Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION
Our project ''Solar Cooler'' is based on the concept of harvesting Solar Energy. It is easily
interpretable from the name of the project that is based on the Solar energy for Satisfying its
need of power source. The functionality of power cooler is dissimilar as that of the traditional
coolers. The solar Energy is harvested and stored in a battery . This Battery is in turn
connected to the Solar Cooler for the Power Source.

The Concept of solar cooler sounds good and economical Hence almost every class of
our society can bear its expenses.

With excessive usage of fossil fuels for basically all purposes, even a slightest
reduction in it would result in a large sum of annual savings and benefits to the environment.
Thus, to reduce stress on fossil fuels, emphasis must be given to renewable energy resources.
Solar energy is the most vulnerable and efficient renewable energy source. Though
technology is yet being developed to harness these sources, the available methods are also
quite efficient. With tis in mind, a solar photovoltaic based air-cooling system need to be
developed.

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 Chapter-2

LITERATURE REVIEW
In July 2009, India unveiled a US$19 billion plan to produce 20 GW of solar power
by 2020.
Under the plan, the of solar-powered equipment and applications would be made
compulsory in all government buildings, as well s hospitals and hotels.
On 18 November 209, it was reported that India was ready to launch its National
Solar Mission index the National Action Plan on Climate Change, with plans to
generate 1000 MW of power by 2013
From August 2011 to July 2012, India went from 2.5 MW of grid connected to
photovoltaic to over 1000 MW
According to a 2011 report by BRIDGE TO INDIA and GTM Research, India is
facing a perfect storm of factors that will drive photovoltaic (PV) adoption at a
''furious pace over the next five years and beyond''.
The falling prices of PV panels, mostly from china but also from the US.s., have
coincide with the growing cost of grid power in India.
Government support and sample ample solar have also helped to increase solar
adoption, but perhaps the bigger factor has been need. India is planning to install the
Worlds largest Solar Power Plant with 4000 MW Capacity near Sambhar Lake in
Rajasthan.

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 Chapter-3

OBJECTIVE
saving electricity
Minimizing season wise servicing.
Verifying power consumption at various speeds.
To enable people of those real Ares which do not have electric supply to have cool air
during summer.
Reduce the maintenance cost by replacing the concept of pump.
Can be used where no power supply is available.
To make aware of non conventional energy sources to reduce environmental
Pollutions.
3.1 Present Problem
the producing of electricity is ultimately responsible for hot and humid
conditions, i.e., global warming. As in below shown chart it is clear that major
quantity of electricity is produced by coal (fossil fuel).
Fossil fuels also contain radioactive materials, mainly uranium and thorium,
which are released into the atmosphere
Electricity generation produces nitrogen oxides and sulphuric dioxide
emissions, which contribute to smog and acid rain, emit carbon dioxide, which
may contribute to climate change.
Longer power cut durations in villages and high cost of cooling products.

3.2 Proposed Solutions

Need of such a source which is abundantly available in nature, which does not impose any
bad efforts on earth. There is only one thing which can come up with these all problems is
solar energy. Sola energy. Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, is harnessed using
a range of technologies such as solar heating, solar photovoltaics. The earth receives 17 pet
watts (PW) of incoming solar radiation. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while
the rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. Photovoltaics is a method of
generating electrical power by converting solar radiation into direct current electricity by
photovoltaic effect.

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Chapter-4
BLOCK DIAGRAM

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4.1 Solar Energy
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the sun harnessed using a range of ever-evolving
technologies such as solar heating, soar photovoltaic, solar thermal energy, solar architecture
and artificial photosynthesis.

It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly characterised
as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way the capture and distribute solar
energy or convert it into solar power. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic
systems, concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy. Passive solar
techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting Materials with favourable
thermal mass or light aspersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

In 2011, the international Energy Agency said that '' the development of affordable,
inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will

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increase countries'' energy security through reliance in an indigenous, inexhaustible and
mostly import-independent resources, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the
costs of mitigating goalball warming, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These
advantages are global. emcee the additional costs of the incentives for early development
should be considered learning investment; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely
shared.

4.2 Principle of operation of PV cell:

In 1839, French Physicist Alexander E. Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect
involving conversion of solar energy into electrical energy in semiconductor element.

Photovoltaic cell consists of high-purity silicon. On the Sol icon, a PN (positive-negative)

junction was formed as a potential barrier. Photons falling on the PN junction cause the raise
of pairs of opposite electrical charge carriers (electron-hole), which as a result of the presence
of PN junction are separated in two different directions. Electrons go to the semiconductor N
and holes go to the semiconductor P. The voltage will a raise on the junction. Because the

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separated electrical charges are redundunt carriers, having so called, infinite life and a PN
junction voltage is constant, the junction, on which the light falls acts as a stable electric cell.

