CHAPTER 2

Violence can be programmed throughout the brain

Example: GTA5 can change your perspective
We are a product of our own environment and the things we engage in
In the 11700-1800s people believed drilling a hole on your forehead would release
demons
D.A.R.E. (Drug Abuse Resistance Education)
program popular in school around the world despite research suggesting that it is
ineffective
Facts are observable realities, and opinions are personal judgments, conclusion, or
attitudes that may or may not be accurate
Process of Scientific Research
Deductive Reasoning (top down approach)
Ideas are tested against the empirical world
Energy is necessary to survival, basic knowledge, no other research
needed. Starting from broad to specific.
Inductive (Bottom up approach)
Reasoning empirical observations lead to new ideas
Goes from small to big, to big, to big
Psychological research relies on both inductive and deductive reasoning.
Creating a theory and hypothesis (Theory is the closest thing to truth in
human sciences)
Theory
is a well developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for
observed phenomena. (Closest thing we can get tot truth in the
human sciences)Theories are repeatedly checked against the
world, but they tend to be too complex to be tested all at once;
instead, researchers create hypotheses to test specific aspects of
a theory.
Hypothesis
is a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our
ideas is correct, and it is often worded as an if-then statement
(e.g., if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test).
Scientific Method
Research includes proposing hypotheses, conducting research,
and creating or modifying theories based on results.
Theory Hypothesis Research Observation
Clinical Studies and Case Studies
Clinical
In observational research, scientists are conducting a clinical study.
Case Study
 When they focus on one person or just a few individuals.
Generalizing
Refers to the ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to
larger segments of society
Naturalistic Observation
Observing behavior in its natural setting (looking at their behavior without
affecting their position; unnoticed).
Observer Bias
As observers are closely involved in the research project and many
unconsciously sker their observations to fit their research goals or
expectations
Surveys
Surveys
Can be administered in a number of ways, including electronically
administered research, like the survey shown here.
Sample
Is a subset of individuals selected from a population, which is the overall
group of individuals that the researchers are interested in.
Representative group or individual
Archival Research
A researcher doing archival research examines records, whether archived as a
hardcopy or electronically.
Basically doing research about research
Longitudinal and cross-sectional research
Longitudinal
is a research in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an
extended period of time.
Like CPS-3 helps us to better understand how smoking is
associated with cancer and other diseases.
Cross-sectional research
A researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same
time.
Attrition Rates
Or reduction in the number of research participants due to dropouts, in
longitudinal studies are quite high and increases over the course of a
project.
Correlational Research
Correlation
Means that there is a relationship between two or more variables (such as
ice cream consumption and crime), but his relationship does not
necessarily imply cause and effect.
A correlation coefficient
 Is a number from -1 to +1 that indicated the strength and direction of the
relationship between variables.
Positive correlation
Means that the variables move in the same direction. Put another way, it
means that as one variable increases.
Negative correlation
Means that the variables move in opposite directions.
Scatterplots
Are a graphical view of the strength and direction of correlations. The
stronger the correlation, the closer the data points are to a straight line. In
these examples, we see that there is (a) a positive correlation between
weight and height, (b) a negative correlation between tiredness and hours
of sleep, and (c) no correlation between shoe size and hours of sleep.
Correlation Does not Indicate Causation
Cause and Effect Relationship
Changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be
determined only through an experimental research design.
Does eating cereal really cause someone to be a healthy weight?
Confounding Variable
Unanticipated outside factors that affects both variables of interest.
Something that we fail to acknowledge
Illusory Correlations
Illusory Correlations
Or a false correlations, occurs when people believe that relationships
exist between two things when no such relationship exist.
Many people believe that a full moon makes people behave oddly.
E.g. (mexican culture) Opening umbrella in the house.
E.g. Praying changes states of mind, to an alter state of mind
Casualty: Conducting a Design
Designing and Experiment
Experimental Group:
Group designed to answer the research question; experimental
manipulation is the only difference between the experimental
group and the control group. So any differences between the two
are due to experimental manipulation rather that chance.
