SYSTEM PROTECTION AND VOLTAGE STABILITY

A SPECIAL PUBLICATION OF THE

IEEE POWER SYSTEM RELAYING COMMITTEE

PREPARED BY

WORKING GROUP K12

PROTECTION AIDS TO VOLTAGE STABILITY

JUNE 1993
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 SYSTEM PROTECTION AND VOLTAGE STABILIT1

Engineering Societv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction.............. """" 1

2.0 Voltage Stabiliry """""""' 1

2.1 Some Voltage Collapse tncidents.... """"""2

2.ZTheMechanism of Voltage Co1lapse..... """"""""""""' 3
2.3 Solutions to Vottage Stability Problems... """"""""""" 8
3.0 Undervoltage I.oad Shedding """""" 10
3.1 General """"""""' 10
3.2 Distributed Measuring Relays """""""""" 13
3.3 Centralized Measuring Relay(s) """"""""' t3
3.4 Comparison of Distributed and centralized schemes. ............'......'.' 14
3.5 Other Concepts """""""""""' 15

3.6 Actual, or Pianned Installations """"""""' 77

TVA........... ........"'..'......... 17
Ontario Hydro, """"""""" 18
BC Hydro... """""""""""' 18

WesternWashington """"'20
Consumers Power Co.............' """"""'21
Florida Power and Light... """""""""" 21
ELECTRABEL (Belgium) """""""""'23
4.0 Other Protection Items Related to Low Voltages. """"""""""23
4.1 Generator Backup Protection... """""""""'23
4.2 Generator Overeicitation and Rotor Overload Protection. ............. ......................24
4.3 Generator Auxiliaries Protection '....."....'... """""""""' 25
4.4 Backup Line Protection With I-ong Reach Settings """'25
4.5 Voltagi Controlled Overcurrent Protection... """""""""26
5.0 Conclusion. """"""""""27
REFERENCES............. """""27
APPENDIX

June, 1993
A Report lYepared by the Power System Relaying Committee of the mEE Power
Engineering Society

This special report was prepared by the

Protection Aids to Yoltage Stability Working
Group of the Substation Protection
Subcommittee. At the time the report was
submitted for approval, May, 1993, the Working
Group membership consisted of M. Begovic, D.
Fulton, M.R Gorzalez, J. Goossens, E-A. Guro,
R.W. ffaas, C.F. Henville, G. Manchur, G.L.
Mictrel, R.C. Pastore, J. Postforoosh, G.L-
Schmitt, J.B. Williams, K. Zimmerman.
Contributions from former Working Group
member A.A. Burzese are also acknowledged.
1.0 lntroduction
As transmission systems become more heavily
loaded, the risk of voltage instability increases.
Protective relay operations play a signiflcant part
in system voltage collapses, and relay engineers
need to understand the increased threat to reliable
relay perfofinance. This paper discusses the
possibilities of voltage instability in power
systems and how this risk will affect protective
relaying. The problem and symptoms of voltage
instability are described, including references to
actual incidents.
Power system engineers cooperate with relay and
communications engineers to develop new means
to minimize the risk of voltage collapse by
application of new automatic protection and
control schemes. One such automatic scheme,
undervoltage load shedding, is discussed with
regard to system voltage characteristics and
relaying techniques. The importance of
coordinating schemes with existing equipment is
discussed. In addition, the advantages and
disadvantages of distributed and centralized
relaying are investigated along with several
schemes now existing or planned to be instalted.
Experience with actual installations is also
described.
Other protection items related to low voltage are
also presented. Such items as generator backup
protection, excitation system overload protection,
auxiliaries protection, backup line protection and
voltage controlled overcurent relaying are
discussed.
It should be noted that undervoltage load shedding
and other protection schemes described here are
the results of the Working Group's investigation,
and are not intended to be a recommendation. It is
the purpose of the working group to spur
discussion and encourage more information to be
published on this subject.
2.A Voltaoe Stabilitv
Voltage stability is defined by the System
Dynamic Performance Subcommiuee of the IEEE
Power System Engineering Committee [Reference
1, page 2l as being the ability of a system to
maintain voltage so that when load admittance is
increased, load power will increase, and so that
both power and voltage are controllable. The
same reference defines a voltage collapse as being
the process by which voltage instability leads to a
very low voltage profile in a significant part of the
system.
A voltage collapse may be caused by a variety of
single or multiple contingencies. These may be
the sudden removal of real or reactive power
generation or a transmission element (a
transformer or a transmission line), an increase of
load witlout an adequate increase of reactive
power, or the slow clearing of a system fault'
An electric power system is a dynamic system.
Changes in the system occur due to a variety of
causes such as: changes in demand or generation,
line switching, surges and faults. Slow changes
due to changing loads and generation schedules
are always occurring, and may be considered as
changes from one steady state to another. Rapid
changes which are largely complete within a few
cycles are usually classified as dynamic' They
include switching and lightning surges and
electromechanical transients of synchronous
machine rotors. Both rapid and slow changes
directly affect system voltage and can sometimes
lead to voltage collapse. The voltage collapse is
often a slow event relative to the traditional power
system machine instability problems' It can occur
over periods of seconG to minutes to hours
starting with sudden or gradual decrease in system
voltage. While machine angular stabiiity
problems may be associated with voltage collapse,
this report does not discuss angular stability
concerns.
 Several recent voltage collapse incidents have
heightened the awareness of utility planners and
operators to the possibilities of such events[2,3].
The possibilities increase as transmission lines
become more heavily loaded in an attempt to
maximize the efftcient use of existing generation
and transmission facilities. As the dependen@ otr
power transmitted from remote generation sources
increases, the reactive power losses associated
with such transmission require increased local
reactive power supplies to maintain voltage
stabilify[4].
The voltage stability of a power system is greatly
dependent upon the amount, location and type of
reactive power sources available. If the reactive
power support is far away, insufficient in size, or
too dependent on shunt capacitors, a relatively
normal contingency (such as a line outage or a
sudden increase in load) can trigger a large system
voltage drop. This voltage drop occurs because of
several factors:
. Real power demanded by the load may stay
coflstant
. var requirements of the load may increase
o vars supplied by shunt capacitors drop
o vars supplied by line charging capacitance drop
o vars absorbed by transmission lines increase
If the voltage drops to a point where some motors
stall, the reactive power requirement increases
quickly, and the rate of voltage decline increases
similarly. Many large motors may be tripped off
line by their contactors. Smaller motors without
contactors must depend upon thermal cutouts and
may thus draw locked rotor currents for tens of
seconds. Stailed motors can accelerate a voltage
collapse catastrophically t5l.
Heavily loaded mnsmission lines during low
voltage conditions can result in operation of
protective relays causing other lines to trip in a
cascading mode.
Voltage stability is a serious problem that power
utilities must explore in the planning stage [4]. It
is imperative that methods to protect the system
from a voltage collapse be investigated by taking
into account all contingencies that will cause the
system to lose voltage stability.
2.1 Some Voltage Collapse lncidents
The following brief descriptions of some recent
severe incidents are intended to illustrate the
variety of ways in which the problem can develop.
The indicated references give more complete
descriptions of the incidents and their causes.
The voltage collapse that affected the Tennessee
Valley Authority in August 1987 t5l was caused
by the slow clearing of a fault, during which the
system voltage fell to a low value and could not
recover before transmission line protection relays
operated to further aggravate the problem. The
voltage during the fault was low enough to cause
motors to staIl, resulting in locked rotor
conditions. This added reactive loading caused
the voltage to desease further. After the fault was
removed from the system by protective means, the
added reactive loading from the stalled motors
kept the system voltage from rising to its pre-fault
level.
During the voltage collapse that affected the
Tokyo Electric Power Company on July 23,
1987[Reference 1, pages 125-132], a very fast
increase of load (4O0 MWminute) caused a
gradual decrease of voltage that could not be
controlled by the addition of reactive power in the
form ofcapacitor banks. This illustrates a voltage
collapse by the rapid increase of load without the
addition of adequate reactive power. Losing
transmission facilities can also result in the loss of
voltage.
The Swedish network power failure of December
17, 1983 [Reference 1, pages 115-125] was
initiated by the loss of a substation. Transmission
lines were overloaded and a 220 kY line was
tripped by overload protection. The voltage in the
southern part of the country decreased and
automatic tap changing went into operation, which
started restoring load but lowering voltages in the
northern part of the country. As a result, north-
south lines were overloaded and tripped by
A system split resulted wit}
protection relays.
load being shed in power deficient areas.
Approximately 11,400 MW of toad was
intemrpted by this event.
ln March of 1989, a disturbance in Hydro Quebec
was attributed to geomagnetic fluctuations caused
by ilcreased solar activity. Quasi dc
geomagnetically induced currents caused half
cycle overexcitation in some transfofiners' which
in turn generated increased harmonics in the
system. The increased harmonics tripped all
SVCs on the HV network. These banks were used
for voltage control in long radial transmission
lines linking large generation facilities in the north
with the load centers in the south. Without the
needed voltage support, the whole network
collapsed within seconds. This is an example of a
very fast collaPse.
In Belgium, on 4 August 1982, a voltage collapse
was initiated by a trip of a nuclear generator. The
generator was loaded at 700 MW450 Mvar and
was connected to the 40O kV system during
commissioning tests. Although there was ample
spinning reserve (1,300 MW = 23Vo,844 Mvar =
337o) with respect to peak load, the reactive power
transfer to the generators electrically closest to the
tripped unit resulted in some field limiter actions
followed by overload protection trip of 5 more
units. For 4 ll2 minutes from the initial outage'
the frequency remained stable but the voltage (as
recorded at one 150 kV power station bus) showed
the typical voltage collapse almost in proportion
to the square of the percentage of total Mvar
generation lost. After one of the major 400 kV tie
lines tripped (through end zone distance
protection) power oscillations and frequency
decline started in the affected region. Thus the
angular stability was lost only after loss of the tie
line, and total collaPse followed.
MW delivered to the load. One notation
convention that has been proposed is to define the
nominal load as the amount of load connected,
measured by the amount of MW it would consume
at nominal conditions, i.e., 1.0 p.u. voltage and
frequency. Ttte actual load, also measured in
MW (what is seen by the disparcher), is the actual
power consumed by the load. In general it is
important to recognize that the nominal load is the
independent variable dictating system behavior,
not the acnral load, which is dependent on the
voltage and frequency.
Consider the behavior of two different fypes of
load -
"resistive" and "motor" load. Figure 1
shows the relationship between load and voltage
for these two different types of loads using
simplified models. For this example, the resistive
load is defined as 7 5Vo resistive, aIJLd 25Vo constant
power, that is, given bY the formula:
P = 0.25 + 0.75Y2 (where P is the actual
power, and V is the voltage, both on a per unit
nominal power and voltage basis)
The motor load is 75Vo cnnstant power and25Vo
resistive, and is defined as:
P=0.75 +O.25Y2
o.
-1
F]
3
o
J