4.3 Parts of PV cells

1. Semiconductor

2. p-n junction

3. Electrical contact

4. Metallic Connection

5. Anti-glare materials

4.4 How Solar Works

We can change sunlight directly to electricity using solar cells. Everyday light hits your roof's
solar panels with photons (particles of sunlight). The solar panel converts those photons into

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electrons of direct current (''DC'') electricity. The electrons flow out of the solar panel and
into an inverter and other electrical safety devices. The inverter converts that ''DC'' power
(commonly used batteries) into alternating current or ''AC'' power AC power is the kind of
electrical that your television, computer,, and toasters used when plugged into the wall outlet.

A net energy meter keeps track of the all the power your solar system produces. any solar
energy that you do not use simultaneous with production will go into the electrical grid
through the meter. At night or on cloudy days, when your system is not producing more than
your building needs, you will consume electricity from the grid as normal. Your utility will
bill for the ''net'' consumption for any given billing periodic and provide you with a dollar
credit for any excess during a given period. You can carry your bill credit forward for up to a
year.

4.5 Solar Cells

Solar cells are small, square-shaped panel semiconductor made from silicon and other
conductive materials, manufactured in thin film layers . When sunlight strikes a solar cell,
chemical reactions release electrons, generating electron current. Solar cells are also called
photovoltaic cells or ''PV cells'' and can be found on many small appliances such as
calculators.

4.6 Solar Photovoltaic (PV) system Components

A PV system components include PV models (group of PV cells ), which are commonly

called PV panels; one or more batteries; a charge regulator or controller for a stand-alone
system; an inverter to convert solar power from direct current (DC) to the alternating current
(AC) of the utility grid connected system; wiring; and mounting hardware or a framework. A
PV module arranges PV cells, and the modules are grouped together in an array. Some of the
arrays are set on special tracking devices to follow sunlight all day long and improve system
efficiency.

4.7 PV System Installation, Maintenance, and Longevity

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You could install a photovoltaic (PV) or solar electric system yourself. But to avoid
complications or injuries, you will probably want to hire a reputably professional contractor
with experience installing solar systems. While they are sophisticated electric systems, PV
systems have few moving parts, so they require little maintenance. The basic PV module (an
interconnected, enclosed panel of PV cells) has no moving parts and can last more than 30
years while requiring little maintenance. The components are designed to meet strict
dependability and durability standards to withstand the elements. the best way to ensure and
extend the life and effectiveness of your PV system is by having it installed and maintained
properly. Most PV system problems occurs because of poor or sloppy system installation.
Solar system that receives rebates through California Utilities are required to have a 10-year
system warranty.

4.8 Incorporating PV System into Your Home and Business

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PV system today can be blended easily into both traditional and non-traditional homes,
powering appliances and electric systems. PV cells can be installed as stand-stone module
that is attached to your roof or on separate system, or sing integrated roofing materials with
dual functions-that as a regular roofing shingle and as a solar cell making electricity. The
most common practice is to mount modules onto a south-facing roof or wall. PV systems
likewise can be blended into virtually every conceivable structure for commercial buildings.
You will find PV used outdoor for security lighting as well as in structures that serve as
covers for parking lots and bus shelters.

4.9 Sunlight Requirement for PV Systems

A photovoltaic (PV) system needs unobstructed access to the sun's rays for most or all of the
day to be effective. Shading on the system can significantly reduce energy output. Climate is
not a major concern because PV systems are relatively unaffected by air temperatures, and
snow cover typically melts quickly because panels are positioned directly into the sunlight.
Abundant year-round sunshine makes solar energy systems useful and effective nearly
everywhere in California.

4.10 The Size of Your Solar PV System

The size your solar system depends on several factors such as how much electricity or on hot
water or space heat you use, the size of your floor, how much you are willing to invest, and
how much energy you want to generate. Contact a system designer/installer to determine
what type of system fits your need or use one of the Go Solar California online calculators to
determine what system size will offer you the best financial payback.

4.11 Other Solar Technologies

Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems concentrate the sun's energy using
reflexive devices such as troughs or mirror panels to produce heat that is then used to
generate electricity.
Solar water heating systems contain a solar collector that faces the sun and either
heats water directly or heats a ''working fluid'' that, is used to heat water. For more
information on installing a solar water heating system, lease see the CSI Solar
Thermal section of the Go Solar website.
Transpired solar collectors, or ''solar walls,'' use solar energy to preheatventiculation
air for a building.

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4.12 Technology Used

Most solar modules are currently produced from crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells madden
of multicar setline and monocrystalline silicon, In 2013, crystalline silicon accented for more
than 90 percent of worldwide PV production, while theatres of the overall market is made-up
of thin film technologies using cadmium telluride, CIGS and amorphous silicon emerging,
third generation solar technologies use advanced thin film cells. They produce a relatively
high-efficiency conversion for the low cost compared to the other solar technologies. Also,
high-cost, high-efficiency, and close packed rectangular mute-junction (MJ) cells are
preferably used in solar panels on spacecraft, as they offer the highest ratio of generated
power per kilogram lifted into space. MJ-cells are compound semiconductors and made of
gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor materials. Another emerging PV
technology using MJ cells is concentrator photovoltaic (CPV).