Control Group
Served as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors
that might influence the results of the stud-by holding such factors
constant across groups so that the experimental manipulation is
the only...
Operational Definition
Description of what actions and operations will be used to
measure the DV and manipulate the IV.
 Experimental Bias
Researcher expectations skew the results of the study
Conscious
Knows what is happening but they don't care
Unconscious
Assuming
E.g. Having something people cant afford
E.g. Canceling class sundays because you have
church, assuming everyone goes to church
Single blind Study
Experiment in which the researchers knows which
participants are in the experimental group and which are in
the control group.
Double Blind Study
Experiment in which both the researchers and the
participants are blind to group assignments.
Placebo Effect
Mind playing tricks on you
People's expectations or beliefs influencing or determining
their experiences in a given situation
Independent variable and Dependent Variable
Dependent variable:
Variable that the researcher measures to see how
much effect the independent variable had
Independent variable
Variable that does not depend on anything. Is not
influenced by experimental study.
Selecting and Assigning Experimental Participants
Participants
Are the subjects of psychological research, and as the name implies,
individuals who are involved in psychological research actively participate
in the process.
Random sample:
Subset of a larger population in which every member of the population
has an equal chance of being selected.
Random Assignment
A random sample, based on the population, and a random assignment,
everyone has the same opportunity whether to be the control or
independent group.
Method of experimental group assignments in which all participants have
an equal chance of being assigned to either group
The Vaccine-Autism Myth and Retraction of Published Studies
The Vaccine Autism
 Some people still think vaccinations cause autism
Reliability and Validity
Reliability
Consistency and reproducibility of a given result
Validity:
Accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure
Value of tool
Accuracy of measurement
Support the supported measurement
Ethics
Research Involving Human Participants
Informed Consent
Process of informing a research participant about what to expect
during the experiment, any risk involved, and the implications of
the research, and then obtaining the persons consent to
participate.
Debriefing
When an experiment involved deception, participants are told
complete and truthful information about the experiment at its
conclusion.
Deception
Purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain
the integrity of the experiment.
A participant in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study receives an
injection.
Research Involving Animal Subjects
Rats, like the one shown here, often serve as the subjects of animal
research.

CHAPTER 3

3.1 Human Genetics

Psychological researchers study genetics in order to better understand the biological
basis that contributes to certain behavior
Why do two people infected by the same disease have different outcomes?
Normal blood cells travel freely through the blood vessels, while
sickle-shaped cells from blockages preventing blood flow.
Organisms that are better suited from their environment will survive and
reproduce, while those that are poorly suited from their environment will die off.
In 1859 Charles Darwin proposed his theory of evolution by natural selection in
his book on the Origin of Species
Genetic Variation
Chromosomes, DNA, genes, allele, genotype, and phenotype
 Genotype refers to eh genetic makeup of an individual based on
the genetic material(DNA) inherited from ones parent
Phenotype describes an individuals observable characteristics
such as hair, color, skin color, height, and building.
A punnett square is a tool used to predict how genes will interact in the
production of offspring. The capital B represents the dominant allele, and
the lowercase b represents the recessive allele, In the example of the
cleft chin, where B is cleft chin (dominant allele).
It is understood that genes not only code for particular traits, but also
contribute to certain patterns of cognition and behavior.
Evolutionary Psychologist study a variety of psychological phenomena
that may have evolved as adaptations including fear response, food
preferences, mate selection and cooperative behaviors.
Gene-Environment Interactions
Nature and nurture work together like complex pieces of a human puzzle.
The interaction of our environment and genes.