2.2 The Mechanism of Voltage D

E,
U
4
0s

Collapse

Effect of load type. 09 1 l2 t3

oJ oa 11
VOLTAGE (pu.)
The fact that loads are generally voltage dependent
is a criticalaspect of voltage security analysis. Fisure 1, Load Voltage Relationshi
The language used to describe loads, when their
voltage and frequency dependence are included is
For the resistive load, when there is a voltage dip'
not yet well standardized. A clear distinction limit the
the load current also decreases, tending to
must be made between the amount of load dip. But the load reduction
severity of the voltage
intended to be served ftom a bus, and the actual
 for the motor is significanfly less, and in fact the 1l
load current increases, thereby exacerbating the 1

voltage dip. This detrimental effect is more 0s

pronounced if reactive (e) loads are invotved, o3
since they commonly have greater effect on - o-7

voltage Ievels in the system. In fact, the Ioss of 9or S tessed System -------)
reactive power provided by power factor
o
p{
d'05
correction capacitors that are usually connected to )ol
motor loads causes motors to absorb even more o3
reactive power during a voltage dip than before o2
the dip. 01"

0
The ability of a given transmission system to OJ 0-3 0,a 05 os o.7 08 0s 1
Act:aLibrrer b!.)
deliver power is also limited by the voltage at the
deUvery point. Consider a simple ,yite. ,s
shown in Figure 2a). 2b) PV Curves

X=.5 pu (nornnl) If the axes of the curves of Figure 1 are exchaoged

X=.6 pu (stressed system) with each other, the curves of Figure 1 can be
overlaid on those of Figure 2b) to show the
operahng point ofa system as in Figure 3.

It can be seen from Figure 3 that for the particular

system and loads considered, the "normal system"
can operate stably with both resistive and motor
loads at pornts where the load curves and system
curve intersect. However, when the system
becomes stressed, it can only operate stably with a
resistive load. There is no intersection of system
and load curves for the motor load; so there is no
Figure 2a) Simple System stable operating point.

L/

The relationship of acrual power delivered to

the 1:
load conductance (GVz) versus the voltage at
the
load bus is shown in Figure 2b). 1

1
Two curves are plotted, for the "normal system,, ;tr
the value of the system reactance (X) is 0.5 p.u., :0,
and for the "stressed system" the value of X is
0.6 ot
p.u. It can be seen how the actual power delivered
to the load increases as tlte nominal power (load o,
conductaoce) increases from .33 p.u. (resistive)
o
until t}te "nose', of the curve is .eaihed, at which 02 ol 06 oB 1 1' rl
A ctEl pq, s (p !.)
time the delivered power decreases as the nominal
power increases further. Due to the increased
system reactance, the stressed system is Figure 3 Stable and Unstatrle Systemlload
able to Characteristics
deliver less acfual power than the normal system.
The curves of Figure 2b) are known as pV
curves.
Effect of Load Dynamics
Since voltage stability is a relatively slow
dynamic characteristic of a power system, load
characteristics must be considered over a long
term also. For instance, electric heating load
could be considered to be proportional to the
square ofthe supply voltage, and indeed it is' over
a short term. If system voltage is reduced, heating
load will immediately drop proportionately to the
square of the voltage reduction. However, two
time related phenomena crunteract the loss of
resistive load due to voltage reduction.
1 Voltage supplied to most customers is
regulated by transformer tap changers or
voltage regulators. Within a minute or two of
a voltage reduction, regulating devices will
start to increase the voitages supplied to the
loads, and restore the lost load. Figure 4
shows how the load characteristic of a heating
load moves further to the right (nearer the
unstable nose of the curve) after tap changer
action boosts the voltage supplied to the loads
by t2%.
P-V Orrves
I.4
Hesistive (rn legJdion
1.2
load f 'reraPcttme'f i
I
j to make the load appear capacitive, (leading power
o
s the given system.
E 0.6
ttrat less heating power provided by a heater
will cause the heater to stay on longer in its
controlled cycle to maintain the thermostat
reference temperature. If a particular load is
made up of several heaters, their diverse "off'
times will be reduced during a voltage
reduction. Over a period of some tens of
minutes, heating load which was reduced by a
voltage drop will be completely restored to
original levels due to loss of diversity.
Thus heating load, when considered in the time
ftame of voltage stabilify, is not constant
virtually constant power
resistance load at all, but
load. This near constant power characteristic
(over a long time frame) of heating load may
cause slowly evolving voltage collapse. Such
phenomena is particularly of concern in systems
with winter peaking loads [6].
Effect of Reactive Power Supplies and
Deficiencies
The magnitude of the reaciive power component
of the load has an even larger effect on voltage
stability than the dependence of load on voltage
magnitude. Figure 5a) shows a simple system
with a load with a variable power factor, and
Figure 5b) shows the PV curves for a load with
three different power factors. Considerably less
power can be delivered to an inductive load than
to a resistive load. [f shunt capacitors are added,
factor), even more power can be transferred over

0.4

o.2

0
o.2 0.4 0.6 0.t | 1.2
hwer (p.u.)
re 4. Effect of Load Dynamics

2 an a longer time base, thermostatic effects

load. Virtually all electric heaters
also restore Figure 5a) Simple System with
are thermostatically conftolled. This means

OE
b-dibd(d4"S) ---->
;6
g
02
o support from these reactive power sources does
An important reason for increasing concrn about
voltage stability in the 1gg0,s and 'gO's is the
increasing loading of transmission lines. At light
loads, fhe reactive power provided by the charging
capacitance of a transmission line more than
compensates for the reactive power absorbed by
the line inductance. However, when line loading
exceeds the surge impedance loading, the reactive
power absorbed by the line increases above the
reactiye power supplied by the charging
capacitance.
Two factors contribute to the high reactive power
demanG of heavily loaded lines. Firsfly, the
power absorbed by the line increases as the square
of the load current. Secondly, the increased
reactive power losses cause a voltage drop, and
reactive power supplied by the line charging
capacitance drops as the square of line voltage.
As Iines become more heavily loaded, utilities
apply shunt capacitors more widely in an attempt
to control voltages near the receiving ends of
transmission systems. As shown in Figure 5b),
the leading power factor resulting from the
application of shunt capacitors allows an increased
power transfer capabili ty.
Shunt capacitors are a double edged sword.
Though they increase the voltage transfer
capability of a system, the approach to the point of
collapse is more precipitous, and the polnt of
collapse is higher, (nearer the normal operating
voltage). Another detrimental effect oi shunt
capacitors is that as the system voltage drops, they
generate fewer vars, and cause the power factor
of
the load to decrease.
In addition to shunt capacitors, utilities also often
need to apply dynamic sources of reactive power,
such as static var compensators, syrrchronous
condensers or local generation to maintain voltage
stability near load centers. Untike shunt
capacitors, tIrc total amount
of available reactive
not drop as the voltage drops (as long as the
l*.e is operating within its control range).
Dynamis sources are able to provide a variable
amount of reactive power to maintain desired
voltage levels.
While PV curves are helpfuI in understanding the
phenomena of voltage stability and collapse, they
are not usefrrl for determining the reactive power
support needed at various polnts in a power
system. A more usefrrl curve is the Ve curve
which shows the reactive power margin available
in a system. Figure 6 shows a Ve curve for two
different load levels at a particular point in a
power system. The e axis shows the reactive
power that needs to be added or removed ftom a
bus to maintain a given vottage at a given load.
Reactive Power Needed
re 6 VQ Curve
pornt A on the light load curve, if the voltage
lt
decreases, there is an excess of reactive power at
the bus, which will raise the voltage again. If the
voltage increases, there will be a deficiency in
reactive power, which will cause the voltage to
drop. Thus point A is a stable operating point. ln
the case of the heavy load, the curve is above the
G0 line, and stable operation is not possible.
Reactive power must be added to the bus until the
curve crosses the reestablished Q = 0 line' Thus
VQ curves can be used to help determine the
amount of reactive support needed at various
locations within the system. Full discussion of
VQ curves is beyond the scope of this paper.
Reference 1 provides a comprehensive description
of the application of PV and VQ curves'
Effect of System Characteristics
Another mechanism of voltage collapse [7] may
develop in systems characterized by long radial
transmission links. One such system is shown in
Figure 7a): a constant power load is supplied from
a remote generator G via a long transmission line
whose capacity is enhanced by a synchronous
condenser S which maintains cotNtant voltage at
bus 2.
Busl Bus2 Bus3 The associated PV
diagram (Figure 7b)
shows the load voltage
vs. transferred power
when voltage is kePt
Figure 7a\ Simple constant at bus 2
System (trajectory ABD). The
maximum transmissible power is Pmax2. TfE
operating characteristics when the synchronous
I tapchangers (if not blocked) will increase load
0.8
i
j
{ u.6
condenser generates maximum reactive power
with the rotor current limiter activated are also
shown.
When the output of the synchronous condenser is
limited by the rotor current limiter, the maximum
transmissible power is reduced to Pmaxl due to
the fact that voltage is maintained farther away
ftom tlrc load (at bus I instead of at bus 2). If the
loading starts ftom point A on the curve with the
voltage regulated at bus 2 and continues to point
B, one may be misled to believe that the
loadability margin is (Pmax2-PB) instead of
(Pmaxl-PB), which is much smaller. This may
happen if it is not realized when the synchronous
condenser rotor curent limiter becomes activated.
Therefore, instead of continuing loading along the
rajectory BD, the system could be loaded along
the line BC, with substantially reduced maximum
loading point. In large power systems, the
loadability margin at the point of transition @B-
Pmaxl) may be small (or even negative) so that
the voltages practically collapse as soon as the
limiters are activated [8].
Operating Practices
Some operating practices may further aggravate
tlre situations when rotor curent limiters are being
activated. In an attempt to bring a geoerator tr
synchronous condenser off var limits under low
voltage conditions, the initial reaction of the
operating personnel may be to reduce the
generator terminal voltage in an attempt to reduce
the generated reactive power. This further reduces
the load voltages. Over a period of time'
voltages and thermostats will restore loads, thus
again activating the rotor current limiters, which
may prompt yet another reduction in terminal
voltage, bringing the system to voltage collapse.

