

Cecum. Where the large intestine begins

Cerebral cortex. The brain

Chromosome. The genes

Colon. Part of the large intestine

Duodenum. First portion of the small intestine,

Fallopian tube. Slender ducts in the female abdomen that transport ova to
the uterus

Gallbladder.Muscular sac?attached to the undersurface of the liver, in which

bile is stored

Gland.Group of cells, or organ producing a secretion.

Larynx. Voice box

Mucous membranes. Moist linings of the internal parts of the body

Spleen. Acts as a filter against foreign organisms that infect the

bloodstream

Ligament. Sheet or band of tough fibrous tissue connecting bones or

cartilages

Pleural cavity.Narrow, fluid-filled space between the pleuralmembranes of

the lung and the inner chest wall.

Membrane. Thin, pliable sheet or layer of animal or vegetable tissue,

serving to line an organ,

Meninx membranes. Enveloping the brain and spinal cord

Nasal polypsmall, sac-like growths lining the nose

Nasal cavity. Nose

Uretera.Tube that carries urine down from the kidney to the bladder.

Platelets. Round cell fragments that function in the clotting of blood.

Meteorology.Mass or lump.a semisolid mass, as of coagulated blood.

Sinus.Hollow cavities in the skull connecting with the nasal cavities.

Esophagus.Muscular tube through which food passes from the pharynx to

the stomach.

Tendon.Cord or band of tough tissue, connecting a muscle with a bone;

sinew.

Achilles. Tendon joining the calf muscles to the heel bone.

Thyroid gland.Gland on the neck that secretes two hormones regulating

growth, and development.

Tonsils. Tissue on each side of the throat

Trachea. Windpipe

Bronchitis. Lung infection

Trigeminal nerve. Main sensory nerve of the face for chewing food

Vein. Blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart

Vocal cord. Vibrations of these cords are used in voice production.

SYSTEMS OF THE HUMAN BODY

Cardiovascular system. Circulates blood and lymph through the body

Circulatory system. Circulates blood throughout the body, delivers nutrients

Digestive system.Makes food absorbable into the body

Endocrine system.Controls bodily metabolic activity hormone.

Hemopoietic system. Formation of blood or blood cells in the body.

Immune system. Protects the body from foreign substances and pathogenic
organisms

Pathogens. Agents that causes infection or disease

Muscular system.Movement of body or materials through the body.

Nervous system. Regulates the body's responses to internal and external

stimuli

Reproductive system. Concerned with sexual reproduction

Pudendum, pudenda.The human external genital organs of the female;

vulva.

Respiratory system. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place in

the body.

Skeletal system. Bones, their associated cartilage which supports and

protects the body

Urinary system. Produce, collect, and eliminate urine

BODILY FLUIDS, ETC.

Specimen. Model, pattern, sample

Acid. Sour to the taste

Bile. Bitter, yellow or greenish liquid, secreted by the liver

Perspiration. Sweat

Pus. Yellow-white substance found in sores, etc.

Saliva. Spit

Semen. Sperm

Sputum.Phlegm, Sputa

SYMPTOMS, ETC
Abscess. Collection of pus in the tissues of the body.

Acute. Severe in effect

Angina pectoris. Pain below the sternum

Asthma. Allergic disorder of respiration,

Anxious. Concerned, disturbed, apprehensive

Anxiety. Fear, foreboding; worry,.

Arrhythmia.Irregularity of the heartbeat.

Hives. Skin condition characterized by intensely itching welts

Boil. Painful, circumscribed inflammation of the skin or a hair follicle

Broken. Lacerate (wound), fracture (bone).

Contagious. Capable of being transmitted by infection

Contraction. Muscle becomes thickened and shortened.

Cyanosis.Bluish discoloration of the skin from inadequate oxygen in the

blood.

Decay.Decline in health or vigor.

Dehydration. Excessive loss of water from the body

Drowsy. Sleepy

Edema. Accumulation of an excessive amount of watery fluid in cells,

tissues

Excretion. Body waste

Faint. Lose consciousness

Fatigue. Tired

Impaired. Change for the worse

Impaired. Weakened, diminished, or damaged

Indigestion. Upset stomach

Infection. Act of infecting

Inflamed. Red (from infection)

Injured. Hurt

Nausea.Gastrointestinal distress and an urge to vomit.

Nauseous. Feeling about to vomit nauseating]

Numb. Very cold with no feeling

Pallor. Pale in color

Palpitations.Irregular, rapid beatin of heart.

Paralysed. Cannot move

Phlegm. Sputum, mucus

Pleural. Pertaining to the sides of the thorax

Rales. Abnormal respiratory sound characterized by fine crackles

Rash. Eruption on the skin

Rheumatism. Disorder characterized by pain and stiffness

Rhonchi. Wheezing sound of the chest, caused by mucus or other material.

Salivation. Process of salivating (making spit)

Sensation. Feeling

Spasm.Involuntary contraction of a muscle or group of muscles.