The Nervous System
The nervous system
Is composed of two basic cell types: Glial Cells (also known as
glia) and neurons
Glial cells
Outnumbers neurons ten to one, are traditionally thought to play a
supportive role to neurons, both physically and metabolically
Neurons
Serve as interconnected information processors that are essential
for all of the task of the nervous system
Neuron Structure
Dendrite:
Branch-like extension of the soma that receives incoming
signals from other neurons
Axon
Major extension of the soma
Terminal Buttons
Axon terminal containing synaptic vesicles
Myelin Sheaths
Fatty substance that insulates axons
Synaps
A small gap between two neurons where communication
occurs
Receptor
Protein on the cell surface where neurotransmitters
attach
Neurotransmitter
 Chemical messenger of the nervous system
Each vesicle contains about 10,000 neurotransmitter molecules
Neuronal Communication
Membrane Potential
Difference in charge across the neuronal membrane
Resting Potential
The state of readiness of a neuron's membrane
Threshold of Excitation
Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic Nervous System
Is associated with activities traditionally thought of as
conscious or voluntary. It is involved in the relay of sensory
and motor information to and from the CNS; therefore, it
consists of motor neurons and sensory neurons
Autonomic Nervous System
Controls our internal organs and glands and is generally
considered to be outside the realm of voluntary control
Sympathetic Nervous System
Is involved in preparing the body from stress-related
activities.
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Is associated with returning the body to routine, day-to-day
operations
Homeostasis
The two systems have complementary functions, operating
in tandem to maintaining the body homeostasis.
The Brain and Spinal Cord
The Spinal Cord
Some sensory messages are immediately acted on by the spinal
cord, without any input from the brain. In matters of survival, the
spinal cord reflexes allow the body to react extraordinarily fast.
Forebrain Structures
Lobes of the Brain
Cerebral Cortex:
Thin surface layer on the cerebral hemispheres that
regulates most complex behavior, including sensations,
motor control, and higher mental processes
Other Areas of the Forebrain: Limbic System
Hypothalamus
Small brain structure beneath the thalamus that
helps govern drives and hormones
Amygdala
 Part of the limbic system that controls emotions,
like aggression and fear, and the formation of
emotional memory
Hippocampus
Seahorses-shaped part of the limbic system
involved in forming and retrieving memories
Midbrain and Hindbrain Structures
The pons, medulla, and cerebellum make up the hindbrain.
The Two Hemispheres
Both sides (right and left) are connected with the Corpus Callosum
Left Hemisphere
Most language functions
Analytical
Controls and senses right side of the body
Right visual field
Right Hemisphere
Nonverbal abilities
Synthetic
Controls and senses left side of the body
Left visual field
Frontal Lobes
Parietal Lobes
Temporal Lobes
Occipital Lobes
Thalamus
Relay center (ON MIDTERM! STUDY THIS SHIT)
Medulla
Hindbrain structure responsible for vital autonomic
functions, such as respiration and heart rate
Pons
Hindbrain structure involved in respiration, movement,
Cerebellum

Chapter 4

What is Consciousness?
Our awareness of internal and external stimuli.
Internal Stimuli
Pain, hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of our thoughts
and emotions.
External Stimuli
Seeing the light from the sun, feeling the warmth of the room, and
hearing the voice of a friend.
 What is sleep?
Is a state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced
sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of the rest that occur
during wakefulness.
What is Wakefulness?
Characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and
behavior.
Biological Rhythms
Biological rhythms
Internal rhythm of biological activity.
What is a circadian rhythm?
Is a biological rhythm that takes over a period of about 24 hour
(Night-dark cycle).
Biological Rhythms
Do we have an internal biological clock?
The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) serves as the brain's clock
mechanism. The clock sets itself with light information received through
projections from the retina.
Problems of Circadian Rhythms
Disruptions of Normal Sleep
Multiple time zones (Jet lag)
Insomnia
Rotating shift work
Devices like this are designed to provide exposure to bright
light to help people maintain regular circadian cycle. They
can be helpful for people working night shifts or for people
affected by seasonal variations in light.
Problems with Circadian Rhythms
Insufficient Sleep
Sleep debt and micro-sleeps
We spend approximately one-third of our lives sleeping (25 years of our lives).
What is sleep again?
The pineal and pituitary glands secrete a number of hormones during
sleep.
Why do we sleep?