Combined Effect of Generated and Absorbed

0.,1
Reactive and Real Power

0.2
It is considerably easier to transmit real power
Pmaxl than reactive power along a transmission system,
0
0.5 1
especially at high loads. The following example
Pows (p.u) is intended to assist in the visualization of the
Figure 7b) PV Curves
 relationship between reactive power generated at
the source of the transmission system, and the real
and reactive power consumed by the load.
Consider a simple power system consisting of a
generator connected to a constant power load via a
Eansmission line. The 3-D curve representing the
reactive power (Qg) produce<l by a generator as a
function of the loading parameters P and Q has a
form as shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8 Generated Reactive power
vs.
Parameters in the Sample System
Consider two operating points on the p-e plane,
shown as B and D, which correspond to the load
requirements (PB, agl and (pD, eO)
respectively. Point A represents ttre generated
reactive power (Qq) required to satisfy the load
requirements (PB,-QB) via a given mnsmission
line. Point C shows Ure Qs corresponding to the
heavier load (PD, QO). lTre slope of the curve
AC at any potnt represents the sensitivity of the
generated reactive power with respect to the
loading parameters P, Q. As the load increases
from point B to point D, the slope of the curve AC
increases.
The slope of the curve AC is infinite (or vertical)
at polnt C, meaning that the rate of change of eg
with increasing load beyond point D is infinite.
Any attempt to increase the Ioad beyond point D
on a line BD will result in voltage collapse. point
D represents a voltage stability boundary to the p,
Q load that can be served by the given system.
All lines similar to the line DC, which project
vertically from the P, Q plane to meet the shaded
surface tangentially, represent voltage stability
limits for the given system. These lines cross the
PQ plane aloug the dotted curve GDH, and meet
the shaded surface at the dotted curve ECF. Thus
the curve GDH represents the limit to the amount
of constant P,Q load that can be served, and any
attempt to serve more load will result in an infinite
rate of change of Qg [8, 10].
Therefore, in the vicinity of voltage collapse
points, small changes of P andlor Q will have a
large impact on the magnitude of generated
reactive power. These conclusions can be shown
to hold for the power system of arbitrary size and
topology, resulting in infinite sensitivity (on a
steady state basis) of the total generated reactive
power with respect to load parameters near
voltage collapse [8]. Figure 8 demonstrates the
difficulty of dispatching reactive power to support
voltage at remote locations. Reactive power is
most effective in raising system voltages when it
is generated near the load supply polnts.
2.3 Solutions to Vottage Stabitity
Problems
Voltage instability is an operating problem as well
as a planning problem. The proper studies
performed during planning can detect when
systems are susceptible to voltage instability
during certain loading levels and contingencies.
When the studies have identified certain scenarios
where voltage stability is at risk, plans may be
made to modify the system to eliminate the risk.
If modifications are impractical, or cannot be
implemented soon enough, system operators then
have to operate the system in a manner such as to
minimize the chance of voltage collapse with the
system as it is.
Operating Solutions
It is of utrnost importance that system operators
learn to recognize conditions where voltage
stability is at risk so that they can be ready to act
if voltage collapse begins. Therefore, proper
training is very important. However, even frilly
fained operators need comprehensive guidelines
describing scenarios where an additional single
contingency can cause voltage collapse.
Operating guidetnes may limit supply to
intemrptible load, or may requke less than
optimum generation schedules to ensure voltage
stability is maintained after an unexpected single
contingency.
As a general principle, under normal conditions
operators try to operate dynamic var sources such
as synchronous condensers, generators and static
var compensators (SVCs) with no import or export
of vars. This has two benefits:
. keeping an instantaneous source of reactive
power available to maintain voltages in the
event of a sudden contingency which causes a
voltage drop.
. minimizing the effect on system voltage if the
var source is lost.
Operators may consider the following strategy in
near voltage-unstable situations:
. use all available reactive support.
. Increase loading on, or start generators near
load supply points to reduce line loading, even
if such generation is not economic.
. maintain system voltage as high as possible,
even if this means operating generators at
reactive capability limits.
. block tap changers for temporary load relief,
and even reduce the voltages in the
distribution network before attempting more
radical remedial actions.
. if the problems persist start load shedding.
System Modifications
The addidon of transmission reinforcement is a
most effective means of ensuring voltage stability.
However, this option is expensive. The cost of a
500 kV line can be more than $700,000 per mile.
Acquiring right of way land has met with
increasing difficulty as the question of electric and
magnetic frelds @MF) becomes more publicized.
Series capacitors have been applied for voltage
stability purposes as they are a means of
increasing transmission capability without
building new lines. As well as being expensive,
this optioo may introduce protection problems
associated with series compensated lines.
Running generators near the load supply points is
a method of adding var generation, and reducing
transmission requirements. This option can also
be expensive.
The installation of shunt capaciiors is often among
the most inexpensive means of adding reactive
power supplies near the load centers. Many
utilities add such banla in an attempt to serve
more load from existing transmission and
generation facilities. As mentioned in Section 2.2
this option is effective within certain limits. Fixed
shunt capacitors have the uldesirable effect of
providing less vars at low voltages, when more
vars are required. Switched shunt capacitors arc
also very effective provided they can be controlled
in such a manner as to avoid excessive wear on the
switches. TVA applies switched capacitors as
described in Section 3.6. Reactors which are
normally always in service may also be switched
out to contol voltage.
The installation of synchronous condensers or
SVCs is also a help in stabilizing voltages during
disturbances. This option can also be high in
capital cost, but provides conrollable reactive
power supply with relatively low operating cost.
Many utilities apply a combination of fixed
capacitors and dynamic reactive sources to
maintain desired voltages during steady state
conditions and during disturbances.
 Load Shedding
When the above mentioned solutions are not
practical, or cannot be implemented soon enough,
load shedding when voltage mUapse is imminent
is sometimes considered as a solution [1]. Manual
load shedding may be effective if fte voltage
collapse is slow enough, and if the operators
recognize the need for shedding soon enough. In
some cases, (e.9. the TVA, Swedish and Hydro
Quebec cases mentioned in Section Z.l) the
system changes state to one of voltage instability
so quickly that manual load shedding would not
be fast enough. Therefore automatic load
shedding has been applied t9l.
Since it is never desirable to shed load for high
probability contingencies, load shedding may be
considered as a temporary or partiat solution to the
voltage collapse problem, or as backup action for
extreme contingencies.
3.1 General
Philosophy of Undervoltage Load Shedding
Whenever there is a system disturbance and
voltage drops to a certain pre-selected level for a
certain pre-selected time period, then selected
loads may be shed. (The selection of voltage
levels, time steps, and type of load is described in
the following.) The intention is that when load is
dropped from a disturbed system, the voltage
recovers to normal levels.
Different Steps Involved in Load Shedding
1. Determination of the amount of load to be
shed.
2. Selection ofloads to be dropped.
3. Determination of time steps of load shedding.
4. Deterrnination of
voltage level(s) at which
shedding begins.
Cooperation between protection engineers and
system planners is important, particularly in steps
three and four. The protection engineers can
10
apply their knowledge of duration and magnitude
of voltage depressions during transient conditions
caused by faults or other disturbances. Tfrc
system plarmers fhen assess the probability of
achieving voltage stability wirh load shedding
applied with settings that override other U.ensient
conditions which do not indicate the impending
onset of voltage collapse.
System planners conduct numerous studies using
VQ curves and other analytical methods tl,9 t;
I
determine the amount of load that neds to be shed
to retain voltage stability under the envisaged
contingencies. Voltage collapse is most probable
under heavy (near peak) load conditions; so the
amount ofload to be shed depends on system peak
load and generation sources. For instance, several
utilities in the Seattte Tacoma area have selected
l1Vo of peak load to be shed in three steps during
an undervoltage condition.
Selection of loads is based on various criteria.
Some of the following may be considered:
1. Consider the type of load to be shed, industrial,
commercial or residential. Industrial load is
often selected as a candidate ftr
underftequency load shedding because
industrial load is normally fairly constant at
near peak levels. This type ofload is relatively
stable compared to the high level of daily
flucfuation of residential and commercial load.
However, residential and commercial load can
be considered as dependable as industrial load
for undervoltage shedding since such shedding
is most likely to be required near peak loads
when all types of loads are high. As discussed
earlier, constant power loads such as motor
loads are the most detrimental to voltage
stability, and these types of loads can be
considered. When industrial motor loads are
being considered, the particular types of motors
are important. If the motor loads include
synchronous motors, the dynamic reactive
power generation capability of such motors
may be helpllrt to keep the voltage up.
Similarly industrial loads which also have their
own generation may also be helplul in
maintaining system voltage.
2. If lines are to be tripped, select the lines which
are not required to maintain system integrity,
such as radial supply lines, or lines with heavy
tapped loaG, and light through loads. System
tie lines help retain voltage stability by
providing line charging vars and by sharing
power flow (reducing the current through
individual lines). The sharing of power flow
reduces system var losses in transmission lines
since such losses are proportional to the square
of line currents.
3. Select large load blocks to minimize the
amount of automatic systems needed to shed
enough load to avoid voltage collapse. Of
course, the blocks must be small enough to
allow the principle of shedding in time steps to
be effective.
4. Since absorbed reactive power depresses
system voltages much more than real power,
shedding of loads with low power factor will
be the most effective in maintaining system
voltage. It should be noted however, that loads
which depend on power factor correction
capacitors to maintaio a high power factor,
become low power factor loads at low voltages
when the capacitors supply less reactive power.
5. It may be possible to set a rate structue that
allows customers to pay a lower tariff if they
accept load shedding when voltage collapse is
imminent.
Load shedding is often initiated in steps to avoid
over shedding [9]. The selection of appropriate
time steps is an important factor in effective
undervoltage load shedding. The proper time step
depends on the system load characteristics,
generation source, and rate of change of voitage
condition. Load shedding which is too slow can
fail to prevent voltage collapse problems. Load
shedding which is too fast can create overvoltage
conditions or undesirable mistripping of load
under short circuit fault conditions or other
transient voltage depressions. The time delay
should let the short circuit protection relays
(distance and overcurrent) clear faults. Distance
relays are set with delays which could range from
0 - 5 seconds, and overcurrent relays may trip
11
according to an inverse time curve which could
result in fault clearing times even longer than 5
seconds. The time delay should also override
transient voltage dips which may not require load
shedding. Such dips could be caused by a variety
of circumstances such as motor starting, generator
loss of field, and the dead time before successfi.tl
reclose of a ransmission line. Undervoltage relay
time delays should be set longer than the transient
conditions which can depress the measured
voltage to the operating level of the undervoltage
relays.
Appropriate voltage level selection is also
important. If the voltage drops to a level that
indicates the onset of voltage collapse, the
undervoltage load shedding must be started. As
can be seen from the PV curves in section 2.2,
voltage collapse can start at voltages very close to
normal levels. It is also important to prevent
voltage depression to levels where motors begin to
sta1l, since voltage collapse is extremely fast after
motors start to stall. The desired level at which
shedding should be started may be in the range of
0.85 to 0.97 p.u of lowest norrnal voltage (at the
bus during peak system load). It should be noted
that the lowest normal voltage is not necessarily
the system nominal voltage. Many utiiities may
have a lowest norrnal voltage which is somewhat
different from the nominal system voltage.
Insome cases it may not be possible to apply
appropriate settings to pure undervoltage load
shedding schemes. In such cases, the
undervoltage relay sensing location may have to
be changed, or load shedding may have to be
initiated by measurement of parameters other than
simple voltage level.
An inverse time undervoltage relay for which the
operating time depends on the degree of
undervoltage may allow an effective application of
appropriate delays at given voltage levels. This
type of reiay may be especiaity applicable where
an undervoltage load shedding scheme is required
to coordinate with inverse time overcurrent short
circuit protection relays.
When determining the required levels and time
steps, system planners may consider simulations
 such as those shown in Figure 9. The solid lines
show the voltage fajectory at a particular bus.
The broken lines in Figure 9a) show where three
level detectors pick up and start timers which time
out before shedding load. The ends ofthe broken
lines show when the load blocks are shed. It can
be seen from Figure 9a) that leyel detectors ftr
blocks I md 2 both pick up at 0.92 p.u., and that
block 1 is shed after 5 seconds, and block 2 after 8
seconds. The level detector for block 3 picks up at
0.9 p.u., and sheds load after 5 seconds. The
second curve (figure 9b)) shows how the voltage
does not recover if only load blocks 1 and 2 are
shed.
BLOCK 2J
ELOCK 5:
perforrnance [6].
constant impedance (Z), constant current G) and
constant power (P) loads. The total pwer is
given by the expression Power = aYt + bV + c
(where a = 0.56, b -- 0.27, c = 0.17 for puget
Sound area load). Such a composite Ioad is often
referred to as a ZIP load model.
There is usually no unique "correct" relationship
between voltage levels and time steps in a staged
load shedding scheme. The best relationship can
be quite difftcult to detennine, particularly if
multiple modes of voltage collapse are possible.
When regional collapses are driven by the
transformer tap changes and thermostatic effects
discussed in Section 2.2, relatlvely minor trade
offs between voltage level and time delay can
result in significanfly different system