4.13 Thin film

In rigid-film modules, the cell and the module are manufactured in the same production lie.
The cell is created on a glass substrate or superstrate, and the electrical connections are
created in-situ, a so-called '' monolithic integration''. The substrate or the superstrate is
laminated with a encapsulate to a front back sheet of glass. The main cell technologies in this
category are Ct., or a-Si, or a-Si + cu si tandem, or CIGM (or variant). Amorphous silicon
has a sunlight conversion rate of 6-12%.

Flexible thin film cells and modules are created on the same production line by depositing the
photoactive layer and other necessary layers on a flexible substrate. If the substrate is an
insulator (e.g. polyester or polyamide film) then monomythic integration can be used If itis a
conductor, then another technique for electrical connection must be used. The cells are
assembled into modules by laminating them to a transparent colourless fluoropolymer on the
front side (typically ETFE or FEP) and a polymer suitable for bonding to the final substrate
on the other side.

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 chapter-5
COMPONENT LIST OF A SOLAR COOLER
Solar panel
Battery
DC motor
Centrifugal DC pump
Cooler body

5.1.1 Solar Panel

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A solar panel is a set of solar photovoltaic modules electrically connected and mounted on a
supporting structure. A photovoltaic module is a packaged, connected assembly of solar cells.
The solar panel can be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and
supply electricity in commercial and residential applications. Each module is rated by its DC
outputs power under standard test conditions (STC) and typically ranges from 100 to 320
watts. The efficiency of a module determines the area of a module given the same rated
output-an 8% efficient 230 watts module will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230-watt
module. A single solar module can produce a limited amount of power; most installations
contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic system typically includes a panel or an array of
solar modules, an inverter, and sometimes a battery and/or solar tracker and interconnection
wiring

5.1.2 Construction
Solar modules use light energy (Photons) from the sun to generate electricity through the
photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer- based crystalline silicon cells or thin
film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon. The structural (load carrying) member of a
module can ether be the top layer or the back layer. Cells must also be protected from
mechanical damage and moisture. Most solar modules are rigid, but semi-flexible once are
available, based on thin- film cells. These early solar modules were first used in space in
1958.

Electrical connections are made in series to achieve desired output voltage and/or in parallel
to provide a desired current capability. the conducting wires that take the current of the
modules may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive transition medals. The
cells must be connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system. externally,
popular terrestrial usage photovoltaic modules use MC3 (order) or MC4 connecters to
facilitate easy weatherproof connections to the rest of the systems.

Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, incise of partial module shading, to
maximize the output of module sections still illuminated.

Some recent solar module design include concentrators in which light is hocused by lenses or
mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost per unit
area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost- effective way.

5.1.3 Efficiencies
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Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity from a range of
frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range (specifically, ultraviolet,
infrared, and low or diffused light) Hence much of the incident sunlight energy is wasted by
solar modules, and they can give for higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic
light. Therefore, another design concept is to split the light into different wavelength ranges
and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges. This has been projected to be
capable of rising efficiency by 50%.

5.2 BATTERY
An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells that
convert stored chemical energy into electrochemical energy. Each cells contains a positive
terminal, or cathode, and a negative terminal, or anode, or anode, Electrolyte sallow icons to
move between the electrodes and terminals, which allows current to flow out of the battery to
perform work.

Primary (single-use or ''disposable'') batteries are used once and discarded; the electrode
materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the alkaline
battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable devices. Secondary (rechargeable
batteries) can be discharged and recharged multiple times; the original composition of the
electrodes can be restored by reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in
vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics.

Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, rom miniature cells used to power herring aids and
wristwatches t battery banks the size of rooms that provide stand by power for telephone
exchanges and computer data centres.

According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates US$48 billion sales
each year, with 6% annual growth.

Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than common fuels such as
gasoline. this is somewhat offset by the higher efficiency of electric motors in producing
mechanical work, compared to combustion engines. The relationship between current,
discharged time and capacity for a lead-acid battery is approximated (over a typical range of
current values) by Phukets law:

t=Qp /Ik

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Where Qp is the capacity when discharged at a rate of one amp

I= is the current darn from battery (A)

t=is the amount of time (in hours) that battery can sustain

K= is a constant around 1.3

Batteries that are stored for a long period or that are discharged at a small fraction of
the capacity lose capacity due to the pressure of generally irreversible side reactions that
consume charge carriers without producing current. This phenomenon is known as internal
self-discharged further, when batteries are recharged, additional side reaction can occurs,
reducing capacity for subsequent discharges. After enough recharges in a sense all capacity is
lost and the battery stops producing powers.

Internal energy loses and limitations on the rate that ions pass through the electrolyte
cause battery efficiency to vary. Above a minimum threshold discharging at a low ate delivers
more of the batteries capacity than at a higher rate.

