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Objectives
Problems
Poverty
Being poor means being unable to eat properly, clothe yourself prop-
erly, purchase medicine for your ailments, or dwell in a safe, com-
6 Introduction to Development Communication
Unemployment
You are unemployed when you do not earn a living. You are under-
employed when your job requires skills that are way below what
you trained for. Consequently, you are paid way below your worth.
World population has reached the 6 billion mark and is rapidly in-
creasing. Reflect for a moment that at the end of the 18th century,
there were only 900 million people in the entire world. This nearly
doubled a century later with 1.6 billion. Today, however, after an-
other hundred years, this figure ballooned almost four times. Is the
dire Malthusian prediction coming to pass in our time?
Inequality
Contrary to myth, all men are not created equal. Some are born
rich, others are born poor. Some are born healthy; others are born
with the specter of disease continually haunting them. Some are
born in industrialized countries; others are born in develop-ing coun-
tries. However, everyone should be equally provided with the op-
portunity to develop, to realize his or her full potential.
In developing countries, such a condition is but a dream. Consider,
for instance, the fact that 10 percent of the population in the Phil-
ippines controls 90 percent of its economic resources. For a poor
country, it is strange to find people literally wal-lowing in wealth.
Environmental Degradation
and the Loss of Arable Land
Furthermore, our cities and inland waters suffer from unabated in-
dustrial pollution that causes an ever-widening range of pervasive
skin and respiratory ailments, cancers, nervous disorders, neuro-
logical diseases, and brain damage. What is even more disturbing is
the threat to our coastal and marine environment, which is the most
genetically diverse in the entire world.
Malnutrition
Ethnic Conflict
Societal Priorities
Given the gravity and extent of our societal problems, one would
think that a concerted and comprehensive effort to solve all these
problems would be conducted by the community of nations. In-
deed several initiatives have been formed, particularly during the
turn of the millennium. The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro (1992)
followed by the Johannesburg Summit (2002) has crystallized the
United Nations Millennium Development Goals.
Figure 1-1 gives the global annual spending in the 1990s, a clear
indication of our societal priorities in spite of our societal prob-
lems.
900
800 780
700
600
500
400
400
300
200
105
100 50 35 17 13 12 12 11 9 8.1 8
0
Reproductive
Education
(Europe)
Drugs
Cigarettes
Pet Foods
Cosmetics
Ice Cream
Basic Health
and Nutrition
Military
Water and
and USA)
Entertainment
Sanitation
and USA)
Perfumes
Alcohol
(Europe)
(Europe)
(Europe
(Europe
Health for
Basic
(USA)
Women
(Japan)
Bus
Summary
References
Objectives
low productivity
unemployment and
underemployment
1. are pervasive;
2. are interrelated;
3. come in clusters; and
4. have an innate tendency to recur.
Development planners in the 1990s are faced with the same prob-
lems as their counterparts in the 1950s and 1960s. The situation has
prompted development agencies to focus on a new concept, namely
sustainable development (as in sustainable agriculture). It is along
this line that we introduce the following topic.
They argued that in any given system, problems are usually interre-
lated, one being the cause or the effect of another. Decision mak-
ers usually fall into the trap of mistaking a symptom for the root
cause. Hence, any attempt at remedying the symptom will only suc-
ceed temporarily since these are merely palliatives. Until the root
cause is identified and eradicated, the cluster of problems will al-
ways recur. The important thing is to identify the superordinate
influential factors through a series of unstructured, open-ended
interviews. This procedure is known as the problematique tech-
nique.
Next, ask Why? In other words, ask yourself, Why dont I have
enough cash? List down the reasons that directly cause this situa-
tion of not having enough money. Again, for purposes of example,
let us say that the following reasons contribute to our cash flow
problem:
Low salary
Now, go over these reasons one by one and ask yourself, Why?
Let us assume that you have two sources of income: your salary
and your investments. Let us assume further that your salary is small
and that the returns on your investment are also small. Moreover
your salary is pegged to the minimum because of the lack of an
advanced degree. Similarly, the low ROI and the high cost of liv-
ing may be a function of unsound economic policies. In the dia-
gram (see Figure 2-4), link these factors to the respective situations
to establish causality.
18 Introduction to Development Communication
Low salary
Let us assume that such is the case in our example. The lack of an
advanced degree could no longer be attributed to any other factor
and the unsound economic policy goes beyond the system under
study, i.e., our personal circumstances.
