LS2203 Date:

9/01/17
BIOLOGY LABORATORY EXPERIMENT 1

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:-

To study the form, structure and function of forelimb
(locomotion) in different species.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
Camera

Submitted by:-Sangram Prusty(15MS102)

 Yogishree Arabinda
Panda(15MS122)

THEORY
Evolution-The Road to Adaptation
The word evolution comes from a latin word
evolvere, to unfold or unroll-to reveal or
manifest potentialities
Evolution involves two interrelated
phenomena:-
*Adaptation:-Over the course of time, species
modify their phenotypes in ways that
permit them to succeed in their environment.
*Speciation:-Over the course of time, the
number of species multiplies; that is, a single
species can give rise to two or more
descendant species. In fact, Darwin maintained
that all species are related; that is, any two
species on earth today have shared a common
ancestor at some point in their history.

Evolution Adaptation Diversificat

ion
*An adaptation also called an adaptive trait,
is a trait with a current functional role in the life
of an organism that is maintained
and evolved by means of natural selection
leading to diversification in response to its
environment.
*Adaptations enhance the fitness and survival
of an individual.
*Environment is one of the most powerful and
influential force that makes organisms
diversified in order to adapt and thus survive in
its habitat.
*In order to survive in its habitat organisms
develop different strategies for different basic
life functions like
locomotion,nutrition,reproduction,defense
mechanism etc which have adaptation that
may be similar in different organism which may
symbolize that they have coevolved,or may
have different strategies which can imply that
they have diversified from a point.
Evolution and Locomotion
The term "locomotion" is formed in English from Latin loco "from a
place" (ablative of locus "place") + motio "motion, a
moving".Locomotion, in ethology, is any of a variety of movements or
methods that an organism use to move from one place to another.
Why Locomotion???........
Animals move for a variety of reasons, such as to find food, a mate, a
suitable microhabitat , or to escape predator. For many animals, the
ability to move is essential for survival and, as a result, natural
selection has shaped the locomotion methods and mechanisms used by
moving organisms. For example, migratory animals that travel vast
distances (such as theArctic tern) typically have a locomotion
mechanism that costs very little energy per unit distance, whereas non-
migratory animals that must frequently move quickly to escape
predators are likely to have energetically costly, but very fast,
locomotion.

Principle of Locomotion
To locomote, all animals require both propulsive and control
mechanisms. The diverse propulsive mechanisms of animals involve a
contractile structuremuscle in most casesto generate a propulsive
force. The quantity, quality, and position of contractions are initiated
and coordinated by the nervous system: through this coordination,
rhythmic movements of the appendages or body produce locomotion.

Animals successfully occupy a majority of the vast number of different

physical environments (ecological niches) on Earth; in a discussion of
locomotion, however, these environments can be divided into four
types: aerial (including arboreal), aquatic, fossorial (underground),
and terrestrial. The physical restraints to movementgravity and
dragare the same in each environment: they differ only in
degree. Gravity is here considered as the weight and inertia(resistance
to motion) of a body, drag as any force reducing movement. Although
these are not the definitions of a physicist, they are adequate for a
general understanding of the forces that impede animal locomotion.

To counteract the force of gravity, which is particularly important in

aerial, fossorial, and terrestrial locomotion, all animals that live in these
three environments have evolved skeletal systems to support their
body and to prevent the body from collapsing upon itself. The skeletal
system may be internal or external, and it may act either as a rigid
framework or as a flexible hydraulic (fluid) support.

To initiate movement, a sufficient amount of muscular work must be

performed by aerial, fossorial, and terrestrial animals to overcome
inertia. Aquatic animals must also overcome inertia; the buoyancy
of water, however, reduces the influence of gravity on movement.
Actually, because many aquatic animals are weightlessi.e., they
possess neutral buoyancy by displacing a volume of water that is equal
in weight to their dry weightlittle muscular work is needed to
overcome inertia. But not all aquatic animals are weightless. Those with
negative buoyancy sink as a result of their weight; hence, the greater
their weight, the more muscular energy they must expend to remain at
a given level. Conversely, an animal with positive buoyancy floats to
and rests on the surface and must expend muscular energy to remain
submerged.

In water, the primary force that retards or resists forward movement

is drag, the amount of which depends upon the animals shape and
how that shapecleaves the water. Drag results mainly from
the friction of the water as it flows over the surface of the animal and
the adherence of the water to the animals surface (i.e., the viscosity of
the water). Because of the waters viscosity, its flow tends to be
lamellar; i.e., different layers of the water flow at different speeds, with
the slowest layer of flow being the one adjacent to the body surface. As
the flow speed increases, the lamellar pattern is lost, and turbulence
develops, thereby increasing the drag.

Another component of drag is the retardation of forward movement by

the backward pull of the eddies of water behind the tail of the animal.
As they flow off an animal, the layers of water from each side meet and
blend. If the animal is streamlined (e.g., has a fusiform shape), the
turbulence is low; if, however, the water layers from the sides meet
abruptly and with different speeds, the turbulence is high, causing a
strong backward pull, or drag, on the animal.