5.3 DC MOTOR

Dc motors seem quite simple. apply a voltage to both terminals, and it will spin DC motors
are monopolised which means that it can reverse voltage so the Motor will rotate in two
directions, forward and backward. Typical DC motors are rated from about six volt-12 volt.
The larger one are often 24 volt or more but for the purpose of this project. It is necessary to
use six volt- 12 volt range motor. Voltage is directly related to motor torque. The more
voltage supplied, the higher the torque will be produced. specification of Most DC motors
show high revolutions per minute(rpm) and low torque. The DC Motor is popular in number
of drive applications due to its simple operations and control. By referring it has two main
parts which is rotter and stator. Stator is the part where the permanent magnate situated and
used to generate the magnetic field and it is static. Rotor is the rotary part in the motor and
contains block of core and wire loops. It also called armature.

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The rotor is placed inside the magnetic field caused by two permanent magnets. By referring
to the situation, both sides of the wire loop will have a force on them. Trying to make the
wire loop rotate. The current is applied to the loop through the commentator, which is shown
as two pieces of metals formed into a ring in the figure. Current is applied to the commentator
by stationary graffiti blocks, called brushes, which rub against the commentator ring. The
loop will continue to rotate anticlockwise until it is vertical. at this point the stationary
brushes won't be applying current around the loop anymore because they will be contacting
the gap between the commentator segments, but the inertia of the loop keeps it going little
more, until DC supply reconnects to the commentator segments, and the current than goes
around the loop in the opposing direction. The force through is still in same direction, and the
loop continues to rotate.

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5.3.1 DC Motor Voltage
DC motors are non-polarized meaning that one can reverse voltage without any bad things
happening. Typical DC motors are rated from about 6V-12V. The larger ones are often 24 V
or more. But for the purposes of this project, do stay in the 6V-12V range. It is stated that
voltage is directly related to motor torque. High voltage produces higher torque. A DC motor
is rated at the voltage it is most efficient at running. If very few volts are applied, it just wont
work. If too much is applied, it will overheat and the coils will melt. So the general rule is to
apply as close to the rated voltage of the motor. But do not surpass 12V motors unless the
torque is required badly.

5.3.2 DC Motor Current

As with all circuitry one must pay attention to current. Too little, and it just wont work. Too
much, the motor will meltdown. When buying a motor, there are two current ratings one
should pay attention to. The first is operating current. This is the average amount of current
the motor is expected to draw under a typical torque. Multiply this number by the rated
voltage and the average power draw required to run the motor is obtained. The other current
rating which one needs to pay attention to is the stall current. This is when the motor is power

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up and enough torque is put to force it to stop rotating. This is the maximum amount of
current the motor will ever draw and hence the maximum amount of power too. So, one must
design all control circuitry capable of handling this stall current. Also, if the motor is
constantly run, or run it higher than the rated village, it is wise to heat sink to keep the
motors coils from melting.

5.3.3 DC Motor Power Rating

Basically, all motors are rated at certain wattage. Wattage is energy. Inefficiency of energy
conversion directly relates to head output. Too much heat, the motor coils melt. So the
manufacturers of motors know how much wattage will cause motor failure, and post this on
the motor specification sheets. The equation is:

Power (watts) = Voltage * Current

Increase voltage and measure current until the power is about 90% below the given power
rating.

5.3.4 DC Motor Torque

Torque is defined as that force which tends to produce and maintain rotation. The function of
torque in a DC motor is to provide the mechanical output or drive the piece of equipment that
the DC motor is attached to. There are two torque value ratings which must been pay
attention to. The first is the operating torque. This is the torque the rotor was designed to
give. Usually it is the listed torque value. The other rated value is stall torque. This is the
torque required to stop the motor from rotating. He torque which is developed by the motor
can be determined using Equation:

T = KQI,

Where

T = Torque

K = a constant depending on physical size of motor

Q = field flux, number of lines of force per pole

l, = armature current

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When buying a DC motor, there are two torque value ratings which must be Pay attention to.
The first is operating torque. This is the torque the motor was designed to give. Usually it is
the listed torque value. The other rated value is stall torque. This is the torque required to stop
the motor from rotating. If one need a little more speed, going 20% above the rated motor
voltage value is fairly safe. But, that this is less efficient, and the motor should be heat
sinker.

5.3.5 Velocity

Velocity is very complex when it comes to DC motors. The general rules is motor run the
most efficient when run at the highest possible speeds. Obviously however this is not
possible. There are times to run the motor slowly. Just like car, it wont to keep the car
constantly at high speed. The voltage and applied torque resistance obviously also affects
speed.

5.3.6 PMDC motor

This motor using for this project PMDC motor in a DC motor, an armature rotates inside a
magnetic field. Basic working principle of DC motor is based on the fact that whenever a
current carrying conductor is placed inside magnetic, there will be mechanical force
experienced by that conductor. All kinds of DC work in this principle only. Hence for
constructing a DC motor it is essential to establish a magnetic field. The magnetic field is
obviously established by means of magnet. The magnet can by any types i.e. it may be
electromagnet or it can be permanent magnet. When permanent magnet is used to create
magnetic field in a DC motor, the motor is referred as permanent magnet DC motor or PMDC
motor. Have you ever uncovered any battery operated toy, if you did, you had obviously
found a battery-operated motor inside it. This battery operated motor is nothing but a
permanent magnet DC motor or PMDC motor. These types of motor are essentially simple in
construction. These motors are commonly used as started motor in automobiles, windshield
wipers, washer, for blowers used in heaters and air conditioners, to raise and lower windows,
it also extensively used in toys. As the magnetic field strength of a permanent magnet is fixed
it cannot be controlled externally, field control of this type of DC motor cannot be possible.
Thus permanent magnet DC motor is used where there is no need of speed control of motor

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by means of controlling its field. Small fractional and sub fractional kW motors now
constructed with permanent magnet.