Spell. Period of physical or mental disorder or distress

Stridor. Sound due to obstruction of the breathing passages

Suffocation. Killing by depriving of oxygen

Tranquilize. To sedate
Tremor. Involuntary shaking of the body

CLINICAL/ MEDICAL PROCEDURES, ETC.

Abortion.Deliberate termination of a pregnancy, usually before the embryo

or fetus is capable of independent life.

Amniocentesis.Procedure for finding certain disorders in a fetus during

pregnancy. In amniocentesis, a small amount of the salty liquid that
surrounds the fetus in the amniotic sac is drawn out through a needle
inserted into the mother's abdomen.

Angiography. X-ray examination of blood vessel

Appendectomy.Surgical removal of the appendix.

Auscultation. Listening for sounds made by internal organs

Autopsy. Postmortem examination to determination of the cause of death

Biopsy. Removal and examination of a sample of tissue from a living body

Bronchoscopy. Examination of the interior of the bronchi

Cardiography. Diagnostic of the activity of the heart

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Emergency procedure for reviving heart and

lung function,

Castration.Neutering a male animal by removing the gonads

CT scan of the chest. CT scan to determine internal condition of patient

Diagnose. To identify

Dialysis.Process by which uric acid and urea are removed from circulating
blood by means of a dialyzer.Hemodialysis.

Dilation and curettage (D & C). Surgical procedure in which the cervix is
expanded using a dilator and the uterine lining scraped

Duodenectomy. Excisionof the duodenum

Ectopic pregnancy. Development of a fertilized ovum outside the uterus

Electrocardiogram (ECG,EKG). Used to determine the condition of the heart

and to diagnose heart disease.

Endotracheal intubation passage of a tube through the nose or mouth into

the trachea

Gastrectomy.Surgical excision of part or all of the stomach.

General anesthetization. Render physically insensible over a large area of

the body

Hysterectomy. Surgical removal of part or all of the uterus;

Immunization The process of inducing immunity through vaccination or

inoculation

Immunize, immunize.

Process of stimulating the immune system to recognize invading bacteria and viruses.
Incision. Cut especially for surgical purposes.

Incubator. Apparatus for maintaining an infant, especially a premature infant

Intensive care.Use of specialized equipment and personnel for continuous monitoring and
care of the critically ill.

IVT.Intravenous transfusion

Intravenous. Into a vein

Laparoscopy Surgical incision into the abdominal cavity to examine or perform minor
surgery within the abdomen or pelvis.

Local anesthetization. Render physically insensible over a small area of the body

Mastectomy. Surgical removal of all or part of a breast

MRI. Scan of the chest using magnetic and radio waves, meaning that there is no exposure to
X-rays or any other damaging forms of radiation.

Neurological examination. Series of simple questions, and tests, that provide crucial
information about the nervous system.
Cranial nerves. Nerves that relay messages between the brain and the head and neck and
control motor and sensory functions, including vision, smell, and movement of the tongue
and vocal cords.

Motor system. Includes the brain and spinal cord motor pathways, and all the motor nerves
and muscles throughout the body.

Sensory system. Includes sensors located in the skin, muscles, tendons which send signals
fibers to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).

Reflexes. Reflexes system control actions performed involuntarily in response to impulses

sent to the central nervous system.

Neurosurgery. Surgery of the brain or other nerve tissue

Percussion. Striking or tapping of the surface of a part of the body for diagnostic or
therapeutic purposes.

Prognosis. Forecasting of the probable course and outcome of a disease

Pulmonary angiography. X-ray of the blood vessels in the lungs

Pulmonary. Lungs

Pulmonary function tests. Measure how well the lungs take in and release air and how well
they move oxygen into the blood

Saline abortion. Done by replacing amniotic fluid with salt water

Thoracentesis.Insertion of a hollow needle, or similar instrument, into the pleural cavity of

the chest in order to drain pleural fluid.

Tonsillectomy. Operation of excising, or removing, one or both tonsils

Tracheostomy. Construction of opening through the neck into the trachea

Traction. Sustained pull applied mechanically especially to the arm, leg, or neck so as to
correct fractured or dislocated bones

Transplantation. Operation moving an organ from one organism (the donor) to another (the
recipient)

Tubal ligation. Method of permanent sterilization for women, involving the surgical sealing
of the fallopian tubes

Tympanoplasty. Reconstruction of the eardrum

Vasectomy.Performed to effect sterility in men.Surgical removal of all or part of the vas
deferens, usually as a means of sterilization.

DISEASES/ILLNESSES/INJURIES/PHYSICAL ETC.

Abrasion.Scraped spot or area.

Acute. Having a rapid onset and following a short but severe course

Ailment. Physical or mental disorder

Alzheimers disease (AD). One form of dementia

Amnesia. Loss of a large block of interrelated memories

Anaemia. A deficiency in the oxygen-carrying component of the blood usually due to low iron

Anaphylaxis. Exaggerated reaction to a foreign protein resulting from previous exposure to

it; anaphylactic

Aneurysm. Localized, pathological blood-filled dilatation of a blood vessel caused by a

disease or weakening of the vessel's wall

Anthracosis. Deposition of coal dust in the lungs (black lung disease)

Arthritis. Acute orchronic inflammation of a joint, often accompanied by pain and structural
changes

Arthropathy.Disease of the joints.