Aerial locomotion also encounters resistance from drag, but, because

the viscosity and density of air are much less than those of water, drag
is also less. The lamellar flow of air across the wing surfaces is,
however, extremely important. The upward force of flight, or lift, results
from air flowing faster across the upper surface than across the lower
surface of the wing. Because this differential in flow produces a lower
air pressure on the upper surface, the animal rises. Lift is also produced
by the flow of water across surfaces, but aquatic animals use the lift as
a steering aid rather than as a source of propulsion.

Drag is generally considered a negligible influence in terrestrial

locomotion; and, in fossorial locomotion, the friction and compactness
(friability) of soils are the two major restraints. If the soil is extremely
friable, as is sand, some animals can swim through it. Such fossorial
locomotion, however, is quite rare; most fossorial animals must
laboriously tunnel through the soil and thereafter depend upon the
tunnels for active locomotion.

Movement in animals is achieved by two types of locomotion, axial

and appendicular. In axial locomotion, which includes the hydraulic
ramjet method of ejecting water (e.g., squid), production of a body
wave (eel), or the contractanchorextend method (leech), the body
shape is modified, and the interaction of the entire body with the
surrounding environment provides the propulsive force. In appendicular
locomotion, special body appendages interact with the environment to
produce the propulsive force.

There are also many animal species that depend on their environment
for transportation, a type of mobility called passive locomotion. Some
jellyfish, for example, have structures called floats that extend above
the waters surface and act as sails. A few spiders have developed an
elaborate means of kiting; when a strand of their web silk reaches a
certain length after being extended into the air, the wind resistance of
the strand is sufficient to carry it away with the attached spider. In one
fish, the remora, the dorsal fin has moved to the top of the head and
become modified into a sucker; by attaching itself to a larger fish, the
remora is able to ride to its next meal.
OBSERVATION
Location of study:-IISER Kolkata Campus
Organisms under observation:-
(a)Houseflies
(b)Butterfly
(c)Spider
(d)Snake
(e)Dragonfly
(f)Lizard
(g)Myna
(h)Dog
(a) Houseflies(Musca domestica)

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera

Locomotion:
1. Flight - Insects are the only group of invertebrates to have developed
flight.Houseflies ancient ancestors boasted two full sets of
wings.However,houseflies have only one pair of wings. Their back wings have
reduced to tiny knobs and are used as stabilisers. House flies have special
muscles that allow them to beat their wings 200 times a second, which is why
they make a buzzing noise
2. Walking Houseflies use six legs for walking and have adopted a tripedal
gait. The legs are used in alternate triangles touching the ground. For the first
step, the middle right leg and the front and rear left legs are in contact with the
ground and move the insect forward, while the front and rear right leg and the
middle left leg are lifted and moved forward to a new position .

(b)Butterfly:
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order Suborder: Rhopalocera

Locomotion:
1. Flight: Butterflies have strong muscles in their thorax which
force their wings up and down on a fulcrum basis. They
actually go in a slanted figure 8 motion that propels them
forward through the air in the same principle as an airplane.
Butterflies must use their surroundings in order to maintain
their body heat. During the day, butterflies bask with their
wings open to absorb warmth from the sun.
2. Walking: Have 6 legs (4 long legs + 2 short legs). The legs
are used in alternate triangles touching the ground. For the
first step, the middle right leg and the front and rear left legs
are in contact with the ground and move the insect forward,
while the front and rear right leg and the middle left leg are
lifted and moved forward to a new position.
(c)Spider:

EXPLANATION:
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Arachnida
Order: Araneae

Locomotion:
1. Hydraulics: Unlike humans, spiders walk, run and move by use of
hydraulics, just like many man-made machines. This means pressurized liquids
generate, control and transmit power. In the case of spiders, pressurized liquid
is stored in the cephalothorax, the body part the legs are attached to. When
the spider pushes one or more legs down, the liquid is forced into another pair
of legs. Spiders have the ability to quickly increase and decrease body
pressure to power their legs.

2. Walking and Running: Walking and running are among the most
common forms of locomotion in all terrestrial creatures. When walking and running,
spiders alternate their four pairs of legs. While two pairs of legs are in the air, the
other two pairs are on the ground for support. At the ends of the spiders' legs are
many special hairs that have microscopic feet that allow them to grip onto horizontal
and vertical surfaces.

3. Jumping: Not all spiders jump, but some are known for it. Nearly 4,000
species belong to the jumping spider family (Salticidae). These spiders are
typically on the small side and vary greatly in appearance, but their namesake
is their jumping ability. Jumping spiders generate eight times their resting
pressure for a jump. Some of these spiders can jump up to 25 times their body
length by building up pressure in their third and fourth pairs of legs.

(d)Snake:
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Locomotion:
Evolution shows that the snakes have degenerated their fore limbs and hind limbs.
They move via their lateral body wall muscles through the movement of the ribs.

Serpentine- Snakes will push off of any bump or other surface, rocks, trees,
etc., to get going. They move in a wavy motion. They would not be able to move over
slick surfaces like glass at all. This movement is also known as lateral undulation.
Concertina- This is a more difficult way for the snake to move but is effective in
tight spaces. The snake braces the back portion of their body while pushing and
extending the front portion. Then the snake drops the front portion of their body and
straightens an pulls the back portion along. It is almost like they through themselves
forward.