5.3.7 Construction of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

As it is indicated in name of permanent magnet dc motor, the field poles of this motor are
essentially made of permanent magnet.

A PMDC motor mainly consists of two parts. A stator and an armature. Here the stator which
is a steel cylinder. The magnets are mounted in the inner periphery of this cylinder. The
permanent magnets are mounted in such a way that the N pole and S pole of each magnet
are alternatively faced towards armature as shown in the figure below. That means, if N
pole of one magnet is faced towards armature then S pole of very next magnet is faced
towards armature.

In addition to holding the magnet on its inner periphery, the steel cylindrical stator
also serves as low reluctance return path for the magnetic flux, although field coil is not
required in permanent magnet DC motor but still it is sometimes found that they are used
along with permanent magnet. This is because if permanent magnets lose their strength, these

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lost magnetic strengths can be compensated by field excitation through these field coils.
Generally, rare earth hard magnetic materials are used for these permanent magnet.

5.3.8 Rotor

The rotor of PMDC motor is similar to other DC motor. The rotor or armature of permanent
magnet DC motor also consists of core, windings and commentator. Armature core is made of
number of varnish insulated, slotted circular lamination of steel sheets. By fixing these
circular steel sheets one by one, a cylindrical shaped slotted armature core is formed. The
varnish insulated laminated steel sheets are used to reduce eddy current loss in armature of
permanent magnet DC motor. These slots on the outer periphery of the armature core are used
for housing armature conductors in them. The armature conductors are connected in a
suitable manner which gives rise to armature winding. The end terminals of the winding are
connected to the commentator segments placed on the motor shaft. Like other DC motor,
carbon or graphite brushes are placed on the motor shaft. Like other DC motor, carbon or
graphite brushes are placed with spring pressure on the commentator segments to supply
current to the armature.

5.3.9 Construction of DC motor

DC motors consist of one set of coils, called armature winding, inside another set of coils or a
set of permanent magnets, called the satori. Applying a voltage to the coils produces a torque
in the armature, resulting in motion.

5.3.10 Stator

The stator is the stationary outside part of a motor.

The stator of a permanent magnet DC motor is composed of two or more permanent
magnet pole pieces.
The magnetic field can alternatively be created by an electromagnet. In this case, a
DC coil (field winding) is wound around a magnetic material that forms part of the
stator.

5.3.11 Rotor

The rotor is the inner part which rotates.

The rotor is composed of windings (called armature windings) which are connected to
the external circuit through a mechanical commutator.

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 Both stator and rotor are made of ferromagnetic materials. The two are separated by
air-gap.

5.3.12 Winding
A winding is made up of series or parallel connection of coils.
Armature winding The winding through which the voltage is applied or induced.
Field winding The winding through which a current is passed to produce flux (for
the electromagnet)
Windings are usually made of copper.

5.3.13 Working Principle of Permanent Magnet DC Motor

As we said earlier the working principle of PMDC motor is just similar to the general
working. That is when a carrying conductor comes inside a magnetic field, a mechanical
force will be experienced by the conductor and the direction of this force is governed by
Flemings left hand rule. As in a permanent magnet DC motor, the armature is placed inside
the magnetic field of permanent magnet; the armature rotates in the direction of the generated
force. Here each conductor of the armature experiences the mechanical force F = B.I.L
newton where B is the magnetic field strength is Tesla (Weber / m 2), I is the current in
Ampere flowing through tat conductor and L is length of the conductor in metre comes under
the magnetic field. Each conductor of the armature experiences a force and the compilation of
those forces produces a torque, which tends to rotate the armature.

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 Flemings left hand rule says that if we extend the index finger, middle finger and
thumb of our left hand in such a way that the current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field (represented by the index finger) is perpendicular to the direction of current
(represented by the middle finger), then the conductor experiences a force in the direction
(represented by the thumb) mutually perpendicular to both the direction of field and the
current in the conductor.

5.3.14 Equivalent Circuit of Permanent Magnet DC Motor

As in PMDC motor the field is produced by permanent magnet, there is no need of drawing
field coils in the equivalent circuit of permanent magnet DC motor. The supply voltage to the
armature will have armature resistance drop and rest of the supply voltage is countered back
emf of the motor. Hence voltage equation of the motor is given by,

V =IR + Eb

Where I, is armature current and R is armature resistance of the motor. E b is the back emf and
V is the supply voltage.

5.4 Diode

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A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes called the anode and the
cathode. Most diodes are made with semiconductor materials such as silicon, germanium, or
selenium. Some diodes are comprised of metal electrodes in a chamber evacuated or filled
with a pure elemental gas at low pressure. Diodes can be used as rectifiers, signal limiters,
voltage regulators, switches, signal modulators, signal mixers, signal demodulator, and
oscillators.