Asthma. Respiratory disorder characterized by wheezing; usually of allergic origin

Astigmatism. Error in the shape of the eye in resulting in blurred vision. Common in
nearsighted people

Atelectasis. Incomplete expansion of the lungs at birth

Athletes foot.Tineapedisfungal infection of the feet

Atherosclerosis. Deposition of plaques containing cholesterol on the innermost layer of

arteries
Atrophy. Wasting or decrease in size of a body organ, tissue, or part owing to disease, injury,
or lack of use

Bacilli. Spore-producing bacteria

Bacterial infection. Infection caused by bacteria.

Bronchogenic carcinoma carcinoma (cancer) that develops in the lungs (of the large bronchi)

Cardiac edema. Fluid buildup in the lungs resulting in congestive heart failure

Cataract. Abnormality of the eye, characterized by opacity of the lens

Cecitis. Inflammation of the beginning of the large intestine

Cerebral concussion. Cerebral bruises resulting in icreasing pressure within the skull.

Cerebral hemorrhage. Broken blood vessel into the brain, often followed by neurologic
damage; a type of stroke.;

Cerebral palsy. Disorder usually caused by brain damage occurring at or before birth and
marked by muscular impairment.

Chicken pox. Disease of children caused by a virus and characterized by slight fever and the
eruption of blisters on the skin.

Cholesterol.White crystalline substance. Its level in the bloodstream can influence the
pathogenesis of certain conditions, such as the development of atherosclerotic plaque and
coronary artery disease.

Chronic bronchitis.Characterized by excess production of sputum leading to a chronic cough

and obstruction of air flow.

Colitis.Inflammation of the colon.

Congestion. Clogging; an excessive or abnormal accumulation of blood or other fluid in a

body part or blood vessel: pulmonary congestion

Conjunctivitis. Pink eye, eye inflection

Contagious. Disease that is easily transmitted, usually by cough or sneeze

Convulsions. Intense involuntary muscular contraction

Coronary artery disease. Arteriosclerosis involving fatty deposits inside the arterial walls,
thus narrowing the arteries

Coma.State of prolonged unconsciousness.

Congenital heart disease (CHD). Problem with the heart's structure and function due to
abnormal heart development before birth.

Croup. Hoarse cough and difficult breathing

Cyst.Abnormal membranous sac containing a gaseous, liquid, or semisolid.

Cystic fibrosis. Disease of the exocrine glands, usually developing during early childhood and
affecting mainly the pancreas

Cystitis.Inflammation of the urinary bladder or urethras.

Dehydration. Loss of water and body fluids

Delirium.Temporary state of mental confusion resulting from high fever, intoxication, shock,
or other causes.

Dementia.Severe impairment or loss of intellectual capacity and personality integration, due

to the loss of or damage to neurons.

Diarrhea. Runny bowel movement

Dislocated. Out of joint or out of position, as a limb or an organ

Downs syndrome.Common cause of mental retardation and malformation in a newborn.

Duodenal ulcer. Peptic ulcer located in the duodenum

Dyslalia.Inability to speak due to a defect of the organs of speech.

Chronic obstructivepulmonary disease (COPD). Various lung diseases leading to poor

pulmonary function

Cirrhosis.Disease of the liver.

Dyslexia. Various reading disorders associated with impairment of the ability to interpret
spatial relationships
Dysphasia. Inability to speak or understand words because of a brain lesion
Dysphemia. Any impairment in the ability to speak

Emphysema. Irreversible disease of the lungs characterized by abnormal enlargement of air

spaces in the lungs accompanied by destruction of the tissue lining

Epidemic. Affecting many persons at the same time

Epistaxis. Nosebleed

Farsightedness.Seeing objects at a distance more clearly than those near at hand

Gallstone. Abnormal stonelike mass, usually of cholesterol, formed in the gallbladder

Gastrointestinal bleeding. Bleeding that starts in the gastrointestinal tract

Gastric ulcer. Peptic ulcer located in the stomach's inner wall

Gastritis. Acute inflammation of the stomach

Goiter. Enlargement of the thyroid gland on the front and sides of the neck

Gout. Disease characterized by painful inflammation of the joints

Gynopathy, Any disease specific to women

Hemorrhoid. Abnormally enlarged vein inside the anal sphincter

Hydrothorax. Presence of serous fluid in one or both pleural cavities

Hyperactivity. General restlessness or excess of movement

Hyperglycemia. Abnormally high level of blood sugar

Hypertension. Elevation of the blood

Influenza. Flu

Ischemia.Local decrease in the blood supply to a bodily organ, tissue, or part caused by
constriction or obstruction of the blood vessels.