References
That was in the 1960s. Since then, many theories, many definitions,
and many measures of development have been forwarded. These
theories, definitions, and measures have their own individual mer-
its. From a development communication perspective, however, the
true measure of development is man.
22 Introduction to Development Communication
Objectives
A Poem on Development
G. Belkin
Canadian Hunger Foundation Report
ASIA FOCUS, Volume VIII, Number 1,
First Quarter, 1973, pp. 40-41
Much has been said, much has been written about development
and many scholars feel that this much is enough. There is no longer
any need to belabor it some more. However, it was only after the
Second World War when people began applying the term devel-
opment in the context of nations and societies. In fact, before
John Maynard Keynes the term was more frequently applied in bi-
ology than in economics.
24 Introduction to Development Communication
The term soon became a buzz word for diplomats, planners, and
policymakers. It was institutionalized as a fashionable adjunct to
the newly-formed national and international agencies such as the
United States Agency for International Development and the United
Nations Development Programme. A surge of activity promot-ing
development soon ensued internationally with the Western nations
as the donors and countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America as
the beneficiaries. These focused on infrastructure and agricultural
productivity. The 1960s became the First Develop-ment Decade.
Thus, the 1970s ushered in what the United Nations calls the Sec-
ond Development Decade with an obvious paradigm shift in per-
spective from the economic to the humanistic. Development was
no longer defined as economic growth measured by the gross na-
tional product. The term began to assume a deeper meaning, the
improvement of the quality of life of the individual. Man him-
self became the measure of development.
Seers, on the other hand, was the Director of the Institute of De-
velopment Studies at the University of Sussex. Like Ghandi, he
believed that development should provide the necessary conditions
for the realization of the potential of human personality. The presence
of these conditions determines whether a country is developed or
not. The following conditions should serve as indicators for devel-
opment:
Taking the cue from Seers, the Development Academy of the Phil-
ippines launched the Social Indicators Project in October 1973 to
develop a comprehensive measure for development, a national
social accounting system in the words of its project director, Mahar
Mangahas. From a preliminary list of nine areas of concern, the
project isolated 30 elements, each a measurable, quantitative indi-
cator. The indexes are as follows:
4. Employment
a. Unemployment rate of the totally unemployed, by occupa-
tion and by educational attainment
b. Real wage rate index, skilled vs. unskilled workers, by occu-
pation
8. Social Mobility
a. Index of occupational mobility
b. Coefficient of openness of occupations, circulation mobil-
ity
c. Index of perceived social mobility
9. Political Values
a. Ratio of votes cast to registered voters
b. Ratio of registered voters to population aged 21 and over
c. Index of political mobility
d. Index of political participation
e. Index of political awareness
f. Index of freedom of political dissent
g. Index of political efficacy
References
Objectives
Paradigms, Perspectives
It was six men of Indostan,
To learning much inclined,
Who went to see the elephant,
(Though all of them were blind,)
That each by observation
Might satisfy his mind.
One of the most dreadful words that I had to wrestle with in graduate
school was the word paradigm. What is a paradigm? Simply put,
a paradigm is a way of explaining things. Ideally, a paradigm adopts
a set of assumptions about nature (called epistemology), a unique
pattern of interpretation, reasoning, and theorizing. A paradigm
may be described in a number of ways: a perspective; a way of
looking at things; a school of thought; a particular model of reality
adopted by a scientist or theoretician when conducting an inquiry.
The speaker responded that he did not see this during his stint in
Manila, which was during the Marcos era. What he did find, how-
ever, were absurd cases of graft and corruption such as policemen
stealing chickens from rural folk. Precisely. Graft and corruption
may have been a major hindrance to economic prosperity. But where
in his economic model was graft and corruption factored in? Agree-
ably, the Philippine government had some of the best economists
in its employ then, textbook writers even. But it also had some of
the worst crooks, a situation which to my mind was the reason why
the Philippine economy was considered a basket case. No amount
of fiscal or monetary policy could have saved it then.
Our economist friends would have a caveat for this in the Latin
phrase, ceteris paribus, i.e., All things being equal. Given the com-
plexity of poverty, one cannot just impose this conditionality.
Youve just read the sixth stanza of the poem The Six Blind Men
and the Elephant. When you get to the next unit of this course,
youll encounter an often-quoted maxim in communication, Mean-
ings are in people, not in words. One of the best illustrations of this
principle is John Godfrey Saxes poem about the six blind men from
Indostan.