The fundamental property of a diode is its tendency to conduct electric current in only one
direction. When the cathode is negatively charged relative to the anode at a voltage greater
than a certain minimum called forward break over, then current flows through the diode. If
the cathode is positive with respect to the anode, is at the same voltage as the anode, or is
negative by an amount less than the forward break over voltage, then the diode does not
conduct current. This is a simplistic view, but is true for diodes operating as rectifiers,
switches, and limiters. The forward break over voltage is approximately six tenths of a volt
(0.6 V) for silicon devices, 0.3 for germanium devices, and 1 V for selenium device.

5.5 Centrifugal DC Pump

Centrifugal pumps are a sub-class of dynamic axis symmetric work-absorbing turbo
machinery. Centrifugal pumps are used to transport fluids by the conversion of rotational
kinetic energy to the hydrodynamic energy of the fluid flow. The rotational energy typically
comes from an engine or electric motor. The fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to
the rotating axis and is accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially outward into a diffuser or
volute chamber (casing), from where it exits.

Common uses include water, sewage, petroleum and petrochemical pumping. The reverse
function of the centrifugal pump is a water turbine converting potential energy of water
pressure into mechanical rotational energy.

5.5.1 Working

Like most pumps, a centrifugal pump converts mechanical energy from a motor to energy of
a moving fluid. A portion of the energy goes into kinetic energy of the fluid motion, and some
into potential energy, represented by fluid pressure (hydraulic head) or by lifting the fluid,
against gravity, to a higher altitude. The transfer of energy from the mechanical rotation of
the impeller to the motion and pressure of the fluid is usually described in terms of
centrifugal force, especially in older sources written before the modern concept of centrifugal

Dept. of ME, MRCET 24

force as a fictitious force in a rotating reference frame was well articulated. The concept of
centrifugal force is not actually required to describe the action of the centrifugal pump.

The outlet pressure is a reflection of the pressure that applies the centripetal force that curves
the path of the water to move circularly inside the pump. On the other hand, the statement
that the outward force generated within the wheel is to be understood as being produced
entirely by the medium of centrifugal force is best understood in terms of centrifugal force
as a fictional force in the frame of reference of the rotating impeller; the actual forces on the
water are inward, or centripetal, since that is the direction of force needed to make the water
move in circles. This force is supplied by a pressure gradient that is set up by the rotation,
where the pressure at the outside, at the wall of the volute, can be taken as a reactive
centrifugal force. This was typical of nineteenth and early twentieth century writings, mixing
the concepts of centrifugal force in informal descriptions of effects, such as those in the
centrifugal pump.

Differing concepts and explanations of how centrifugal pumps work have long engendered
controversy and criticism. For example, the American Expert Commission sent to the Vienna
Exposition in 1873 issued a report that included observations that they are misnamed
centrifugal, because they do not operate by centrifugal force at all; they operate by pressure
the same as a turbine water wheel; when people understand their method of operating we may
expect much improvement. John Richards, editor of the San Francisco-based journal
Industry, also down played the significance of centrifugal force in his essay.

5.6 Cooler Body

Cooler body is made up of plastic
Plastic avoids corrosion and is durable
Cooler body includes fan, water storage tank and aspen pads
Aspen pads are soaked in the water making the air cooler.

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5.7 Resistors
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance
as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to lower
voltage levels within circuits. Resistors may have fixed resistance or variable resistance, such
as those found in thermistors, visitors, trimmers, photo resistors and potentiometers.

The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistors
terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm law:

l = {V \ over R}

Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in

units of ohms (symbol : ).

The ratio of the voltage applied across a resistors terminals to the intensity of current in the
circuit is called its resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant (independent of the
voltage) for ordinary resistors working within their ratings.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be composed of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wires (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such
as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly
analogy devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.

The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial

resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. When
specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may

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require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its
specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in
some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum
power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a
particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with
higher power ratings are physically larger and may required heat sinks. In a high-voltage
circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the
resistor. While there is no minimum working voltage for a given resistor, failure to account
for a resistors maximum rating may cause the resistor to incinerate when current is run
through it.

Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these
specifications can be important in high-frequency applications in a low-noise amplifier or
pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance,
excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in
manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular
family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology. A family of discrete resistors
is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and the
position of its lead (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits
using them.

5.7.1 UNITS OF RESISTOR AND Its SYMBOLS

The Ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after George Simon Ohm.
An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived values of million (1m=10-3), kilo ohm
(1k), and me ohm (M=106) are also in common usage.

The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G=1/R and us measured in Siemens (SI
unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Hence, Siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: S=/Omega
{-1}.
Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors
are always specified interims of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.

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Dept. of ME, MRCET 28
5.7.2 Theory of Operation of Resistor

5.7.2.1 Ohms law

The behaviour of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohms law

V = I \cot R.

Ohms law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I), where
the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).