Jaundice. Yellow discoloration of the skin, whites of the eyes, etc., due to an increase of bile
pigments in the blood, often symptomatic of certain diseases, as hepatitis

Laryngitis. Inflammation of the larynx, often with accompanying sore throat

Leukemia. Any of several cancers of the bone marrow

Malnutrition. Lack of proper nutrition; inadequate or unbalanced nutrition

Measles. Contagious viral disease, usually occurring in childhood and characterized by

eruption of red spots on the skin, cough, and a rash

Melanoma. Any of several types of malignant skin tumors

Metastasize (tumor, cancer). Transmission ?of malignant cells from a primary cancer located
elsewhere in the body.

Metastatic (tumor, cancer). Pertaining to, or caused by, metastasis

Multiple sclerosis (MS).Disease of the central nervous system characterized by inflammatory
swelling of the salivary glands, and sometimes of the pancreas, and sometimes by
inflammation of the testes or ovaries

Mute. Silent

Myocardial infarction.Heart attack.Also called cardiac infarction.

Nearsightedness. Can only see objects that are close by clearly; distant objects appear
blurred

Obesity. Overweight

Obstruction. The blocking of a body passage, as by clogging

Occupation disease.Chronic ailment that occurs as a result of work or occupational activity.

Otitis. Inflammation of the ear

Parkinson's disease.Degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that often impairs
the sufferer's motor skills and speech.

Paroxysmal. A sudden outburst of emotion or action

Periodontal disease. Various mixed bacterial infections that affect the soft tissues and bones
supporting the teeth

Pertussis.Disease of the respiratory mucous membrane; whooping cough.

Pigment /pigmentation (blood, bile, etc.). Substance that produces a characteristic color in
plant or animal tissue

Pleural effusion.Excess fluid that accumulates in the pleural cavity, the fluid-filled space that
surrounds the lungs.

Pleurisy.Inflammation of the pleura, characterized by a dry cough and pain in the affected
side.

Pneumoconiosis.Disease of the lungs, caused by long-continuing inhalation of mineral or

metallic dust.

Pneumothorax. Accumulation of air or gas in the pleural cavity, usually occurring as a result
of disease or injury

Polyuria.Passing of excessive quantities of urine, as in diabetes, or nervous disease, etc.

Presbyopia. Farsightedness due to ciliary muscle weakness and loss of elasticity

Pulmonary abscess. Complication of a localized area of pneumonia and contains diseased
material that cannot drain easily from the area because of partial or complete bronchial
obstruction.

Pulmonary edema. Edema of the lungs usually due to swelling and/or fluid accumulation in
the lungs

Pulmonary infarction.Death of one or more sections of lung tissue, due to deprivation of an

adequate blood supply. The section of dead tissue is called an infarct.

Purulent.Full of or discharging pus; suppurating.

Rabies. Infectious disease of dogs, cats, and other animals

Rheumatic. Damage to the heart, esp. to the valves, as a result of rheumatic fever,
characterized by inflammation of the middle muscular layer of the heart wall

Rhinitis.Inflammation of the nose or its mucous membrane.

Rupture. Fracture, break, split, burst.

Scabies. Contagious skin disease occurring esp. in sheep and cattle and also in humans,
caused by the itch mite

Scald. Burn or injury to the skin or flesh, or affect painfully with or as if with hot liquid or
steam

Schizophrenia. Severe mental disorder characterized by emotional blunting, intellectual

deterioration, social isolation, disorganized speech and behavior, delusions,

Scleroderma. Disease in which connective tissue anywhere in the body becomes hardened

Scoliosis. Lateral curvature of the spine, usually having no known cause and occurring most
commonly in preteen and adolescent girls

Seizure. A sudden attack, as of epilepsy

Sickle-cell anemia. Congenital form of anemia occurring mostly in blacks; characterized by

abnormal blood cells having a crescent shape;

Silicosis. Disease of the lungs caused by the inhaling of sand particles

Strep throat. Acute sore throat caused by streptococciand accompanied by fever and
prostration

Stroke. A stroke is an interruption of the blood supply to any part of the brain.
Sty. Bacterial infection of the glands on the edge of the eyelid

Systole /Diastole (atrial, ventricular )

Systole Artery blood pressure, when the heart pushed the blood.

Diastole. Ventricle blood pressure, when the blood is returning to the heart under less
pressure.

Tetanus (Lockjaw). Type of serious disease, caused by an infected wound

Thrombosis (blood clot). Intravascular coagulation of the blood in any part of the circulatory
system

Tonsillitis. Inflammation of a tonsil or the tonsils

Trauma. Body wound or shock produced by sudden physical injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI). Traumatic injuries to the brain, also called intracranial injury,
or simply head injury, occurs when physical trauma causes brain damage.

Tumor. Abnormal growth of tissue resulting from uncontrolled, progressive multiplication of

cells and serving no physiological function

Urethritis. Inflammation of the urethra; results in painful urination

Vaginitis. Inflammation of the vagina (usually associated with candidiasis).

Vertigo. Dizzying sensation of tilting within stable surroundings or of being in tilting or

spinning surroundings

Virus. Viral disease agent that replicates only within the cells of living hosts

Whooping cough (pertussis). Infectious respiratory disease, characterized by a series of

short, convulsive coughs followed by a deep asperation

Withdrawal.Act or process of ceasing to use an addictive drug.