The Adaptive Function Theory of Sleep (Evolutionary)
To restore resources that are extended during the day
An adaptive response to predatory risk, which increases during
the night (dark).
Cognitive Function Theory of Sleep
Creative thinking
Language learning
Inferential judgment
 Processing emotional information
Stages of Sleep
Sleep is composed of several different stages that can be differentiated
from one another by the patterns of brain wave activity.
Sleep can be divided into two different general phases: REM sleep and
Non-REM sleep
NREM stages of sleep
Stage 1:
Sleep is a transitional phase. Marked a slowdown in both the rates
of respiration and heart beat.
Stage 2:
State of deep relaxation with episodes of high brain activity (sleep
spindles and K-Complex).
REM Sleep (rapid eye movement)
Muscle paralysis
Paradoxical sleep
Sleep in which dreaming occurs
A hypnogram is diagram of the stages of sleep as they occur during a period of
sleep. This hypnogram illustrates how an individual move through the various
stages of sleep.
Dreams
Sigmund Freud believe that dreams provide us with access to the unconscious.
By analyzing our dreams we can increase self-awareness and gain valuable
insight to help us deal with the problem we face in our lives.
Manifest Content VS Latent content
Manifest Content
Is the actual content, or storyline, of a dream
Latent Content
Refers to the hidden meaning of a dream
Sleep Problems and Disorders
Insomnia, Parasomnia, REM Sleep Behavior Disorder
Insomnia
Sleep disorder where people have trouble sleeping. They may
have difficulty falling asleep, or staying asleep as long as desired.
Parasomnia
Sleep disorder in which unwanted, disruptive motor activity and or
experiences during sleep play a role.
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder
Occurs when the muscle paralysis associated with REM sleep
phase does not occurring.
Sleep Apnea
 Episodes during which a sleepers breathing stops. The episodes
can last 10-20 seconds or longer and often are associated with
brief periods of arousal.
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
When an infant suddenly stops breathing during sleep and dies.
Narcolepsy
Inability to resist falling asleep at inopportune times. Is associated
with cataplexy which is a lack of muscle tone or weakness.
Substance use Disorders
Physical Dependence VS Psychological Dependence
Physical Dependence
Involves changes in normal bodily functions. The user will
experience withdrawal from the drug upon cessation of
use.
Psychological Dependence
Has emotional rather than physical, need for the drug and
may use the drug to relieve psychological distress.
Withdrawal
Includes a variety of negative symptoms
Drug Categories
Antipsychotics
Stimulants
Depressants
Hallucinogens
Alcohol (ethanol) and other Depressants
Depressants
Are drugs that tend to suppress central nervous system
activity
Depressants include: Barbiturates and benzodiazepines
Agonist to the GABA neurotransmitter
Quieting effect of the brain
Prescribed to treat both anxiety and insomnia
Stimulants
Drugs that tend to increase overall levels of neural activity.
As many other stimulants cocaine agonizes the dopamine
neurotransmitter system by blocking the reuptake of
dopamine in the neural synapse
Opioids
Natural opioids, and opiates, are derivatives of opium. Which a
naturally occurring compound found in the poppy plant.
Hydrocodone and Oxycodone
Stimulants
Drugs that tend to increase overall levels of neural activity.
 Act as agonist of the dopamine neurotransmitter
Have an abuse liability
Hallucinogen
Is one of a class of drugs that result in profound alterations in
secondary and perceptual experiences.
As a group hallucinogen varied in terms of neurotransmitter
systems they affect.
Mescaline
LSD
PCP (angel dust)
Ketamine
NMDA
Hypnosis
Is a state of extreme self-focus and attention in which minimal
attention is given to external stimuli.
How does hypnosis work?
Performance of a social role
Dissociated state of consciousness
Effective in pain management, depression, anxiety, smoking
cessation and weight loss.
Meditation
Is the act of focusing on a single target to increase awareness of the moment.
It is not a altered state of consciousness but instead a unique state of
consciousness
The central feature of meditation is clearing the mind in order to achieve a state
of relaxed awareness and focus

Chapter 5

Sensation Versus Perception

What is the difference between sensation and perception?