Now let us assume for a moment that the elephant under study is
not an animal but this complex web of societal problems called
underdevelopment. In many respects, underdevelopment is as ab-
stract to us as an ele-phant is to a blind man. The perspective of the
blind is limited to his other senses. In the case of the poem, their
individual perceptions were determined by their respective angles
of approach to the subject, guiding them to a specific body part
and subsequently leading them to a conclusion about the animals
appearance, i.e., a rope, a fan, a tree, a snake, a wall, or a spear.
References
Objectives
1. Define communication;
2. Explain the elements of communication;
3. Enumerate the different levels of communication; and
4. Compare and contrast the models of communication.
46 Introduction to Development Communication
Defining Communication
Dennis McQuail and Sven Windahl wrote one of the classic texts
used in graduate communication classes. This was Communica-
tion Models for the Study of Mass Communication (1981). They
offer three examples of definitions of communication. These defi-
nitions (as well as any others you will come across in the future)
serve only to give us an idea of the diversity of meanings given to
communication. McQuail and Windahl list the following definitions.
Communication
Communication as a Process
1. On-going
2. Cyclic
3. Ever-changing
4. No beginning, no end
5. Interdependent
6. Interrelated
Source
Receiver
Message
Channel
Sound waves carry the message from the farmer to the broadcaster,
from the broadcaster to you. The sound waves are also channels.
This time, these channels are message-vehicles.
The sound waves are supported by air. The air serves as another
channel. Air is a vehicle-carrier.
Effect
Feedback
cates with himself, the messages he encodes are fed back into his
system by his decoder. This is feedback. In human communica-
tion, we constantly seek feedback. Thus, we check on our commu-
nication, on our messages, on what our receivers understand of our
message. A communication res-ponse is feedback to both source
and receiver.
Levels of Communication
Communication Models
Lasswells Model
Who,
Says What,
In Which Channel,
To Whom,
With What Effect?
Lasswells model was the first real attempt among social scientists
to depict the communication process. However, it was later criti-
cized because:
Received
Message Signal Signal Message
Information Transmitter Receiver Destination
Noise
Source
Newcombs Model
A B
Message
Encoder Decoder
Interpreter Interpreter
Decoder Encoder
Message
Gerbners Model
Selection Content
E Availability E1
Event Percept
Access to
Channels
Media
Control
M2
C
O
F N
SE1
S O T E Selection Content Perceptor
R E Availability
M N Statement about
T event
Then, we move into the vertical dimension of the model. The circle
is divided into two: S (signal) and E (content). Because content can
be communicated in different ways, there are many potential Ss to
choose from. The communicator then must make a crucial deci-
sion: how to find the best signal for the content. Fiske reminds us
that SE is a unified concept, not two separate areas brought to-
gether. Thus, the choice of signal will affect the presentation of
the content.
In the third stage of the mode, we move once more into the hori-
zontal dimension. What the receiver, M2, perceives is not an event
(E). Rather, M2 receives a signal statement about the event (SE).
Drawing upon his or her needs and concepts from his or her cul-
ture, M2 finds meaning in the message.
What do you notice about this model? Do you see the important
role that Gerbner has assigned to perception in the communication
of meaning and messages?
Fiske (1982) believes that the social need for information also un-
derlies the Westley and MacLean model of communication. He looks
upon the 1957 model as an extension of Newcombs 1953 model.
However, the Westley and MacLean model was created with the
mass media in mind. Thus, while it is rooted in Newcombs ABX
model, it has a new element: C.
x3 x2 x11
A C B
Just like in mass media, the reader (B) has lost touch with A and C.
They have no direct relationship with each other. Can you see why
this communication model is specific to mass communication?
Berlos Model
Perhaps the most well-known (certainly one of the most cited) model
of communication is David Berlos model of communication. Like
the other linear models, Berlo delineates the different actors of the
communication process and the elements that mediate between
them. His model began as the SMCR model (Source Message Chan-
nel Receiver).
S M C R E
Feedback
Figure 5-6. Berlo Model
62 Introduction to Development Communication
I1
I3
Express Interpret
A MU B
Participant A Participant B
Interpret Express
hen
and t
I4
and I2
then
Summary
References
Objectives
On the other hand, mass media channels reach out faster to large
groups in times of emergency. Radio and TV have a special role to
play during times of man-made calamity, natural disaster, or na-
tional crisis.
Have you watched the movie Gallipoli? Its about a group of Aus-
tralian soldiers who fought in World War I in Turkey. Dug-in in
endless trenches, the only way for their leaders to communicate
with each other was to use a runnera soldier chosen for his speed
and endurance. Unfortunately, a very important message failed to
reach one of the generals because the runner didnt make it on
time. The result? Great loss of lives. I have often wondered how
many lives could have been saved if they had, at least, a two-way
radio.