TREATMENT, ETC.

Airway.Tubelike device used to maintain adequate, unobstructed respiration, as during

general anesthesia

Antihormonal therapy. The goal of antihormonal therapy is to decrease the effect of estrogen
on cancer cells.

Bone marrow transplant. Technique in which a small amount of bone marrow is withdrawn
by a syringe from a donor's pelvic bone and injected into a patient whose ability to make new
blood cells has been impaired by a disease,

Bypass. Surgical procedure in which a diseased or obstructed hollow organ is temporarily or

permanently circumvented

Chiropractic. Therapeutic system based primarily upon the interactions of the spine and
nervous system

Exploratory surgery. Used by doctors when trying to find a diagnosis for an ailment.

In-patient.Patient who is admitted to a hospital or clinic for treatment that requires at least
one overnight stay.

Lumpectomy. Surgical removal of a breast cyst or tumor

Naturopathy. Method of treating disease that employs no surgery or synthetic drugs but uses
special diets, herbs, vitamins, massage

Organ donor. Someone from whom an organ is taken for transplantation

Radiation. Method of fighting cancer by exposing the patient to nuclear radiation

Rehydration. Restoration of fluid to a dehydrated individual

Restrains.To hold back or keep in check.

Splinting. Medical device for the immobilization of limbs or of the spine

Sterilize. Destroy microorganisms by bringing to a high temperature with steam, dry heat, or
boiling liquid.

Therapist. One who performs therapy

Therapeutic. Concerning the healing and curing of disease;

Tourniquet. Device for arresting bleeding by forcibly compressing a blood vessel, such as a
bandage tightened by twisting

PRESCRIPTION, ETC.

Adverse effect.Harmful and undesired effect resulting from a medication or other

intervention such as chemotherapy or surgery.

Analgesic. Medication that reduces or eliminates pain

Anesthetic. Causes loss of sensation without the loss of consciousness

Antibiotics.Substance capable of destroying or weakening certain bacteria or fungi, which

cause infections or disease.

Anticoagulant. Substance that prevents or retards the clotting of blood

Antihistamine. Certain medicines that neutralize or inhibit the effect of histaminein the body,
used chiefly in the treatment of allergic disorders and colds

Antipruritic. Relieving or preventing itching

Antiseptic.Capable of preventing infection by inhibiting the growth of microorganisms.

Aspirin.Called acetylsalicylic acid. Chemical formula:

Cardiant.Affecting the circulation or the heart

Cardiazol.A pharmaceutical agent that displays activity as a central nervous system and
respiratory stimulant.

Cardiotonic.A tonic having a beneficial effect on the heart.

Contraceptives. A substance or device capable of preventing pregnancy

Coumarin. Widely as anticoagulants to prevent blood clots

Cyclizne. Used primarily to prevent and treat motion sickness.

Dextrose. Plant sugar

Digestant.Substance that promotes digestion.

Diuretics.Substance or drug that tends to increase the discharge of urine.

Dosage.The administration of medicine in doses.

Dramamine. Used to treat motion sickness

Expectorant. Drug that facilitating the expulsion of phlegm, mucus, or other matter from the
respiratory tract

Glyburide. Used orally in the treatment of diabetes mellitus

Interactions. Substance affects the activity of a drug, therefore the effects are increased or
decreased, or they produce a new effect that neither produces on its own.

Iodine. Antiseptic preparation containing iodine in solution, used to treat wounds

Meclizine. Used to treat or prevent nausea, vomiting, and dizziness caused by motion
sickness.

Mineral supplements. Sometimes minerals are added to the diet separately from food, such
as mineral supplements, the most famous being iodine in "iodized salt

Nitroglycerin (Nitro). Used as a vasodilator in medicine for people with heart problems.

Over the counter drugs.Medicines that are sold without a prescription, in contrast to
prescription drugs.

Oxytocin.Used chiefly in obstetrics to induce labor and to control postnatal hemorrhage.

Phenformin. Anti-diabetic drug

Suppositories.Solid, conical mass of medicinal substance that melts upon insertion into the
rectum or vagina.

Tranquillizer. Drug that has a sedative or calming effect without inducing sleep
 The Circulatory System

The Circulatory System is the main transportation and cooling system for the body. The Red
Blood Cells act like billions of little UPS trucks carrying all sorts of packages that are needed
by all the cells in the body. Instead of UPS, I'll call them RBC's. RBC's carry oxygen and
nutrients to the cells. Every cell in the body requires oxygen to remain alive. Besides RBC's,
there are also White Blood Cells moving in the circulatory system traffic. White Blood Cells
are the paramedics, police and street cleaners of the circulatory system. Anytime we have a
cold, a cut, or an infection the WBC's go to work.