Equivalently, Ohms law can be stated:

I = \ frank {V} {R}.

This formulation states that the current (I) is proportional to the voltage (V) and inversely
proportional to the resistance (R). This is directly used in practical computations. For
example, if a 300-ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12-volt battery, then a
current of 12/300 = 0.04 amperes (or 40 mill amperes) flows through that resistor.

5.7.2.2 Series and parallel resistors

In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same, but the voltage
across each resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential difference (voltage)
seen across the network is the sum of those voltages, thus the total resistance can be found as
the sum of those resistances:

Req =R1 + R2 + Rn .

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same resistance
R is given by NR. Thus, if a 100K ohm resistor and a 22K ohm resistor are connected in
series, their combined resistance will be 122K ohm they will function in a circuit as though
they were a single resistor with a resistance value of 122 K ohm; three 22K ohm resistors
(N=3, R=22K) will produce a resistance of 3x22K = 66K ohms.

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Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential difference
(voltage), however the currents through them add. The conductances of the resistors then add
to determine the conductance of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance (Req) of the
network can be computed:

1 1 1 1
= + + +
R eq R 1 R2 Rn

So, for example, a 10 ohm resistor connected in parallel with a 5 ohm resistor and 0 15 ohm
resistor will produce the inverse of 1/10+1/5+1/15 ohms of resistance, or 1/
(0.1+2+0.067=2.725 ohms. The greater the number of resistors in parallel, the less overall
resistance they will collectively generate, and the resistance will never be higher than that of
the resistor with the lowest resistance in the group (in the case above, the resistor with the
least resistance is the 5 ohm resistor, therefore the combined resistance of all resistors
attached to it in parallel will never be greater than 5 ohms).

The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by two vertical lines
(as in geometry) as a simplified notation. Occasionally two slashes // are used

instead of , is case the keyboard or font lacks the vertical line symbol. For the case
of two resistors in parallel, this can be calculated using:

R eq=R 1 R 2/(R 1+ R 2)

A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be broken up
into smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance,

A diagram of three resistors, two in parallel, which are in series with the other

R eq=(R 1/ R 2)+ R 3=R 1 R 2/( R 1+ R 2)+ R 3

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However, some complex networks of resistors cannot be resolved in this manner, requiring
more sophisticated circuit analysis. For instance, consider a cube, each edge of which has
been replaced by a resistor. What then is the resistance that would be measured between two
opposite vertices? In the case of 12 equivalent resistors, it can be shown that the corner-to-

corner resistance is 5/6 of the individual resistance. More generally, the Y- transform, or

matrix methods can be used to solve such a problem.

One practical application of these relationships is that a non-standard value of resistance can
generally be synthesized by connecting a number of standard values in series or parallel. This
can also be used to obtain a resistance with a higher power rating than that of the individual
resistors used. In the special case of N identical resistors all connected in series or all
connected in parallel, the power rating of the composite resistor is N times the power rating
of the individual resistors.

5.7.2.3 Power dissipation

At any instant of times, the power P consumed by a resistor of resistance R (ohms) is

V2
calculated as: P=I 2 R=IV = I
R where V (volts) is the voltage across the resistor and

(amps) is the current flowing through it. The first form is a restatement of Joules first law.
Using Ohms law, the tow other forms can be derived. This power is converted into heat
which must be dissipated by the resistors package.

The total amount of heat energy released over a period of time can be determined from the
integral of the power over that period of time.

t2

W = v ( t ) i ( t ) dt .
t1

Therefore, one could write the average power dissipated over that particular time period as:

t2
1
t 2 t 1
P= v ( t ) i ( t ) dt .
t 1

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If the time interval t1-t2 is chosen to be one complete cycle of a periodic waveform (or an
integer number of cycles), then this result is equal to the long-term average power generated
as heat which will be dissipated continuously. With a periodic waveform (such as, but not
limited to, a sine wave), then this average over complete cycles (or over the long term) is

2
=I rms V rms =I 2rms R= V rms
P I rms V rms
conveniently given by R where are the root

mean square values of the current and voltage. In any case, that heat generated in the resistor
must be dissipated before its temperature rises excessively.

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Chapter 6

ADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ENERGY

1. Renewable Energy Source

Solar energy is a truly renewable energy source. It can be harnessed in all areas of the world
and is available every day. We cannot run out of solar energy, unlike some of the other
sources of energy. Solar energy will be accessible as long as we have the sun, therefore
sunlight will be available to us for at least 5 billion years, when according to scientists the sun
is going to die.

2. Reduces Electricity Bills

Since you will be meeting some of your energy needs with the electricity your solar system
has generated, your energy bills will drip. How much you save on your bill will be dependent
on the size of the solar system and your electricity or heat usage. Moreover, not only will you
be saving on the electricity bill, but if you generate more electricity than you use, the surplus
will be exported back to the grid and you will receive bonus payments for that amount.
Savings can further grow if you sell excess electricity at high rates during the day and then
buy electricity from the grid during the evening when the rates are lower.