Sensation leads to perception
You have sensations and brain tells you what you are sensing
Sensation
What happens when sensory information is detected by sensory
receptors.
Perception
Refers to the way sensory information is organized, interpreted,
and consciously experienced.
Sensory Adaptation
Not perceiving stimuli that remain relatively constant over prolong
periods of time
Perception
 Failure to notice something that's is completely visible because of a lack
of attention is called inattentional blindness.
Signal Detection Theory
The ability to identify a stimulus when it is embedded in a
distracting background
Waves and Wavelength
Amplitude and Wavelength
The amplitude or height of a wave is measured from the peak to the
trough. The wavelength is measured from peak to peak.
Frequency
Refers to the number of waves that pass a given point in a given time
period and is often expressed in terms of hertz (Hz)
The figure illustrates waves of differing wavelengths/frequencies. At the
top of the figure, the red wave has a long wavelengths decrease and
frequencies increase.
Light Waves
Lights that is visible to humans makeup only a small portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum
Different wavelengths of light are associated with our perception of
different color
Vision
Our eyes take in sensory information that helps is see
7 Parts of the eye - Anatomy of the Visual System
Cornea
Pupil
Iris
Retina (remember)
Cones and Rods in here
Cones(Remember)
Responsible for color
Rods (Remember)
Responsible for dim lights
Fovea(remember)
Helps you focus what youre looking at
Optic Nerve(remember)

Lens
A curved transparent structure that serves to provide additional focus
Fovea (Remember)
Small indentation in the back area of the eye where the lens will focus
images. It contains a high number of cones
Retina(Remember)
The light sensitive lining of the eye
 Optic Nerve
Carries visual information for the retina to the brain
Blind Stop
Point where we cannot respond to visual information in that portion of the
visual field
Color and Depth Perception
Trichromatic Theory of Color
According to the Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision, all colors in
the spectrum can be produced by combining red, green, and blue.
The three types of cones are each receptive to one of the colors.
Opponent- Process Theory
Explains that color coded in opponent pairs: Black-white,
yellow-blue, and green-red. Some cells of the visual system are
excited by one
Depth Perception
The ability to perceive spatial relationships in three-dimensional
(3-D0 space.
Binocular Disparity
The slightly different view of the world that each of our eyes
receives
Hearing
Anatomy of the Auditory System
The ear is divided into outer (pinna and tympanic membrane), middle (the
three ossicles: malleus incus and stapes), and inner (cochlea and basilar
membrane) divisions.
Temporal Theory
Asserts that frequency is coded by the activity level of a sensory neuron.
Meaning, a given hair cell would fire action potentials related to the
frequency of the sound wave.
Place Theory
Suggest that different portions of the basilar membrane are sensitive to
sounds of different frequencies. For example, the base of the basilar
membrane responds best to high frequencies.
Hearing Loss
Deafness
Is the partial or complete inability to hear.
Congenital Deafness
People that are born deaf.
Conductive Hearing loss
Because of age, genetic predisposition, or environmental effects,
including exposure to extreme nice, certain illness, or damage due
to toxins.
The Other Senses
 Chemical Senses
Gustation (taste)
Taste (gustation) and smell (olfaction) are called chemical senses
because both have sensory receptors that respond to molecules in
the food we eat or in the air we breathe.
Olfaction (Smell)
Taste (gustation) and smell (olfaction) are called chemical senses
because both have sensory receptors that respond to molecules in
the food we eat or in the air we breathe.

Umami
The first taste (yummy)
(Yummy, associated with monosodium glutamate) the first taste
4 Basic Groups of taste
Sweet
Salty
Sour
Bitter
Possible sixth taste for fatty content of a given food
Taste buds
Are composed of a number of individual taste receptors cells that
transmit information to nerves
Olfactory Receptors
Cells are small hair-like extension from these receptors serve as
the sites for order molecules dissolved in the mucus to interact
with chemical receptors located on these extensions.