The highway system of the Circulatory System consists off a lot of one way streets. The
superhighways of the circulatory system are the veins and arteries. Veins are used to carry
blood *to* the heart. Arteries carry blood *away* from the heart. Most of the time, blood in
the veins is blood where most of the oxygen and nutrients have already been delivered to the
cells. This blood is called deoxygenated and is very *dark* red. Most of the time blood in the
arteries is loaded with oxygen and nutrients and the color is very *bright* red. There is one
artery that carries deoxygenated blood and there are some veins that carry oxygenated
blood. To get to the bottom of this little mystery we need to talk about the Heart and Lungs.

TheHeart

This is a subject that is near and dear to my heart. The heart is a two sided, four chambered
pump. It is made up mostly of muscle. Heart muscle is very special. Unlike all the other
muscles in the body, the heart muscle cannot afford to get tired. Imagine what would happen
if every 15 minutes or so the pump got tired and decided to take a little nap! Not a pretty
sight. So, heart muscle is always expanding and contracting, usually at between 60 and 100
beats per minute.

The right side of the heart is the low pressure side. Its main job is to push the RBC's, cargo
bays mostly empty now, up to the lungs (loading docks and filling stations) so that they can
get recharged with oxygen. Blood enters the right heart through a chamber called the Right
Atrium. Atrium is another word for an 'entry room.' Since the right atrium is located
*above* the Right Ventricle, a combination of gravity and an easy squeeze pushes the blood
though the Tricuspid Valve into the right ventricle. The tricuspid valve is a valve made up of
three 'leaflets' that allows blood to go from top to bottom in the heart but closes to prevent
the blood from backing up into the right atrium when the right ventricle squeezes.

After the blood is in the right ventricle, the right ventricle begins its contraction to push the
blood out toward the lungs. Remember that this blood is deoxygenated. The blood leaves the
right ventricle and enters the *pulmonary artery.* This artery and its two branches are the
only arteries in the body to carry deoxygenated blood. Important: Arteries carry blood
*away* from the heart. There is nothing in the definition that says blood has to be
oxygenated.

When the blood leaves the pulmonary arteries it enters *capillaries* in the lungs. Capillaries
are very, very small blood vessels that act as the connectors between veins and arteries. The
capillaries in the lungs are very special because they are located against the *alveoli* or air
sacks. When blood in the capillaries goes past the air sacks, the RBC's pick up oxygen. The
alveoli are like the loading docks where trucks pick up their load. Capillaries are so small, in
some places, that only *one* RBC at a time can get through!

When the blood has picked up its oxygen, it enters some blood vessels known as the *cardiac
veins.* This is fully oxygenated blood and it is now in veins. Remember: Veins take blood to
the heart. The cardiac veins empty into the *left atrium.* The left side of the heart is the high
pressure side, its job is to push the blood out to the body.

The left atrium sits on top of the *left ventricle* and is separated from it by the *mitral
valve*. The mitral valve is named this because it resembles, to some people, a Bishop's
Mitered Hat. This valve has the same function as the tricuspid valve, it prevents blood from
being pushed from the left ventricle back up to the left atrium.

The left ventricle is a very high pressure pump. Its main job is to produce enough pressure to
push the blood out of the heart and into the body's circulation. When the blood leaves the left
ventricle it enters the Aorta. There are valves located at the opening of the Aorta that prevent
the blood from backing up into the ventricle. As soon as the blood is in the aorta, there are
arteries called *coronary arteries* that take some of the blood and use it to nourish the heart
muscle. Remember: the heart is like James Brown, it's the hardest working muscle in the
body (in case you don't know, James Brown says he's the hardest working man in show
business).

The Aorta and the Arterial System

The aorta leaves the heart and heads toward, what else, the head. We have to keep our brains
well nourished so we can make good grades in school. The arteries that take the blood to the
head are located on something called the *aortic arch.* After the blood passes through the
aortic arch it is then distributed to the rest of the body. The *descending aorta* goes behind
the heart and down the center of the body.

Sometimes, if you are lying flat on your back, you can look down toward your feet and
actually see your abdomen pulsate with each heart beat. This pulsation is really the aorta
throbbing with each heart beat. Do not be alarmed, this is normal.

From the aorta, blood is sent off to many other arteries and arterioles (very small arteries)
where it gives oxygen and nutrition to *every* cell in the body. At the end of the arterioles
are, guess what, capillaries. The blood gives up its cargo as it passes through the capillaries
and enters the venous system.
 The Venous System
The venous system carries the blood back to the heart. The blood flows from the capillaries,
to venules (very small veins), to veins. The two largest veins in the body are the *superior*
and *inferior* vena cavas. The superior vena cava carries the blood from the upper part of
the body to the heart. The inferior vena cava carries the blood from the lower body to the
heart. In medical terms, *superior* means above and *inferior* means under. Many people
believe that the blood in the veins is *blue*; it is not. Venous blood is really dark red or
maroon in color. Veins do have a bluish appearance and this may be why people think venous
blood is blue. Both the superior and inferior vena cava end in the right atrium. The superior
vena cava enters from the top and the inferior vena cava enters from the bottom.
UsefulVocabulary

The Human Body

 Inside the Body - Simple Anatomy

bladder The organ inside the body of a

person, where urine is stored
before it leaves the body.