Well, tribal groups with an oral tradition pass on their history around
campfires or as they trek across kilometers of forest land. This tra-
dition is altered or lost as the people who preserve it die or fail to
68 Introduction to Development Communication
Radio
On the other hand, among its main disadvantages are that radio
cannot:
Television
Newspapers
Cinema
We would all agree with Barghouti (1973) that cinema has the power
to catch attention, reach big audiences, can be relatively cheap to
show, and can reach even the lowest strata in most developing coun-
tries. In some countries, it can be expensive to view and any educa-
tional messages may end up buried in a plot that is primarily meant
to be entertaining. For us, to use cinema as a medium would require
much time and money. The film should have popular appeal, can
be inexpensively distributed, and yet clearly contain developmental
messages.
Folk Theater
A few months ago, I met a painter from Milan, Italy. She is based in
Los Baos with her husband, an anthropologist attached to an in-
Unit II Chapter 6 73
In the village where she lived, folk theater was part of community
life. In that sense, its presentation was culturally relevant, easily avail-
able (when needed, they were ready to perform), and inexpensive
(they made and maintained their own costumes and masks).
Barghouti points out, however, that the use of folk theater also has
its disadvantages: performers can lose control of their development
messages and format can detract from content. He suggests that
folk theater can be used in combination with a modern medium
like television or supported by loud speakers.
Barghouti (1975) points out that while these are potentially avail-
able to large audiences and can mean less cost per person if well
located, they are also easily ignored and are limited to the dissemi-
nation of simple messages. Thus, if they are to be used in develop-
ment communication, we must ensure that the messages are well
designed and pretested. Sites must be carefully selected to ensure
the message will reach the people for whom it is intended.
74 Introduction to Development Communication
Other Media
Barghouti (1975) also lists other media that are useful in the dis-
semination of development messages. He lists their main advan-
tages and disadvantages, then comments on how they can be best
used for development purposes. The next table (Table 6.2) is based
on a compilation prepared by Johns Hopkins University staff (for
their training course on Strategic Communication Planning for Fam-
ily Health) from Barghoutis list.
Unit II
Media Main advantages Main disadvantages Comments
Video Can be used to introduce new ideas Expensive Fora require continuing
Forum to selected audiences, microteach, Breakdown in hardware is common attention from profes-
introduce complicated concepts and expensive sional organization. They
and technical issues in a series of Hardware is required (i.e., monitor are most successful in
presentations, record field opera- and playback system) small group learning.
tions and use them later, teach Group discussion leaders
skills (after or before video is
Can be handled by farmers and shows) must be carefully
community leaders selected and trained.
Can become part of a library for It is most efficient when
teaching adult education classes used in combination with
print materials at the end
of the discussion.
It should be used to teach
special skills, for
structured instruction,
Chapter 6
and as a tool to generate
participation among rural
community.
75
76
Table 6.2 continued
Films Use of sight and sound attract Good films are rare Best if combined with dis-
audience attention Equipment is costly to buy and cussion groups
Can make great emotional appeal maintain Audience must be encou-
to large audiences Requires skill in running film raged to evaluate film
projector Use film to stimulate
discussion
Slides Have all the advantages of film Could be expensive Should be used after care-
strips plus more flexibility Difficult to have them on all subjects ful preparation of logical
Can be used in a seies to illustrate to be taught sequence and good
a concept commentary
Table 6.2 continued
Unit II
Media Main advantages Main disadvantages Comments
Flannel Can be portable and mobile Can be used only for what it is Very useful but only for
board Can be prepared by expert in prepared prepared talks
advance Cannot adapt to changing interest Should be used to show
Little skill required in actual operation of group step-by-step process
Can be used to make presentation More elaborate than equipment Flannel material should be
more dynamic Difficult to keep up to date numbered according to
order of presentation
Bulletin Striking, graphic, informative, flexible, Requires preparation and attention Should be combined with
board replaces local newspapers to community needs maps, talks, and photo-
Keeps community up-to-date with graphs
information Very suitable for posting
articles, announcements
and news of develop
ments in the community
Flip charts Cheap and simple Soon torn Should not be overlooked
Chapter 6
Can be stopped at will for analysis Can only be seen by a few at a time for illustration of simple
Can be prepared locally Can be difficult to illustrate compli- sequencesespecially
Ideas could be illustrated in sequence cated ideas with small groups
Illustrations on flip chart could be used Lecturers should be pre-
many times for different pared in advance for use
77
audiences in different sessions on several occasions
Table 6.2 continued
78
Media Main advantages Main disadvantages Comments
Models, Appeal to several senses Not many workers can build them Useful models and exhibitions
charts, Can be used on various occasions or use them properly could be built up locally
displays and situations Should be used in familiar
Can illustrate ideas in detail places and centers
Maps, Visual appeal May mislead by over simplification Should be made especially
charts, Should simplify details Create transport and storage for groups
diagrams Permit leisurely study problem May need careful explana-
Can develop sequence on display tion first
Chapter 6
79
80 Introduction to Development Communication
Summary
References
Barriers
Objectives
E = Sc + Mc + Cc + Rc + Re
Where: E is effect
Sc is characteristics of the source
Mc is characteristics of the message
Cc is characteristics of the channel
Rc is characteristics of the receiver
Re is the resource available to the receiver
Noise
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of prob-
lems of communication:
Problems of Effectiveness
Often, there are nuances of the original language that are lost in the
translation. This is why we often hear that translations are seldom
as good as their originals.