Pheromone
A chemical substance produced and released into the
environment by an animal, especially a mammal or an insect,
affecting the behavior or physiology of others of its species.
(affects behavior of others)
Touch Thermoreception, and Nociception
There are many types of sensory receptors located in the skin, each
attuned to specific tough related stimuli
Pain Perception
Pain is an unpleasant experience that involves both physical and
psychological components.
Inflammatory Pain
Pain that signals some type of tissue Damage
Neuropathic Pain
When pain comes damage to neurons of either the peripheral or
central nervous system the pain signals get exaggerated and are
sent to the brain.
 The Vestibular Sense, Proprioception, and Kinesthesia
Vestibular system
The major sensory organs of the vestibular system are located
next to the cochlea in the inner ear. These include the utricle,
saccule, and the three semicircular canals
Vesicular sense
Is located next to the cochlea in
Proprioception and kinesthesia
Gestalt Principles of Perception
Gestalt Psychology
Based on the believe that perception involved more than simply
combining sensory stimuli
Figure Ground
Objects (the figure) are seen as distinct from the surrounding(the ground)
Proximity
Objects that are physically close together are grouped together
The Gestalt principle of proximity suggest that you see (a) one block of
dots on the left side (b) three columns on the right side.
Principle of Closure
Suggests that we will perceive a complete circle and rectangle rather than
a series of series.
__________________________________________________________________________
Chapter 6
__________________________________________________________________________
6.1 What is Learning
Reflexes, Instincts and Learning
Reflexes
Are a motor or neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment.
Instincts
Are innate behaviors that are triggered by a broaders range of events,
such as aging and the change of seasons.
Learning
Is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results
from experience.
What is learned can be unlearned.
6.2 Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning (Involuntary)
Ivan Pavlov
Research on the digestive system dogs and
Classical Conditioning
Is a process by which we learn to associate stimuli and, consequently, to
anticipate events.
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
 A stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UR) without previous
conditioning
Unconditioned Response (UR)
An unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus (US)
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
Stimulus that , before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of
interest
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus (NS) that becomes conditioned through repeated
pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (US), and it now elicits a conditioned
response
US = Food
UR = Saliva
NS = Bell
CS = Bell
CR = Saliva
General Process: 6 Steps
Acquisition
The initial learning phase of classical conditioning; an organism
Stimulus Generalization
The conditioned response (CR) is elicited not only by the conditioned
stimulus (CS) but also by stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS)
Stimulus Discrimination
A conditioning in which an organism learns to respond differently to
stimuli that differ from the conditioned stimulus on some dimension
Extinction
Gradual disappearance of a conditioned response(CR); occurs when
unconditioned stimulus (US) is withheld whenever the conditioned
stimulus (CS) is presented
Spontaneous Recovery
Sudden reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response
(CR) to a conditioned stimulus (CS)
Higher Order
An established conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus
(the second order stimulus), so that eventually the new stimulus also
elicits the conditioned response, without the initial conditioned stimulus
being presented.
Behaviorism
John B. Watson used the principles of classical conditioning in the study of
human emotion
Conditioned Emotional Response
Through Classical conditioning, an emotion, such as fear, becomes a
conditioned response to a previously neutral stimulus (NS)
 Likes
Dislikes
Prejudices
Phobias
Love
Operant Conditioning (Voluntary)
B.F. SKinner developed operant conditioning for systematic study of how
behaviors are strengthened or weakened according to their consequences
Learning through voluntary behavior and its subsequences; reinforcement
increases behavioral tendencies, whereas punishment decreases them
Reinforcement
The adding or taking away of a stimulus following a response, which increases
the likelihood of that response being repeated.
Ex. Sticker charts are a form of positive reinforcement and a tool for
behavior modification. Once this little girl earns a certain number of
stickers for demonstrating a desired behavior.
Positive Reinforcer
Positive reinforcement works by presenting a motivating iten to the person
after the desired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior more likely to
happen in the future.