The above mentioned considerations indicate that

secure and effective settings for undervoltage load
shedding schemes can only be acfueved ttrough
cooperation between system planners and system
protection engineers.

Indiscriminate Nature of Yoltage Magnitude

40 scom Voltage relays are non directional, and of

unlimited reach. They will sense voltage
!,o5
depressions due to short circuits and other
disturbances which are not necessarily related to
voltage collapse. Some techniques can be used to
l-o
improve the ability of undervoltage relays to
discriminate between conditions which require
\ load shedding and conditions that do not require
9 o.es
load shedding.
d

o.9
Firstly, the relay may measure alt ttuee phase
voltages, and require all three to be depressed
before initiating a shedding timer. With this
\ technique the relay is less likely to respond to
o 10 20 40 sEcoNDs unbalanced short circuits which may be cleared
b) TlYo BIrcKs SHED
somewhat more slowly than three phase short
circuits. Another similar approach is to have the
Figure 9 Voltage Collapse Studies With and relay measure only positive sequence voltage,
Without Adequate Load Sheddin which is depressed less for unbalanced short
circuits than for three phase faults.
The curves drawn in Figure 9 are based on a
composite load model which is a combination of Another usefi.rl technique is to have the relay

12
initiate the timer only if the measured voltages are
within a window, below a certain (maximum)
level, and above another (minimum) level. The
maximum level (the shedding level) is selected by
system studies as described earlier in this section.
The minimum level may be set somewhere in the
region of 0.5 to 0.7 p.u. This means that load will
not be shed for accidental loss of signal to the
undervoltage relay (due say to loss of primary
equipment supplying the signal, or due to
disconnection or short circuit of the vt secondary
leads). It also means that load will not be shed fu
slowly cleared three phase faults which depress
the system voltage to less than the minimum level.
The minimum level has to be chosen such that if
the system voltage is at that level for the duration
of the load shedding delay, then the problems are
so severe that load shedding will not be effective
in helping the system to recover.
Naturally, in a time staged shedding sequence, it is
important to apply a voltage relay with high reset
ratio. This is required so that only a small
recovery in voltage level is required to stop flle
shedding sequence.
Whether or not shedding is staged, voltage relay
setpoints are close to normal operating voltage.
High accuracy relays are required, with low drift
in setpoinl The accuracy of the voltage
transformers supplying the relay must also be
considered in assessing the overall accuracy of a
scheme.
3.2 Distributed Measuring RelaYS
A system of relays to detect voltage instability and
shed load may be designed to be distributed
ttfoughout the area of concern. If the system is
implemented entirely on the distributed model, no
centralized equipment is required. Each protective
relay is closely coupled to a segment of load to be
shed. As voltage conditions at a relay enter the
region where collapse is predicted, load assigned
to that relay is shed.
In order to provide separate instability detection at
each load shedding location, lower-cost voltage
measuring relays are installed. These relays may
13
be designed to detect undervoltage or rate of
voltage change, and may have various time delays
built in. The voltages which are measured must
be unaffected by the operation of
load tap
changers and other local regulating devices.
Unlike relays in centralized shedding schemes,
these relays must detect voltage stability on the
basis of local conditions alone. Distributed relay
schemes will not have shedding initiated directly
following the of loss of critical transmission
system facilities whose failures have been
predicted to initiate voltage instability.
The distributed model for undervoltage load
shedding borrows heavily from distributed
underfrequency load shedding schemes which
have been in place for manY Years.
3.3 Centralized Measuring Relay(s)
Instad of distributing relays around the area of
concern, measurements may be taken at one tr
more key busses within the area, and trip signals
transmitted to shed load at various locations
within the area.
Since voltage instability may be recognized by
low voltages across the region, the basis of
centralized measurement lies in the notion that if
the voltage is low at certain key locations, it is
likely to be also low throughout the area. The key
locations are the busses at the major transmission
receiving stations. It is likely that these busses
will be at the highest subtransmission voltage in
the area, and will also have the highest fault level
(i.e., they will be very "stiff'). If there is more
than one key location, voltage level detectors at all
key locations should be evaluated before a load
shedding decision is made.
The use of "and" type logic could determine if
voltages are low at all key locations before
allowing load to be shed. This would result in
good security, since all measuring elements would
have to indicate approaching voltage collapse.
However, unless redundant detectors utd
communications are provided, there would be
some sacrifice in dependability, since failure of
 any single detector or communication benveen
detectors could resultin failure of the sctrcme
when it is needed.
For better reliability, a voting scheme may be
applied. In such a scheme, any two out of three
detectors could initiate load shedding. This type
of scheme would provide better dependability than
an "anded" scheme, and better security than a
scheme that depended on a single measurement.
Other criteria than voltage level, such as status of
major transmission lines or output of dynamic var
sources may also be used in deciding to shed load
to avoid the danger of voltage collapse. Ttrese
criteria when combined with voltage level may
provide a better and/or earlier indication of the
approach of voltage collapse than simple
measurement of voltage level. Whatever means
are taken to decide upon load
shedding,
communications requirements between level
detectors are minimized by selection of only a few
key measuring points, or existing SCADA
communications may be used [12].
The measuring scheme can easfly be designed to
shed load at appropriate levels and times and in
appropriate blocks to meet the requirements of tlrc
voltage stability plan.
Although communications requirements between
measuring devices at key locations are minimal,
a
centralized measuring scheme depends heavily
upon communications to carry the load shedding
decision to load supply points.
Trrese
communications requirements can make a
cenftalized scheme relafively expensive compared
to a distributed scheme, unless the
communications facilities are already required fu
other reasons. The load shedding communications
facilities themselves need to be carefirlly designed
to avoid compromising reliability built in to fhe
load shedding decision scheme. For best
reliability, the communications facilities should be
radial fiom the decision point(s) so that failure
of
one signal will not result in total failure of
the
scheme, and false trip of one signal will not result
in undesirable shedding of all load. In this way,
radial Ioad shedding signals can provide some
of
the reliability provided by the diversity of a
14
di stributed measuring scheme.
3.4 Comparison of Distributed and
Centralized Schemes.
Advantages of Distributed Versus Centralized
Shedding
1. The retiability of the distributed system is
increased by diversification. Failure of one
component of the distibuted system will not
direcfly or detrimentally affect the operation of
other components of the load shedding system.
The effects of failures will be localized. The
centralized system depends on the reliability of
only a few relays, or one relay. Failure of the
centralized system results in complete failure of
the scheme, false operation of the centralized
scheme results in large blocks of load being
unnecessarily shed.
2. ln a disfibuted system, load shedding is
concentrated and localizedto the areas where
the effects of the instability are felt most
strongly. Load will not be shed prematurely
before conditions indicating instability are
measured locally. With a centralized system,
load is shed when the centralized decision is
made, whether or not the voltage at the load
delivery point is low.
3. The distributed model does not depend on
communications facilities for its operation. If
the local relays and breakers are operable, load
shedding will occur even if communications
facilities fail. The centralized scheme is heavity
dependent upon communications facilities,
both for making the shedding decision, and for
implementing it. This can make the scheme
more expensive than a distributed scheme,
especially if high speed communications are
required to make the load shedding scheme fast
enough to prevent voltage collapse. If
communications are required anyway for load
restoration by supervisory control, then this
advantage of the distributed scheme is not as
prominent.
4. For multi-utility projects, coordination of
installation work is much simpler with a
distributed system than it would be for a
centralized scheme.
Advantage of Centralized Versus Distributed
Shedding.
1. In a centralized system, the location of
undervoltage measuring relay is not constrained
to be near a suitable load. The voltage(s) to be
monitored may be selected puely on the basis
of being the most appropriate point on the
system. Usually, the important supply busses
are monitored. The voltage level is tightly
regulated under normal conditions @y virtue of
the high short circuit level(s) at the bus(ses)
being monitored). Small voltage depressions
can be used to indicate voltage instability more
reliably than similar voltage depressions at a
less stiff bus where the voltage has a wider
range of variation under normal conditions.
Z.By means of communications between key
locations, with a centralized system it can be
established that low voltages exist tiroughout
the region before a decision is taken to shed
load. This avoids load shedding due to voltage
depressions caused by local disturbances not
associated with imminent regional voltage
collapse.
3. A centralized system may use other indicators
from any part of the system (such as are
described in Section 3.5) in addition to voltage
level to predict the approach of voltage
instability. These indicators can be used to
increase the reliability of the decision that
voltage collapse is imminent.
4. Shoft time delays associated with small voltage
depressions are more likely to coordinate wiill
fault clearing devices at stiffbusses than at less
stiff busses. This is because the higher fault
level at a stiff busses means that more fault
current is flowing for a given voltage
depression than at a less stiff bus. Thus it may
be easier to achieve useft:l and secure settings
with centralized relays at centralized busses.
5. Since measuring equipment is located at only a
few locations, more money can economically
be used to increase the reliability of the
centralized decision scheme (e.9., by applying
redundant, or voting measuring schemes).
3.5 Other ConcePts
the
Load shedding need not necessarily be initiated by
undervoltage relays. There are other indicators of
the approach of voltage collapse. A discussion of
some other load shedding con@pts follows.
Except for the rate of change of voltage relay
scheme, all other concepts involve some sort of
system measurements. They are probably most
easily implemented as a centralized scheme ratlpr
than a distributed scheme which may sometimes
be implemented in a pure undervoltage scheme.
Rate of Change of Yoltage RelaYs
Rate of change of voltage relays can be more
effective than simple voltage magnitude detectors
for planned load shedding because voltage
coilapse is direcfly related to rate of change of
voltage. Magnitude detectors cannot differentiate
between faster or slower rates of change of
voltage.
It may be possible that in some cases rate of
change of voltage could discriminate between
voltage reductions caused by the onset of voltage
instability, and voltage reductions caused by
system short circuits. However, application of
this type of measurement is limited for two
reasons. Firsfly a system short circuit may initiate
a voltage collapse, especially where slow clearing
is involved, as with the TVA problem described in
Section 2. i Secondly, the rate of change of
voltage as voltage instability approaches is very
difficult to calculate; so suitable settings for rate
of change of relays are difficult to determine.
Loss of Lines
The loss of lines can cause many problems to
system voltage stability. The problem severity
depends on the following factors:
15
 1. The type of line. Transmission lines usually
have a larger effect on voltage stability than
subtransmission lines since the former do not
usually serve load directly, and their loss
causes more reactive power losses in the
system without any loss in load. As shown in
Section 2.2, a more higily stressed
is more likely to suffer
transmission system
voltage collapse.
2. The type of load on the line (for the same
reasons discussed in the selection ofloads to be
shed).
3. The network connections of the lines (which
determine the effect to the network on loss of
the line).
4. The amount of load on ttre line.
5. The system flexibitty to shift load on to other
lines.
6. The duration for which the line is lost. This is
important since collapse may sometimes be
avoided by restoration of the line within a few
minutes.
If a line is a transmission line and it connects a
generating source to a system, tlren loss of the line
means loss of generation which can cause low
voltage problems in the system. Detennination of
fte status of critical lines may be used to initiate
load shedding if critical lines are lost.
importance of lines vary constantly, according to
the system conditions; so load shedding initiated
by loss of critical lines has to be constanfly
adjusted to match different system conditions. If
the line does not carry much load and the system
is strong enough to shift load to other transmission
lines, the loss will not create a serious problem for
the system. The need to reset load shedding
patterns according
to the importance of lines in
certain system conditions means significant
demanG upon system operators, and may be
impractical if system conditions change rapidly
and frequently.
Totalized Output From Dynamic var Sources
Reactive power reserve can be a good indicator of
the ability of a system to withstand low voltages.
To ensure reserye capability, it is good operating
practice to operate dynamic sources at near zero
output (as mentioned in Section 2). If the output
of important sources of dynamic vars can be
measured, then indication of high output, together
with low voltages may be taken as an indicator of
possible voltage stability problems, and may be
used as a basis for a load shedding decision. This
is the basis of the BC Hydro scheme described in
Section 3.6.
Hybrid Scheme
In a hybrid relay scheme, the on-line conditions of
the system are monitored. Line loading and status
and/or output of important var sources may be
combined with undervoltage relays to deterfirine
the approach of voltage collapse. The Florida
Power and Light scheme described in Section 3.d
uses a variety of parameters to deterrnine the need
for load shedding. Such schemes can be useflrl
when secure and effective settings for
undervoltage relays cannot be achieved.
State Estimation and State Measurement
Energy management systems (EMS) receive
information ftom the complete system
continuously. EMS may include facilities to
estimate the state of the system and indicate the
Tfie onset of voltage collapse. The state estimation
process uses information on the magnitudes of bus
voltages, and real and reactive power flows in the
lines to perform power flow calculations to try to
duplicate the state of the power system in a near
real time fashion. The process of state estimation
however takes several minutes, and is usually not
able to give sufficienfly accurate information soon
enough to initiate automatic load shedding for
effective maintenance of voltage stability.
The
technology to make system wide
synchronized phasor measuremenfs using global
positioning satellite time signals can be used to
transmit bus magnitude and angles to an EMS,
and thus provide network state measurement
rather than state estimation. Direct state
measurement provides information sooner ano
more accurately than state estimation. Wherr
complete or partial state measurement techniques
are used, it may be possible to utilize some system
16
wide indicators of voltage stability such as:
. The near singularity of the Jacobian matrix (a
matrix of partial derivatives of the load flow
equations with respect to state variables
voltage magnitudes, and phase angles), [10].
. Sensitivity of reactive power injections with
respect to loading Parameters [8]
system state measurement may provide the most
effective control actions (including load shedding)
to maintain voltage stability. While the prospects
for state measurement to aid system voltage
control are brighl the techniques are not widely
applied at the time of printing this paper. The
confidence of the industry in direct state
measuements grows, supported by increasing
numbers of users, successful fleld testing, and
efforts to standardize higttly accurate
synchronizing techniques and data interchange
formats. Numerous implementations of advanced
control theory based on power system state
measurements are expected in the future.
steps shed load at the various locations in
successive time intervats. This process continues
until the voltage recovers enough to let the sensing
relays resel
-
The undervoltage sensing relay, will respond to
system faults as well as low system voltage. It
must therefore be blocked from operating under
fault conditions. It is blocked for ground faults on
the 161 kV and 46 kV systems by a low set
instantaneous overvoltage relay connected to the
3Vo polarizing potential. It is blocked for phase
faults on the 46 kV system by an instantaneous
overcurrent relay connected to see the total
transformer current. Figure 10 shows the
connections of a tYPical scheme.
16't kv
+