bone The hard parts inside a human

or animal that make up its
frame.
brain The organ inside the head that
controls thought, memory,
feelings and activity.

digestivesy The organs in your body that

stem digest food.
ear
The ear is made up of three
different sections: the outer
ear, the middle ear, and the
inner ear. These parts all work
together so you can hear and
process sounds.

eye 'The eyes takes in information

about the world around you -
shapes, colours, movement,
and more.
Thentheysendtheinformationt
oyourbrain.
heart The heart sends blood around
the body. The blood provides
oxygen and nutrients to the
body.

kidney One of the main jobs of the

kidneys is to filter the waste
out of the blood.

liver A large organ in the body

which cleans the blood and
produces bile (a bitter yellow
liquid which helps to digest
fat).
lungs The lungs are one of the
largest organs in the body,
they work with the respiratory
system to take in fresh air, and
get rid of stale air.

mouth The opening in the face which

consists of the lips and the
space between them, or the
space behind which contains
the teeth and the tongue.
skeleton The frame of bones that
support the body.
spine The line of bones down the
centre of the back that
provides support for the body.

teeth The hard white objects in the

mouth, which are used for
biting and chewing.
tooth (seeabove)

urinarytract The parts of the body which

produce and carry urine.
 Naturally Speaking

Describing aches and pains

Ifyour head hurts: "I've got a headache." or "My head aches."

Ifyourstomachhurts: "I've got stomach ache." or "My stomach aches."
Ifyour back hurts:
"I've got backache." or "My back aches."

Ifyourneckhurts: "I've got neckache." or ""My neck aches."

If other parts of your body hurt: "I've got a pain in my arm / leg etc."

Dialogue

It's Monday morning and Mr Smith has gone to see the doctor.

Doctor: Hello Mr Smith. We haven't seen you in a while. What seems to be the problem?
Mr Smith Well, I fell off the ladder whilst I was decorating and hurt my ankle. Itswelled up and
hasn'tgonedownsince.
Doctor:
OK - let's have a look, take off your shoe and sock and roll up your trouser leg.

(Examines ankle)

Ah yes, I think we had better send you to the hospital to get this X-rayed.
Youmayhavebroken a bone.

Mr Smith: What? You're joking! No wonder it hurts so much.

THE HUMAN

BODY
DIGESTIVE

SYSTEM
CIRCULATORY

SYSTEM
NERVOUS

SYSTEM
CIRCULATOTY

SYSTEM
THE BRAIN
THE HEART
RESPIRATORY

SYSTEM
REPRODUCTIVE

SYSTEM
 The Structure and Function of the Digestive System
Your digestive system is uniquely constructed to perform its specialized function of turning food
into the energy you need to survive and packaging the residue for waste disposal. To help you
understand how the many parts of the digestive system work together, here is an overview of the
structure and function of this complex system.

Mouth
The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract; and, in fact, digestion starts here when taking the
first bite of food. Chewing breaks the food into pieces that are more easily digested, while saliva
mixes with food to begin the process of breaking it down into a form your body can absorb and
use.

Esophagus
Located in your throat near your trachea (windpipe), the esophagus receives food from your mouth
when you swallow. By means of a series of muscular contractions called peristalsis, the esophagus
delivers food to your stomach.

Stomach
The stomach is a hollow organ, or "container," that holds food while it is being mixed with
enzymes that continue the process of breaking down food into a usable form. Cells in the lining of
the stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful enzymes that are responsible for the breakdown
process. When the contents of the stomach are sufficiently processed, they are released into the
small intestine.

Small intestine
Made up of three segments the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum the small intestine is a 22-
foot long muscular tube that breaks down food using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile
from the liver. Peristalsis also is at work in this organ, moving food through and mixing it with
digestive secretions from the pancreas and liver. The duodenum is largely responsible for the
continuous breaking-down process, with the jejunum and ileum mainly responsible for absorption
of nutrients into the bloodstream.

Contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid, and end in a liquid form after passing through
the organ. Water, bile, enzymes, and mucous contribute to the change in consistency. Once the
nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover-food residue liquid has passed through the small
intestine, it then moves on to the large intestine, or colon.

Pancreas
The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum, the first segment of the small
intestine. These enzymes break down protein, fats, and carbohydrates. The pancreas also makes
insulin, secreting it directly into the bloodstream. Insulin is the chief hormone for metabolizing
sugar.

Liver
The liver has multiple functions, but its main function within the digestive system is to process the
nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted into the small intestine also
plays an important role in digesting fat. In addition, the liver is the bodys chemical "factory." It
takes the raw materials absorbed by the intestine and makes all the various chemicals the body
needs to function. The liver also detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals. It breaks down and
secretes many drugs.

Gallbladder
The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile, and then releases it into the duodenum to help absorb
and digest fats.

Colon (large intestine)

The colon is a 6-foot long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the rectum. The large
intestine is made up of the cecum, the ascending (right) colon, the transverse (across) colon, the
descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon, which connects to the rectum. The appendix is a
small tube attached to the cecum. The large intestine is a highly specialized organ that is
responsible for processing waste so that emptying the bowels is easy and convenient.

Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by means of
peristalsis, first in a liquid state and ultimately in a solid form. As stool passes through the colon,
water is removed. Stool is stored in the sigmoid (S-shaped) colon until a "mass movement"
empties it into the rectum once or twice a day. It normally takes about 36 hours for stool to get
through the colon. The stool itself is mostly food debris and bacteria. These bacteria perform
several useful functions, such as synthesizing various vitamins, processing waste products and
food particles, and protecting against harmful bacteria. When the descending colon becomes full of
stool, or feces, it empties its contents into the rectum to begin the process of elimination.

Rectum
The rectum (Latin for "straight") is an 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus. It is the
rectum's job to receive stool from the colon, to let the person know that there is stool to be
evacuated, and to hold the stool until evacuation happens. When anything (gas or stool) comes into
the rectum, sensors send a message to the brain. The brain then decides if the rectal contents can be
released or not. If they can, the sphincters relax and the rectum contracts, disposing its contents. If
the contents cannot be disposed, the sphincter contracts and the rectum accommodates so that the
sensation temporarily goes away.

Anus
The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch long canal consisting of the pelvic floor
muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and external). The lining of the upper anus is
specialized to detect rectal contents. It lets you know whether the contents are liquid, gas, or solid.
The anus is surrounded by sphincter muscles that are important in allowing control of stool. The
pelvic floor muscle creates an angle between the rectum and the anus that stops stool from coming
out when it is not supposed to. The internal sphincter is always tight, except when stool enters the
rectum. It keeps us continent when we are asleep or otherwise unaware of the presence of stool.
When we get an urge to go to the bathroom, we rely on our external sphincter to hold the stool
until reaching a toilet, where it then relaxes to release the contents.

Reproductive system

The reproductive system or genital system is a system of organs within an organism which work
together for the purpose of reproduction. Many non-living substances such as fluids, hormones,
and pheromones are also important accessories to the reproductive system.

Unlike most organ systems, the sexes of differentiatedspecies often have significant differences.
These differences allow for a combination of genetic material between two individuals, which
allows for the possibility of greater geneticfitness of the offspring.

The major organs of the reproductive system includes, the external genitalia (penis and vulva) as
well as a number of internal organs including the gamete producing gonads (testicles and ovaries).
Diseases of the human reproductive system are very common and widespread, particularly
communicablesexually transmitted diseases.

Most other vertebrate animals have generally similar reproductive systems consisting of gonads,
ducts, and openings. However, there is a great diversity of physical adaptations as well as
reproductive strategies in every group of vertebrates.
 Respiratory system

The respiratory system is the anatomical system of an organism that introduces respiratory gases
to the interior and performs gas exchange. In humans and other mammals, the anatomical features
of the respiratory system include airways, lungs, and the respiratory muscles. Molecules of oxygen
and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged, by diffusion, between the gaseous external
environment and the blood. This exchange process occurs in the alveolar region of the lungs.

Other animals, such as insects, have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features, and
in amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange. Plants also have respiratory systems
but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals. The respiratory system in
plants also includes anatomical features such as holes on the undersides of leaves known as
stomata.
 Nervous system
The nervous system is an organ system containing a network of specialized cells called neurons
that coordinate the actions of an animal and transmit signals between different parts of its body. In
most animals the nervous system consists of two parts, central and peripheral. The central nervous
system of vertebrates (such as humans) contains the brain, spinal cord, and retina. The peripheral
nervous system consists of sensory neurons, clusters of neurons called ganglia, and nerves
connecting them to each other and to the central nervous system. These regions are all
interconnected by means of complex neural pathways. The enteric nervous system, a subsystem of
the peripheral nervous system, has the capacity, even when severed from the rest of the nervous
system through its primary connection by the vagus nerve, to function independently in controlling
the gastrointestinal system.

Neurons send signals to other cells as electrochemical waves travelling along thin fibers called
axons, which cause chemicals called neurotransmitters to be released at junctions called synapses.
A cell that receives a synaptic signal may be excited, inhibited, or otherwise modulated. Sensory
neurons are activated by physical stimuli impinging on them, and send signals that inform the
central nervous system of the state of the body and the external environment. Motor neurons,
situated either in the central nervous system or in peripheral ganglia, connect the nervous system to
muscles or other effector organs. Central neurons, which in vertebrates greatly outnumber the other
types, make all of their input and output connections with other neurons. The interactions of all
these types of neurons form neural circuits that generate an organism's perception of the world and
determine its behavior. Along with neurons, the nervous system contains other specialized cells
called glial cells (or simply glia), which provide structural and metabolic support.
 ENGLISH

FOR

NURSING
INSTITUTO SUPERIOR DR. GUILLERMO C. PATERSON

CARRERA: ENFERMERA

CTEDRA: INGLS II

TEACHER:MARIELA ALEJANDRA SNCHEZ

CURSO: 3 AO

YEAR: 2012
Profesora: Mariela Alejandra
Snchez
Materia: Lengua Extranjera-
Ingls
Escuela: N 445