Channel Noise
Why are static, wrong spelling, letters too small to read, a computer
diskette with ruined sectors, and dead air on the radio considered
channel noise? All of these affect the channel, medium, or instru-
ment used in transmitting a message. In turn, they affect the fidelity
of the message. Fidelity, of course, means that the message received
was faithful to the one sent.
Environmental Factors
Semantic Noise
when we use, hear, or read words with double meanings. For many
years, the word gay meant happy or joyful. These days, however, we
use it carefully for although it is spelled the same, its meaning has
changed when used in various contexts.
Socio-psychological barriers
Stereotyping means judging people before you know all the facts
about them. We stereotype groups of people, believing that they
have certain characteristics common among members of each group.
Thus, even as we have stereotypes for men and women, we also
have stereotypes for people from different nations or different re-
gions of our country. A Dutch missionary told me once that the
Dutch are known in Europe for their frugality and hard work. Just
like, he felt, the Iloconos and Boholanons here in the Philippines.
Other Barriers
Communication Competence
Knowledge
Skills
Ive had some students who got high paying jobs - not because they
graduated with honorsbut because they knew how to use inter-
personal communication skills to their advantage.
Sensitivity
Values
You probably can guess what this refers to. Rothwell emphasizes
that the predominant value of the competent communicator is
the desire to avoid previous mistakes and find better ways of com-
munication with group members.
Solution:
Someone better tell him - and soon. But as communicators, we
should be aware that we dont often consider the physical prob-
lems of our receivers that may hamper effective communica-
tion.
3. It is too hot under the tree and the flies are bothering the chil-
dren. They cant listen to their teacher.
Solution:
Move them to some place cool where the flies wont bother
them. Spray the flies?
Solution:
Brief people who are new in a place about customs and tradi-
tions.
94 Introduction to Development Communication
Solution:
Again, inform new comers of group norms. Suggest sensitivity
to a new situation; dont insist on what you want.
Solution:
Well, stereotypes and ethnocentrism are the most difficult to
break. Time and understanding eventually break these down.
4. Illiteracy
Solution:
Get someone to read for them. Or, initiate a literacy program.
Or, dont use print media for an illiterate audience.
Solution:
Reach out and educate.
Failure to Listen
For example, I ask them the question: How many animals did Moses
have on the ark with him? What would you answer?
Barrier 1:
Many people assume in advance that the message communicated will be unin-
teresting and unimportant. Thus, they steer their minds in another direction
even before the source begins.
Remedy:
Give the source at least a few minutes of concentration when com-
munication begins. If you are giving up valuable time to listen, be
selfish enough to collect dividends in the form of new ideas that
the source may have. It has been said that in the entire world there
is no such thing as an uninteresting subject; there are only uninter-
esting communicators.
Barrier 2:
People begin by mentally criticizing the sources delivery. They dont tune in on
the message because they are too busy adding up his/her physical faults and
wondering why he/she rates their attention.
96 Introduction to Development Communication
Remedy:
Remember that brainpower and instantaneous charm are seldom
attributes of the same person. People with profound ideas to share
may not qualify as television performers, but their message usually
outweighs their delivery.
Barrier 3:
People can become over stimulated when they question or oppose an idea and,
consequently, hear only part of it. They are too busy thinking up an argument
or rebuttal to listen with understanding.