3.6 Actual, or Planned lnstallations

TVA.

An undervoltage load shedding scheme was

installed at nine 161 kV substations in the area
south of the TVA West Point 500 kV substation.
This scheme was instailed because of unstable
voltage in that area resulting from the loss of the
West Point 500 kV transfonner. By shedding
some loads, usable voltage could be maintained on
Fisure 10 TVA Scheme
the others [11].

There is no practical way to block the sensing

The undervoltage sensing relay at each of the nine
relay for phase faults on the 161 kV system, but
locations is set aL 87Vo of normal operating
none is needed since load shedding must occur
voltage. The sensing relays are induction cup
during the time interval between the zone 2 and 3
relays, with high reset ratio. These relays operate
elements of the 161 kV line relays. Ttte zone 2
through timers to shed load by tripping and
elements must be permitted to operate for fault
locking out Eansformer breakers or breakers on
conditions before any load shedding can start, and
radial 161 kV or 46 kV lines.
the load shedding sequence must be completed
before any reversed zone 3 elements can operate
There are five steps of operation in the load
on overload conditions. The zone 2 elements are
shedding scheme with a time delay between each
set at 30 cycles, and any reversed zone 3 element
,step. The flrst step closes the 161 kV capacitor
that could operate on load after loss of the West
bank breaker at West Point. The remaining four

t7
 Point 500 kV bank is set at 120 cycles. The five
steps of load shedding action occur at 45, 60,75,
90 and 105 cycles. The approximate amount of
load shed in each step and the corresponding time
delay is listed below.
Time 45 60 75 90 105
in
Cvcles
,t
MW 203 86 r22 154
of
load
shed
* West Point capacitor bank breaker closed.
The scheme has operated as designed on four
occasions (all in 1987) due to loss of supply from
one of the West Point transfonners. In all cases,
load shedding prevented complete collapse of the
161 kV system. On one occasion, over shedding
occurred and the voltage rose to 106 to lljVo of
normal, but this level was soon reduced as load
was restored. On another occasion, supply was
lost from one of the transformers at 3:12 am. Due
to the low load at that time, the voltage was not
reduced low enough to cause load shedding. Later
in the day, as ambient temperature rose, and load
increased, one of the 161 kV lines sagged into a
tree, and was locked out. Upon loss of the line,
the load shedding scheme operated to shed area
load. The scheme has never operated to shed load
unnecessarily.
Ontario Hydro,
Until sufficient reinforcement is provided via
incorporation of 500 kV fransmission facilitjes, a
portion of Ontario Hydro's system in the eastern
part of the Province (Ofiawa area) is vulnerable to
voltage insfability under certain contingencies;
e.E. Ioss of a critical 230 kV circuit during
conditions of high power flows into the Ottawa
area fiom the west. To contain voltage declines in
the area under these conditions, which coutd
potentially lead to voltage collapse, a coord.inated
undervoltage protection scheme is employed
consisling of the following:
18
1. Short-time automatic reclosure on the major
230 kV circuits supplying the Ottawa area,
followed by
2. automatic load shedding
3. automatic capacitor switching
4. automatic load tap changer blocking
The fast auto reclosure (0.9 to 1.3 seconds) of the
230 kV circuits is used as a first measure to
maintain voltages prior to initiating load rejection.
If reclosure is unsuccessfi:l, then depending on the
depth and duration of the voltage drop, load may
be shed.
There are nine blocks of load which can be
individually selected for shedding via a two tiered
scheme: FAST and NORMAL. The FAST
component can be armed by operator action from
attended master stations and will trip if local
station voltage drops below a preset value for a
preset period (nominally 1.5 seconds). The
NORMAL component will always be armed,
except when FAST shedding has been setected
and will trip at the same voltage level as FAST,
but after a longer time delay (nominally 10
seconds). It is used to provide additionat
protection in the event of unforeseen
circumstances. Up to 750 MW of load can be
selected for shedding by this scheme, depending
on the load level.
The load shedding scheme involves monitoring of
the local 230 kV supply by accurate and stabte
single phase-voltage relays (in-house design) from
main and alternate potential sources, with
automatic transfer for loss of the main source. For
added security, the voltage relays are duplicated,
and they must both operate in order to shed load.
AIso, there are separate duplicated voltage relays
for FAST and NORMAL shedding modes. If both
the main and alternate potentjal sottrces are lost,
Ioad shedding is blocked.
BC Hydro
BC Hydro plans to apply centralized undervoltage
load shedding schemes in two regions. Load
shedding is expected only during heavy winter
peak load conditions coincident with certain
double contingencies. The first scheme was
installed for the D9A93 winter peatq and the
second is planned to be installed a year later.