3. Diverse Applications

Solar energy can be used for diverse purposes. You can generate electricity (photovoltaic) or
heat (solar thermal). Solar energy can be used to produce electricity in areas without access to
the energy grid, to distil water in regions with limited clean water supplies and to power
satellites in space. Solar energy can also be integrated in the materials used for buildings.

4. Low Maintenance Costs

Solar energy systems generally dont require a lot of maintenance. You only need to keep
them relatively clean, so cleaning them a couple of times per year will do the job. Most
reliable solar panel manufacturers give 20-25 years warranty. Also, as there are no moving
parts, there is no wear and tear. The inverter is usually the only part that needs to change after

Dept. of ME, MRCET 33

5-10 years because it is continuously working to convert solar energy into electricity (Solar
PV) and heat (Solar thermal).

5. Technology Development

Technology in the solar power industry is constantly advancing and improvements will
intensify in the future. Innovations in quantum physics and nanotechnology can potentially
increase the effectiveness of solar panels and double, or even triple, the electrical input of the
solar power systems.

Chapter 7

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DISADVATAGES OF SOLAR ENERGY

1. Cost

The initial cost for purchasing a solar system is fairly high. Although the UK government has
introduced some schemes for encouraging the adoption of renewable energy sources, for
example the feed-in Tariff, you still have to cover the upfront costs. This includes paying for
solar panels, inverter, batteries, and wiring and for the installation. Nevertheless, solar
technologies are constantly developing, so it is safe to assume that prices will go down in the
future.

2. Weather Dependent

Although solar energy can still be collected during cloudy and rainy days, the efficiency of
the solar system drops. Solar panels are dependent on sunlight to effectively gather solar
energy. Therefore, a few cloudy, rainy days can have a noticeable effect on the energy system.
You should also take into account that solar energy cannot be collected during the night.

3. Solar Energy Storage Is Expensive

Solar energy has to be used right away, or it can be stored in large batteries. These batteries,
used in off-the-grid solar systems, can be charged during the day so that the energy is used at
night. This is good solution for using solar energy all day long but it is also quite expensive.
In most cases it is smarter to just use solar energy during the day and take energy from the
grid during the night (you can only do this if your system is connected to the grid). Luckily
our demand is usually higher during the day so we can meet most of it with solar energy.

4. Uses a Lot of Space

The more electricity you want to produce, the more solar panels you will need, because you
want to collect as much sunlight as possible. Solar panels require a lot of space and some
roofs are not big enough to fit the number of solar panels that you would like to have. An
alternative is to install some of the panels in your yard but they need to have access to
sunlight. Anyways, if you dont have the space for all the panels that you wanted, you can
just get a fewer and they will still be satisfying some of your energy needs.

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5. Associated with Pollution

Although pollution related to solar energy systems is far less compared to other sources of
energy, solar energy can be associated with pollution. Transportation and installation of solar
systems have been associated with emission of greenhouse gases. There are also some toxic
materials and hazardous products used during the manufacturing process of solar
photovoltaic, which can indirectly affect the environment. Nevertheless, solar energy pollutes
far less than the other alternative energy sources.

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 Chapter 8

APPLICATIONS

It can be used in the rural areas where power cut is a problem.

It can be used in Schools, Colleges, and offices.
It is used where sun light is available easily.

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 Chapter 9

CONCLUSION

In traditional coolers a chopper is used for reduction of speed whereas in our cooler
we have used resistors which reduce the power consumed along with the variation in
speed.
The DC motor can be replaced with the highly efficient PMDC motor, which is
maintenance free and simplified in construction.
Though our intent to replace the concept of pump was unsuccessful, it leaves a lot of
scope for future batches to find out a way for eliminating the defects of pumps usage
by using an alternative that works in a better way than the cotton.

Dept. of ME, MRCET 38

 Chapter 10

FUTURE SCOPE

So as comparing the cost of this product with the existing products in the market is, solar
product appeals better and affordable by common people. This solar product perfectly suits
for villages, schools and offices and thus prevention from the power cut problems. It
comprises of many attractive features such as usage of solar energy, cooler and cooling cabin
at lower cost. The above method is eco-friendly and natural, electricity savers. Durability of
our product is more thus minimizing the cost. No electricity is spent so this product saves the
energy and saves environment from getting polluted.

Dept. of ME, MRCET 39

 Chapter 11

REFERENCES

Gears, Jacek F and Wing, Mitchell. Permanent magnet motor technology: design and
applications. Marcel Dekker, Inc. 2002.
C. Elanchezhan, G. Shanmuga Sunder and teal, Computer Aided Manufacturing 2 nd
ed. Laxumin Publications 2007
G.K. Dubey. Fundamentals of electrical drives. 2nd ed. Alpha Science International
2001
Sivanaga raju, S and et al. Power Semiconductor Drives. PHI Private Learning Ltd.
2009
Non-Conventional Energy Sources By G.D. RAI
Nonconventional Energy By Ashok V. Desai
Renewable energy sources and conversion technology By Bansal Kerman.
U. Eicker, Low Energy cooling for sustainable Buildings, Great Britain: John Wiley
and Sons, Ltd., 2009.

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