Rectilinear- This is a slow, creeping, straight movement. The snake uses some
of the wide scales on its belly to grip the ground while pushing forward with the
others.

Sidewinding- This is a difficult motion to describe but it is often used by snakes

to move on loose or slippery surfaces like sand or mud. The snake appears to throw
its head forward and the rest of its body follows while the head is thrown forward
again.

(e)Dragonfly:
 Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Odonata
Suborder: Anisoptera

Locomotion:
Flight: In flight the adult dragonfly can move in six directions; upward,
downward, forward, back, and side to side. They can also hover quite well in
midair, and then they can take off at speeds of up to 35 mph (56 km/h).
Scientists discovered dragonflies can move each of their four wings
independently which gives them their flying abilities. Dragonflies bend and
twist their wings to cause little whirlwinds that move the air even faster over
the upper part of the airfoil, reducing air pressure even more than most flying
animals can. This gives them a lot of lift, even in the face of powerful winds.

The flight style of different families of dragonfly is one of their

distinguishing features. It gives rise to some terms which are widely used
by dragonfly observers:

Hawkers (family Aeshnidae). They are among the largest and fastest
flying dragonflies. The adults live mostly in the air, and even mate in flight.
 They have large and powerful wings, and can fly forwards or backwards or
hover like a helicopter. The wings are always extended horizontally.

(f)Lizard:

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Superclass: Tetrapoda
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Lacertilia
Locomotion:
1. Running
Lizards running quadrupedally generally move diagonally opposite feet
simultaneously; the left fore foot with the right hind, and the right fore with the left
hind. It takes a single step in which the right fore and left hind feet remain stationary
on the ground while the left fore and right hind move forward. At the same time the
bend in the body is reversed. The feet are moved forward partly by movements of the
shoulder, hip and other leg 1 emphasises the role of the back. Running is powered
partly by the leg muscles and partly by the back muscles.
2.Jumping
Some lizards make quite impressive jumps. For a satisfactory landing, the body must
be at an appropriate angle to the horizontal at the end of the jump. Lizards use tail
movements to achieve this (Libby et al., 2012). This depends on the Principle of
Conservation of Angular Momentum, the principle that enables divers to initiate
manoeuvres such as somersaults in mid-air. Rotation of the lizards tail or the divers
limbs in one direction, makes the body rotate in the opposite direction. Lizards whose
tails had been removed did not make satisfactory landings when they jumped.
(g)Myna:

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Clade: Ornithurae
Class: Aves

Locomotion:
The birds have their fore limbs modified into wings in the due course of evolution
which help them to fly.

1. Flight: Most birds can fly, which distinguishes them from almost all other
vertebrate classes. Flight is the primary means of locomotion for most bird
species and is used for breeding, feeding, and predator avoidance and escape.
Birds have various adaptations for flight, including a lightweight skeleton, two
large flight muscles, the pectoralis (which accounts for 15% of the total mass
of the bird) and the supracoracoideus, as well as a modified forelimb (wing)
that serves as an aerofoil. Wing shape and size generally determine a bird
species' type of flight; many birds combine powered, flapping flight with less
energy-intensive soaring flight. About 60 extant bird species are flightless, as
were many extinct birds. Flightlessness often arises in birds on isolated
islands, probably due to limited resources and the absence of land predators.
Though flightless, penguins use similar musculature and movements to "fly"
through the water, as do auks, shearwaters and dippers.
(g)Dogs:

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Canidae
Species: C. lupus
Subspecies: C. l. familaris

Locomotion:
1. Walking: The dogs have 2 fore limbs and 2 hind limbs. Evolution shows
that the fore limbs have evolved into front legs of dogs. The Dogs walk by
using their both fore limbs and hind limbs. They move their one fore limb
and one hind limb in alternate ways to walk.

2. Running: The dogs use their both fore limbs stretched in forward
direction for running.
 Bibliography
1.Animal locomotion by Graham Taylor Michael, Triantafyllou, Cameron Tropea
2.https://museumvictoria.com.au/bugs/life/locomotion.aspx
3.http://animals.howstuffworks.com/insects/housefly2.htm
4.http://kingcobraldt.weebly.com/locomotion.html
5.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9286099
6.http://cronodon.com/BioTech/Insect_locomotion.html
7.https://en.wikipedia.org
8.https://www.google.co.in/search?
site=&source=hp&q=locomotion+of+lizards&oq=locomotion+of+lizards&gs_
l=hp.3..0i22i30k1l2.13904.22890.0.23464.24.24.0.0.0.0.530.4200.0j1j5j4j1j2.
13.0....0...1c.1.64.hp..11.12.3690.0..0j35i39k1j0i67k1j0i20k1.00SMsCqBXBA#
9.https://blogs.cornell.edu
10.http://blogs.bu.edu/bioaerial2012/2012/09/26/265/
11.http://www.earthlife.net/mammals/locomotion.html
12.http://www.sciencepartners.info/?page_id=708