The first scheme will be on Vancouver Island

which is supplied as shown in the simplified
system diagram in Figure 11. The key locations
for voltage measurement will be the 230 kV
busses at DMR, SAT and VTf. These busses lie
along the backbone 230 kV transmission system
that supplies the Island's loads. The output of four
synchronous condensers (2X50 Mvar and 2X100 Figure 12 Logic Diagram of Vancouver Island
Mvar) located at VTT wiII also be measured and
used in the decision to shed load.

23OlV&d l3SLVLd&
Monitoring equipment was installed at the DMR,
SAT and VIT busses, and on the YTf synchronous
condenser outputs before the scheme was
implemented. Records from this equipment were
used to help decide upon settings of the measuring
devices. The settings selected were 97Vo of lowest
normal voltage for 10 seconds, before shedding
9rbotr the first block, with two second delays befse
Ciblekm shedding subsequent blocks.
M.bl.Dd.

The voltage relays are high accuracy, high reset

ratio digital relays, giving an ouFut only if the
measured voltage level on all three phases falls
within a certain window. The undervoltage relays
AC[H are supplied from 23O kV capacitor voltage
r- lV tE
transformers, with automatic changeover between
S0O

230 lv hlH
normal and alternate sources. The output of the
synchronous condensers is measured by a
138I: E
23O LV ld&
prograrnmable logic controller (PLC). The PLC
Figure 1.1. Simplified Diagram measures the output and status of all four
of Vancouver Island synchronous condensers, and gives an output if
the measured Mvar exceeds 95Vo of the total rated
The intent is to shed load if voltage is low at Mvar of all the in service synchronous condensers.
DMR and at either YTf or SAT and if at the same
[ime, the Vm synchronous condensers are The second scheme will be installed in the L.ower
producing nearly their full rated output. The logic Mainland region of British Columbia in the major
diagram of Figure 12 shows how the various load center of the utility. The voltages at three
measurements are used to implement the load major 230 kV busses in the region will be
shedding commands. Load shedding measured, as well as the output of 4X150 Mvar
communications facilities to the major load synchronous condensers supplying the load center.
cnters already exist to shed load in the event of The load shedding communications facilities will
overload of the 138 kV submarine cables from the have to be added to this region, making
mainland. Load will be shed in three blocks of implementation of the scheme considerably more
250 MW in tlree timed stages. difficult than for Vancouver Island.

19
 Western Washington
Five utilities in the Puget Sound region of
Washington State have implemented a distributed,
automatic load shedding program to protect the
region against the effects of a possible winter
voltage instability t9l. The risk of voltage
instability, is expected to be short lived, lasting
only until new var resources have been
constructed. The need for the load shedding
program wiII be reviewed periodically after the
new var resources are available.
The utilities are ted by Bonneville Power
Administration, and include the following other
utilities - Seattle city Light, puget sound power
and Lighl Tacoma City Light and Snohomish
County Public Utilify District. Common features
of the program are:
. Automatically shed up to l5Vo of peak load.
. Shed load based on locally measured voltage
as a percentage of Iowest normal voltage.
"Lrwest norrnal voltage" is interpreted fu
each shedding location, based on historical
voltage during a time of previous system peak
. I-oad will be shed by three independent
sets of relays at different locations according to
the following criteria:
Voltage Time Load
Deoression Delav Shed
L0%o 3.5 sec 5Vo
8Vo 5.0 sec 5Vo
8Vo 8.0 sec. 5Vo
Voltage is measured at an unregulated source
at each shedding location
There is no common equipment and no real
time inter-utility communication required to
operate the program. Each utiiity has
separately borne the cost of its load sheddinp to be tripped for load shedding. To avoid fatse
equipment. The only coordination betweei tripping for loss of sensing supply, the
the utilities is their agreement on the
protective relay settings and on the quantity
Ioad to be put under automatic shedding
control.
. The load shedding equipment is required to be
in service only during the seasonal period of
high risk Some utitities will disable the
equipment during low risk season.
. The program went into effect in November,
1991. No voltage instability occurred during
the mild winter ot 199l-1992. There was no
undesirable shedding of load due to over
sensitive relay settings.
. AII utilities use oneor both of two types of
undervoltage relays. Both types of relay are
high accuracy, and high reset ratio relays
measuring all three phases. Orre type of relay
is solid state analogue, and the other is digital.
Details of each implementation are described
below.
Seattle City Light
Seattle has identified two 50 MW, 26 kV
residential load buses for each shedding group.
The six buses are located at four substations.
Each of these buses will be shed by an
independent undervoltage relay. Undervoltage
relay inputs are from wire wound potential
transformers. Automatic transfer of the relays to
alternate sources in the substation is provided to
permit operation during line maintenance.
Supervisory control is provided at each of the four
substations to permit seasonal enabling and
disabling of the schemes and to provide a local
indication of its enabled status. The SCADA
system also transmits alarms to the central power
dispatch center and provides for load restoration
by direct dispatcher command.
Puget Sound Power and Light
Puget has identified eleven lines with tapped loads
undervoltage relays are set not to trip below 657o
of of lowest normal voltage.
20
Tacoma City Light
Tacoma has identified a 115 kV tansmission line
feeding a residential unit substation for each
shedding group. Under peak conditions, the lines
carry loads of 70,40 and 30 MW respectively'
Snohomish County Public Utility Dstrict
ll5 kV transmission
Snohomish has identifled a
line for each shedding goup. Load shedding
relays are applied at each end ofthese lines so that
two relays must sense an undervoltage condition
to shed the tapped load. The relays are blocked
from tripping if there is a mmplete loss of
potential on all three phases. Each breaker which
can be tripped to shed load has SCADA controls
to provide alarms and for remote restoration. The
undervoltage relays are disabled during sufirmer
by use of the SCADA system.
Consumens Power Co.
Consumers Power Company selectively applies a
special protective scheme using undervoltage
relaying to alleviate local overload conditions
which may cause damage to system components
or serve customers with an unacceptably low
voltage. These schemes, which are a temporary
measure until appropriate system modifications
can be made, are applied to disconnect distribution
or sub-transmission lines ftom the CPCo system
for identified outage condifioos. There are 23
such schemes installed on the CPCo system.
sixteen are installed at distribution substations
with radial distribution lines, and seven are
installed at subtransmission substations with
looped lines.
The schemes consist of an undervoltage relay and
a time delay relay. The undervoltage relay is a
single phase solid state analogue relay, usually
connected phase to neutral. Operation of the
undervoltage relay and the time delay relay will
trip and block reclosing of the associated
switching device.
The undervoltage relay settings are provided by
the system planning engineers, and are typically
21
of nominal system voltage. The
set at 857o - 947o
time delay relays are set at 90 seconds. Where
two lines at a substation have an undervoltage
scheme, the delay relays arc set at 90 and 120
seconds. These long time delays allow the scheme
to ride through system disturbances and only
operate for the peak load conditions for which it
was designed.
The scheme has operated conectly for several
situations and has not mis-operated for fault m
switching conditions. One system operated during
the summer of 1988 when loads hit and actually
exceeded the projections. The scheme operated
due to the overloads causing low voltages.
Another scheme operated correctly when a looped
line was opened at one end for breaker
maintenance. The line loads were higher than
projected and distribution voltages got below the
setting causing the load to be dropped.
Florida Power and Light
Florida Power and Light (FPL) has had in service
since 1985, a "Fast Acting Load Shedding"
(FAIJ) program to protect against severe system
overloads not covered by the more conventional
underfrequency load shedding system [12].
System Planning studies had revealed that the
addition of two 500 kV ties had strengthened
connections to neighboring utilities so much that
system separation could not be assured under
certain double contingency losses of FPL
generation. This meant that existing
underftequency load shedding would not operate
to kep the system stable under these double
contingencies. Simultaneous loss of two or more
large generators (with more than 1200 MW total
output) could result in excessive power import
into the state of Florida wilch could result in what
was called a "stable but overloaded" system
condition. That condition would leave the
systems intact (without separation) but with severe
tlrermal and reactive overloads which could lead to
voltage collapse and uncontrolled system
separations after approximately 30 seconds.
The FALS program runs in the system control
centre (SCC) computersin Miami, and uses state
wide SCADA communications to recognize a
"stable system overload" that results in lines
operating above their ratings, low system voltages
at predetermined key substations, and heavy
reactive power demands upon generators. When
this condition is detected, FAI-S initiates a ftip
signal to shed a predetermined amount of load by
tripping subtransmission lines at certain stations to
prevent loss of bulk transmission lines and/u
generators which could cause a blackout.
The program is based on a six by six matrix of
alarm conditions of individually telemetered
points as shown in Figure 13. Each matrix cell
shows (in order) the monitored point, the present
value and the alarm point setting.
At least one point in each row must be in the
alarm condition to set a flag for that row. All six
rows must have their respective flag set to initiate
a load shed signal with no intentional delay.
Undelayed load shedding is expected to occur
within 20 seconds of a disturbance which requires
shedding. A delayed load shed is initiated if four
specific row flags are set and verified in the alarm
condition for a specific time delay. The time
delay is to allow off line capacitor banks to switch
in and mitigate those less severe overloads.
Each element in the matrix uses voltage or power
measurements already available in the computer.