Negative Reinforcer
When a certain stimulus/item is removed after a particular behavior is
exhibited. The likelihood of the particular behavior is exhibited. The
likelihood of the particular behavior occurring again in the future in
increased because of removing/avoiding the negative stimuli.
Punishment
Time-out is a popular form of negative punishment used by caregivers.
When a child misbehaves, he or she is removed from a desirable activity
in an effort to decrease the unwanted behavior.
The adding or taking away of a stimulus following a response, which
decreases the likelihood of that response being repeated.
Undesirable emotional responses
Passive aggressiveness
Lying and avoidance behavior
Inappropriate modeling
Temporary suppression versus elimination
Learned helplessness
Inappropriate rewards and escalation
Positive Punishment
Positive punishment works by presenting a negative consequence after
an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to
happen in the future.
Negative Punishment
 Negative punishment happens when a certain desired stimulus/item is
removed after a particular undesired behavior is exhibited, resulting in
the behavior happening less often.
Shaping
Shaping is a training method in which reinforcement is delivered for
successive approximations of the desired response.
Primary Reinforcement
Any stimuli that increase the probability of a response because of their
innate biological value, such as food and water.
Secondary Reinforcers
Any stimuli that increase the probability of a response because their
learned value, such as money and material possessions.
The fours Reinforcement schedules yield different response patterns.
Variable Ratio Schedule
Is unpredictable and yields high and steady response rates, with
little if any pause after reinforcement (e.g., gambler).
Fixed Ratio Schedule
Is predictable and produces a high response rate, with a short
pause after reinforcement(e.g.,punch-cards).
Variable Interval Schedule
Unpredictable and produces a moderate, steady response rate
(e.g., pop quizzes)
Fixed Interval schedule
Yields a scallop-shaped response pattern, reflecting a significant
pause after reinforcement (e.g., Weekly Paycheck).
Cognition and Latent Learning
Insight
Sudden understanding or realization of how a problem can be solved
Latent learning
Hidden learning that exists without behavioral signs
Cognitive Maps
Mental image of a three-dimensional space that an organism has
navigated
__________________________________________________________________________C
HAPTER 7
_________________________________________________________________________
What is Cognition?
Is thinking, and it encompasses the process associated with perception,
knowledge, problem solving, judgment, language, and memory
Cognitive Psychology
Field of psychology dedicated to examining how people think.
What is Thinking?
Forming ideas
 Drawing conclusions
Expressing Thoughts
Comprehending the thoughts of others
Where does it occur?
Frontal Cortex
In the entire brain
Concepts and Prototypes
Are categories or groupings of linguistic information, images , ideas, or
memories, such as life experiences
Sensations and information are received by our brains, filtered through
emotions and memories, and processed to become thoughts.
Information Sensations Emotion memories Thoughts
Prototypes
Is a best example or representation of a concept
Natural and Artificial Concepts
Our concept of snow is an example of a natural concept - one that we
understand through direct observation and experience.
In contrast, artificial concepts are the ones that we know by a specific set of
characteristics that they always exhibit, such as what defines different basic
shapes
Shemata
A schema (plural schemata or schemas) describes a pattern of thought or
behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships among
them.
Role Schema
Makes assumptions about how individuals in certain roles will behave
Event Schema(Cognitive Script)
Is a set of behaviors that can feel like a routine
Components of Language
Language
Is a communication system that involves using words and systemic rules
to organize those words to transmit information from one individual to
another.
Nature Argument
Children are prewired with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
enabling them to analyze language and extract basic rules of grammar.
Nurture Argument
Children learn language via a complex system of rewards, punishments,
and imitation.
Problem Solving Strategies
Trial and Error
Continue trying different solutions until problem is solve.
Algorithm
 Step-by-step problem-solving formula
Heuristic
General problem-solving framework
Pitfalls to Problem Solving
Mental Set
Is where you persist in approaching a problem I am way that has worked
in the past but is clearly not working in the present.
Functional Fixedness
Is a type of mental set where you cannot perceive an object being used
for something other than what is was designed for.
Classifying Intelligence
What is intelligence