TP #3 ST LUC 1 MARTIN 1 FPL-PCC FLA NET POIN-DUV+

INTERCHNG RICE-POIN

MW 670 MW 857 MW 593 -2550 -2962 2234

cHNG>-400 cHNG>-400 CHNG>-3OO MW>-3700 MW> 4400 MW>2900
TP #4 ST LUC 2 MARTIN 2 FPL-PCC FLA NET POIN-DUV+
INTERCHNG RICE-POIN

MW 672 MWO MW M2 -2550 -2962 223/.

cHNG>-400 CHNG>-4OO cHNG>-300 MW>3700 MW> 4400 MW>2900
DUVAL RICE POINSETT MARTIN ANDYTOWN LEVEE
5OO VOLT 5OOVOLT 5OO VOLT 5OO VOLT 5OO VOLT 5OO VOLT

508.9 5't4.7 s24.5 522.1 514.2 516.0

<465.0 <475.O <465.0 <470.0 <465.0 <465.0
DUVAL POINSETT RICE LEVEE ST LUC 1 ST LUC 2
5OO VOLT 5OO VOLT 5OO VOLT 5OO VOLT NET Mvar NET Mvar

508.9 524.5 514_7 516.0 85 0

<MO.O <MO.O <440.O <440.0 >470 >470
SEMINOLEl SEMINOLE2 MARTIN 1 MARTIN 2 TP #.I TP #2
NET Mvar NET Mvar NET Mvar NET Mvar NET Mvar NET Mvar
't30 135 68 69 il 53
>450 >450 >530 >530 >350 >350
FLA NET FPL.PCC POIN-DUV+ NOT USED NOT USED NOT USED
INTERCHNG RICE-POIN

-2962 -2550 22U

MW> 4700 MW>3900 MW>3100

Figure 13. FPL FALS Matrix

22
Only one phase is monitored for voltage
measurements, and two-and-a - half element watt
transducers are used for the power measurements'
The program must shed a minimum of 800 MW,
independent of the system load. Since fewer
transmission lines need to be shed at high loads to
reject the 80O MW, the FALS program bases the
number of lines to be shed on the current system
load.
To improve the security of the scheme, the FALS
trip signal received at each substation is
supervised in a permissive mode by an
underfte,quency re1ay. These relays are set at
59.95 Hz, which will allow operation for most
generation disturbances in the State. The
underftequency relays' outputs remain energized
for one minute to allow time for load shedding if
necessary.
The matrix parameters are revised as the system
changes so that the FAI-S program remains
coordinated with the system response.
ELECTRABEL (Belgium)
Theoretical study of the possible effect of
automatic on load tap changer (OLTC) action with
respect to the voltage collapse risk showed that:
. OLTC's cao aggmvate the situation by
keeping load constant
. OLTC's can even induce a local collapse at a
substation primary bus by themselves.
Therefore, two different measures were taken
. With respect to voltage behavior, a system can
be looked upon as being composed of voltage
coherent regions. Such regions have been
defined for the Belgian system, and the
primary (150 kV) voltages have been
monitored by undervoltage relays in each of
them. Whenever the voltage at two points
goes under 145 kV for more than 5 seconds, a
tegion-wide central order is sent to lower the
set point of all OLTC'sby 5Vo, giving 57o less
secondary voltage to the load. The idea is that
23
the load reduction willat least give temporary
load relief. The undervoltage relays reset at
148 kV.
. Individual local blocking of the voltage raise
function of the oLTC is installed. on each
load serving transformer there is an
undervoltage relay measuring high side
voltage. Whenever this voltage goes under
97Vo of lowest normal voltage, the tap changer
is blocked from raising the secondary voltage.
The undervoltage relay resets at 997o of
lowest normal voltage. This measure is
intended to avoid local collapse induced by
OLrc action which would tend to keep the
load constant with respect to primary voltage.
Automatic clearing.
Whenever voltages on both sides of a distribution
transformer are less thanTjVo of nominal for more
than 5 seconds, the fansformer is tripped locally.
This can be considered as a sort of ultimate drastic
undervoltage load shedding, but it is primarily
meant to facilitate overall system restoration
procedures.
to Low Voltages.
4.1 Generator Backup Protection
Impedance relays and voltage controlled cr
restrained overcufrent relays used as system
backup are typically connected to cts and v[s at the
generator. Impedance relays are more likely to be
found on unit connected machines for applications
that require coordination with step distance relays
and timers. Voltage controlled or restrained
overcurent relays are favored for use on much
smaller machines, much less than 100 MVA 1151.
Under system peak load conditions and sagging
system voltage it would be expected that
automatic voltage regulators (AVRs) and system
operators would operate machines at their
maximum reactive capabiiity to provide reactive
MVA support to the system. The reactive power
exported ttrough unit transformer impedance
 would keep generator terminal voltage several
percentage pornts higher than the system voltage.
For larger generators with unit fransformers,
voltages at the relays would therefore tend to be at
or oyer IAOVo of generator rated voltage.
Although generator terminal voltage may be near
normal, the reactive load will be unusually high.
Since generators rarely operate in steady state at
the limits of their reactive capability, the backup
distarrce relays are not tested by long term
to conditions near their operating
exposure
boundaries. These devices have caused
unnecessary generator tripping during stessed
system conditions, thereby aggravating the stess
to tlrc system [13]. The setting of distance type
relays on generators requires consideration of the
maximum reactive load under steady state
operation with subsequent system 3 phase fault
and the heavy reactive values added to it. Thus
these settiags require stability type studies ratlrer
than the conventional short ckcuit studies.
Low system voltages may be able to reduce the
terminal voltage of small generators to levels
which may be lower than the minimum rated
operating voltage of the unit. This is especiaily
true if a step up tansformer has a relatively low
impedance such that the vars being generated by
the generator cannot raise the terminal voltage
significantly. Small generators may be protected
by voltage controlled or voltage restrained
overcurrent relays. In such installations, care must
be taken to ensure that the terminal voltage cannot
drop low enough to allow the overcurent
protection to undesirably trip the generator.
4.2 Generator Overexcitation and
Rotor Overload Protection.
Modern static excitation systems can respond to
system short circuit conditions in a matter of a few
milliseconds. Generator field and stator ctrrents
can be overloaded for a number of seconds, up to
about two minutes, when tlese currents must be
returned to values within the steady state
capability of the equipment. Excitation systems
incorporate protection features that are based on
generator short time ratings and should not require
24
additional external protective relays, with the
possible exception of an overexcitation relay
(volts/hertz). The system protection engineer
should determine tllat there is adequate proteclion
of the generator, the step up transformer and the
excitation system and that settings are appropriate.
The manufachrers' individual machine application
and settings manual must be used. The volts/trertz
protection relay is usually required to protect the
generator step up transformer and unit connected
station auxiliary transformer because their
overexcitation limits can be more restrictive than
the generator.
Both to reduce the probability of overexcitation
conditions, and to provide system voltage control,
it is of the utmost importance that the AVR be in
service at all times while a machine is in
operation. operating and maintenance practices
should encourage operation in only the AVR
mode.
Similarly to the case with the backup distance and
oyercurrent relays, the excitation system overload
is rarely exposed to long
protection equipment
term operation of the equipment near its
capability. Overload protection and control
systems have been found to be incorrectly set with
respect to the equipmeot capability, and have been
known to cause uruEcessary limiting of reactive
power production, or tripping of the generator to
aggravate undesirable system conditions t131.
The Belgian incident described in Section 2.1 is
an example of a case where there were very severe
results ofundesirable tripping ofgenerators due to
overexcitation.
Some utilities have engaged upon programs to test
their generators at the limits of their capabilities to
ensure the proper operation of overexcitation and
rotor overload protection and conftol systems[16,
171. For example, American Electric power
conducted an extensive survey of the reactive
power capability of their generators, and found
several cases where the expected reactive
capability was not available. In a significant
number of cases they increased the available
reactive capability by adjusting the generator
overexcitation protection
4.3 Generator Auxiliaries Protection
The reactive power generation and absorption
capability of generators is often limited by the
need to maintain auxiliary voltage supply between
certain limits. These limits can be specially
difficult to maintain at nuclear stations where
special undervoltage protecfion is applied'
There are two levels of undervoltage tripping at
nuclear generating stations. The first level of
undervoltage tripping may be set at approximately
70Vo of nominal bus voltage with a time delay of
approximately one second. This level of
protection is to detect a loss of offsite power and
to transfer the bus voltage to another voltage
source. The first level ofundervoltage tripping is
not primarily for equipment protection' Safety-
related motors are shed and sequenced onto the
diesel generators once they are running. Motors
not required for safe shutdown of the plant are not
re-ener$znd.
The second level of undervoltage may be set at
approximate\ gAVo of nominal bus voltage. This
second level ofundervoltage tripping is to proted
safety-related equipment ftom sustained degraded
voltage. When the undervoltage relay operates' an
alarm is sent, and a timer is started. This may
allow time for the operator to try to raise the
voltage and minimizes the uruEcessary separaflon
of the plant from offsite power. If after the time
delay expires, the voltage is still degraded, load is
shed, offsite power is tripped, the diesel generator
is started and safety-related load is sequenced onto
the generator. If safety injection ha,s been
initiated, indicating a loss of cooling accident
GOCA), the timer is byPassed'
Although it may be specially difficult to maintain
proper voltage levels at nuclear stations, similar
difficulties exist at many fossil fueled generating
stations. During the AEP reactive power audit
[16], large gains in reactive power capability were
obtained by carefi.rl review of generator auxiliary
supply voltages.
25
4.4 Backup Line Protection with Long
Reach Settings
Backup zone 3 and zone 4 distarrce relays are
sometimes applied for the clearing of faults
involving a breaker failure at a remote location, to
avoid the necessity of a dedicated direct transfer
trip channel. In some cases, use of these relays
can even avoid the necessity for local breaker
failure protection on the remote bus' The required
reach of the backup elements is a function of the
apparent impedance to the most remote point on
the next line section, and consequently can be very
large in comparison with typical zone 2 seffings'
For coordination reasons. the time delay is
generally somewhat longer than that for the zone 2
elements, with times up to a few seconds being
typical.
During system low voltage conditions, the backup
distance elements may become susceptible to
operation on load. While the ohmic characteristic
of a distarrce relay is independent of voltage, the
load is not generally a constant impedance' The
apparent impedance presented to a distance relay
as the load voltage varies will depend on the
voltage characteristics of the load.
Figure 14 is an RX diagram that shows the
approximate apparent impedance loci of three
different types of radially supplied loads (curves a,
b and c). The impedances are shown as presented
to a mho type distarrce relay at the source end of a
line of 1.0 p.u. impedance, with a reach (for
example purposes) of 3.0 p.u' The three curves
show how the apparent impedances of the line
plus the load vary as the voltage at the relay varies
ftom 1.1 p.u. (the right hand ends of the curves) to
0.8 p.u (the left hand ends of the curves). A11
impedances are shown in per unit, with a base
impedance of the line impedance. The nominal
load impedance of all three curves is about 2.6
p.u., which is a heavy load, corresponding to
abott l5OVo of the surge impedance load' The
load impedance of 2.6 p.u. at 0'9 power factor
corresponds to a nominal real power load of 0'35
p.u. and reactive power load of 0.15 p.u. '
The three types of loads for which the curves arc
drawn, are described as follows:
(a) A "motor" load similar to that described in
Section 2.2 of thisreport, where
(b)A 0.9 power factor (P,Q) type motor load
which has been made a unity power factor
nominal load by the addition of shunt
capacitors, i.e.,
r- O.gs(.zs +.25Y2)
Q= - j0.15(( .7s+.2sv\-v2)
where j is {(-r).
Appendix 1 shows how the points for curve (b)
were calculated with the help of a personal
computer based mathematical program.
(c) A 0.9 power factor "resistive" load similar
that described in Section 2.2 of this report, and
like curve (b), also compensated to unity power
factor by the addition of shunt capacitors,
where
Q= - j0. 1s(( .25*.7 5v21-y21
Note that Curve (c) is drawn as a heavy line nearly
superimposed on curve @)
3
capacitor compensation become worse than that of
the simple motor load due to the decreasing
effectiveness of the compensation at lower
voltages. As expected, the apparent impedance of
the resistive load does not change dramatically,
however, it must be remembered that highly
resistive loads are rare. As mentioned in section
2.2, even a nominally constant impedance load
like heating becomes more like a constant power
load over a loog term.
The cause for coocern becomes apparent when the
circumstances for the low voltage situation are
considered. For example, if the low voltage
situation resulted from the loss of one or more
transmission lines, or generating units, there may
be a substantial change in the real and reactive
power flow through the line in question. The
to combination of low voltage and worsened phase
angle may cause a long set relay to operate
undesirably, either on a steady state basis, or in
response to recoverable swings related to the
initiating event. Since the loss of an additional
transmission path at that time could result in a
complete system collapse, the time response of
any automatic voltage control measures should be
coordinated with the response of the affected
backup elements. If this is impractical, then
alternatives such as direct transfer trip for the
breaker tailure condition (in lieu of backup
protection), should be considered.

- 4.5 Voltage Controlled Overcurrent

o Protection
8 15
f;
U
U
d
1
( BC Hydro uses fault current limiting reactors at
05 most of its distribution feeder stations. These
o
reacttrs are usually on the source side of the
feeder circuit breaker, and allow the use of feeder
1
breakers with lower intemrpting ratings than
Rei#nc bu.) would otherwise be required for clearing close in
faults. The feeder bus overcurrent relays must
Figure 14 Apparent Impedance presented to a sense faults between the feeder reactor and the
Distance at Yarious Voltages. feeder circuit breaker. Due to the reduced fault
level on the load side of the reactor, the bus
Itcan be seen triat as voltage is reduced, the overcu-rrent relays cannot be set above maximum
apparent impedances of the motor loads become load currents, and still dependably detect faults
considerably smaller, and the power factors get beyond the reactor, especially under various single
worse. The power factors of the loads with shunt contingencies. At many stations, bus oyercurrent

26
relays have been set to start at levels near or below
the maximum load they may have to carry, and
starting of the relays is controlled by undervoltage
relays. These under voltage relays typically
operate at about 87% of nominal system voltage.
It is possible that if the system voltage is low, the
undervoltage relays controlling the bus
overcurrent relays may operate, and allow the
overcurrent relays to start on load curent. If the
load is high, as may well be the case if the voltage
is depressed due to insufficient var support for the
high load, the bus overcurrent relays could operate
to shed the bus load. Such operation would be a
form of unintentional undervoltage load shedding.
In such circumstances, the unintentional load
shedding would be very slow (in the region of
several tens of seconds), since the load current
would at the most, be a very low multiple of the
pickup setting of the overcurrent relays. Although
the load shedding would be unintentional, it
would be beneflcial to the system, by removing
some of the highest loads. Due to the long time
delays associated with the shedding, it is unlikely
that over-shedding would occur.
5.0 Conclusion
As the threat of voltage instability increases,
utilities implement new schemes to automatically
minimize the possibility of system wide voltage
collapse and blackout. Protection engineers
shoutd learn the basic causes and effects of system
operation at low voltages to be better able to assist
system planners in designing schemes which will
reliably operate as intnded.
Several types of automatic load shedding schemes
are already in service, or planned to be in service
soon. Most of them use a direct measurement of
voltage as at least one parameter to be used in
ariving at a decision to shed load. The voltage at
which action must be taken is very close to normal
operating levels, being only 6 - l1%o'lower than
minimum normal voltages. This means that care
is required to ensure the schemes do not mis-
operate for conditions other than true approach to
voltage instability. Some utilities use other
pararneters as well as voltage, including var
generation and power flows.
27
The time frame of voltage collapse is longer than
that of transient stability. The exact speed of
collapse is on load and system
dependent
characteristics. Automatic load shedding
schemes have operating times varying from 60
cycles GVA) to 120 seconds (CPCo)' Automatic
load shedding schemes are not always applicable'
Some collapses (such as the Quebec Hydro
collapse mentioned in Section 2.1) happen too
quickly for load shedding to be effective.
Operating experience of automatic load shedding
schemes so far is limited by the few years that
many such schemes have been operational.
However, the limited experience has been good.
Unexpected relay operations during system
overload and low voltages have affected collapse
in several incidents. While the unexpected
operations are not always undesirable, it is
important that relays operate in a foreseeable
manner under low system voltages. Therefore
protection engineers should consider the effect of
low voltages in the application, setting and testing
of relays.
REFERENCES
1. IEEE Power SYstem Engineering
Committee, System Dynamic performance
Subcommittee, "Voltage Stability of Power
Systems: Concepts, Analytical Tools, aod
Industry Experience". IEEE Publication
No. 90TH0358-2-PWR.
2. G. Brownell and H. Clark, "Analysis and
Solutions for Bulk SYstem Voltage
Instability" IEEE Computer Applications in
Power, July 1989.
3. NERC Interconnection Dynamics Task
Force, Summary of "Survey of the Voltage
Collapse Phenomenon", NERC PubUcation
dated August 1991.
4. C. Concordia, "Voltage tnstability",
Electrical Power & EnergY SYStems,
Volume 13, No. 1, FebruarY, 1991.
 5. G. C. Buftock" "Cascading Voltage Collapse
in West Tennessee" proceedings, Western
Protective Relay Conference, 1990, Spokane
Washington.
N.W. Miller, et al, "Voltage Stability of the
Puget Sound System Under Abnormally
Cold Weather Conditions", IEEE
Trarsactions paper No. 92 SM 534-g PWRS
presented at the 1992 pEs Summer power
Meeting
7. C. Barbier, J. P. Barret, "An Analysis of
Phenomena of Voltage Collapse on a
Transmission System", Revue Generale
d'Electricitie, Special Issue July, 19g0, pp.
3-21.
8. M. Begovic, A. G. phadke, ',Control of
Volrage Srability Using Sensirivity
Analysis", IEEE Trans. on power Systems,
Vol. 7, No. 1, February 1992,p.p.ll4-l13
9. C. W. Taylor, "Concepts of Undervoltage
Load Shedding For Vottage Stabitity" IEEE
Trans. on Power Delivery, April, 1992, p.p.
48H88
14. M. B. Awad, H. M. ZninBl-Din, and C. E.
Graham, "Preventative Measures to Voltage
Collapse in Bulk Electricity Systems"
presented at the Conference on Bulk power
System Voltage Phenomena - Voltage
Stability and Security, potosi, Missouri,
Sept. 19-24, 1988. EPRI Conference
Proceedings, (EL-6 I 83).
15. IEEE Power System Relaying Committee
Working Group Report "A Suwey of
Generator Back-up Protection practices",
IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 5 No.
2, Apnl1990, p.p. 575-584
l6 P. B. Johnson, et. al., "Maximizing the
Reactive Capability of AEp Generating
Stations", A paper presented to the
American Power Conference, Chicago,
Illinois, April 1990.
17. N.E. Nilsson and J. Mercurio, ',synchronous
Generator Capability Curve Testing and
Evaluation", IEEE Transactions paper,
presented at PES 1993 Winter Meeting,
New York, paper No. 93 WM U2_2
PWRD.

10 M. Begovic, A. G. phadke, ,'Voltage

Stability Assessment Through Measurement
of a Reduced State Vector", IEEE Trans. on
Power Systems, Vol. 5, No. 1, February
1990, p.p. 198-203

l1 H. M. Shuh, J. R. Cowan, "Undervoltage

Irad Shedding, An Ultimate Application
Voltage Collapse',, proceedings, Georgia
for
Institute of Technology protective Relaying
Conference, April 29 - May l, lggz

t2 Nirenberg, S.A., Mclnnis, D.S. and Sparks,

K.D., "Fast Acting l.oad Shedding", IEEE
IIr^, on Power Systems, yol. 7, No. 2,
May 1992,p.p.873-817.

13. C. W. Taylor, "Generating plant Control

and Protection under Abnormally Low
Network Voltages,' l99l paper circulated in
NERC.

28
 APPENDIX 1 (Mathcad (TM) file printout)

Derivation of Apparent lmpedances to a Distance Relay supplying Radial,

'voltage sensitive) Load
A singte phase system will be studied, as shown on the following figure:'

j,=ff
a:= 377

load =
PLt*
OL1 +
coMPt

Choose typical parameters for resistance, charging, and inductance of a

200 km. long 500 kV transmission line.

Rl := 200'.017 Xc:= x := zoo'[j'co'.902'to-] z := Rl+)o

8
j'0'200'1.2'10

Gonvert the tine impedance and charging susceptance to per unit values
(with the line impedance being equal to 1.0 p.u.). Split the line charging
susceptance into two hatves, one at each end of the line.
zpu,= lnl -*,-,_zw
zf,
XC := XC CH:= 1

ZPU z.XC

Define a variable voltage varying from 0.8 p.u. to 1.1 p.u. in 7 steps
:= I
r:= 16..22 Vt20

Create real and reactive power loads at a given power factor, and
capacitive shunt compensation which are equal to the reactive load at 1.0
p.u. voltage. For this example, choose a power factor of 0.9, and a
"motor" type load which is75o/o constant P,Q, and 25olo constant
impedance.
0 := acos(.9)

pL := cos[01.[.;s*.2s.[u,]'] eL, ,= -:.'io[e]'[.zs+.zs'[v,]'z] coMPt;=;'sin[t]'[t,]'

29
 The impedance of the total (voltage dependent) load is given by:-

z.e'lv,f2
ztoad,"=
f-JQr-.*ir*J
By catculating in steps, the impedances of the various series and parallel
combinations of impedances and admittances, find the apparent impedance
at the relaying point at various voltages
I-
Admittancel, := Admittance2, := CH+ Admittancelt 7.ENDt '.- 7t +
Zload Admittance2
t

I
Admittance3t
'=
CTI* ZAPPt :=
Admittance3
ZFNDr

Plot the value of the apparent impedance on the R,X plane, and
tabulate the vatues for use on another plot showing the mho circle.

5*,

*{*,]

30