Remedy:
Next time you get into an argument, stop the discussion and insti-
tute this rule: Each person may speak up with his own thoughts
only after he/she has first stated the ideas and feelings of the previ-
ous speaker. Any distortion may be corrected immediately by the
original speaker.
Barrier 4:
People listen only for factual data and want to be spared of the details.
Remedy:
The so-called details often are composed of principles and the main
idea. The facts make sense only when they support such principles.
To remember dates and statistics is unimportant if the main point
is lost.
Unit II Chapter 7 97
Barrier 5:
People try to outline everything they hear in a conference or at a convention. But
in their busy efforts to outline whats said, they hear only one-third of it.
Remedy:
Be a flexible note-taker or information rememberer. Within a few
minutes, you can tell how well the source has organized his or her
main points and supporting facts.
Barrier 6:
People frequently pretend to give the source their undivided attention. They then
proceed to tune him/her in or out at will while retaining an attentive facial
expression.
Remedy:
Good listening is not a relaxed passive activity at all, say the experts.
Good listening is characterized by a quickened heartbeat, faster blood
circulation, and a slight rise in body temperature. It consumes en-
ergy and requires hard work. Mere visual attentiveness isnt listen-
ing.
Barrier 7:
People permit others to speak inaudibly or to give fragmentary information
instead of asking for clarification or repetition.
Remedy:
Be an aggressive listener. Pin down your source when he or she is
unclear. Ask for more information when it is necessary. This kind
of eagerness on your part is not rudeness but flatteryyou are
anxious to capture the sources entire thought.
Barrier 8:
People tune out any message that borders on the technical.
98 Introduction to Development Communication
Remedy:
This is a technical world, and weve got to meet it with technical
knowledge acquired through technical listening and study. We all
are associated with products or services that require some explain-
ing.
Barrier 9:
People are allergic to certain words, ideas, or phrases they find distasteful. They
tend to change the topic or avoid discussion.
Remedy:
Dont let them get in your way. Pet peeves against certain hack-
neyed phrases or slang words may cause you to miss important or
useful information. Listen to the source on his or her terms, not
yours.
Barrier 10:
Their minds wander.
Remedy:
Capitalize on thought speed. Most persons talk at a speed of about
125 words per minute. Most of us could think easily at four times
that rate.
Mentally summarize what the person has been saying. What point
has he made already, if any? Weigh the speakers evidence by men-
tally questioning it. As he presents facts, illustrative stories, and sta-
tistics, continually ask yourself: Are they accurate? Do they come
from an unprejudiced source? Am I getting the full picture, or is he
telling me only what will prove his point? Listen between the lines.
The speaker doesnt always put everything thats important into
words. The changing tones and volume of his voice, his facial ex-
pressions, the gestures he makes with his hands, and the movement
of his body all have meaning. Butdont get so absorbed using
your excess thinking time that you end up not listening.
Summary
References
Objective
Channel Capacity
The binary counting system proved to be the ideal way of not only
measuring but also operationalizing information since, indeed, one
binary digit carries the smallest, most basic unit of information.
Eight (8) bits is equivalent to one byte. What is significant about the
number 8? Why 8 instead of 10? Eight was convenient simply be-
cause, in computers, it takes 8 bits of data to generate one alphanu-
meric character (i.e., A, B, C. 1, 2, 3).
Information Overload
Notice however that Miller stopped short of using the term bit and
instead used the term chunks, which is rather figurative than con-
crete. How many bits of information constitute one chunk? The
answer to this is relative to the receiver and how the message was
structured.
Communication Breakdown
Convergence of Media
Negroponte (1978, cited by Brand, 1987) made the case for creat-
ing the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Media Lab by pre-
dicting that the broadcast, film, and print media as well as the broad-
cast, film, and publishing industries will converge by the year 2000.
Indeed, nowadays we edit videos, broadcast programs, design graph-
ics, synthesize sounds, and layout books on one digital platform
the computer.
It was not too long ago when the areas of specialization of dev
com were categorized according to the traditional media-centric
orientation of communication schools: print, audio-visual, and
broadcast. The dev com building, designed in the sixties, was struc-
tured in such a way that the print section was situated in the left
wing of the first floor; the audio-visual section in the right wing of
the second floor; and the broadcast section in the left wing of the
second floor. The practicum courses of these sections were con-
ducted in their respective areas. Their respective production hard-
ware were also thus located.
Cybernetics
General systems theory (GST) deals with both living and non-
living systems. Living systems are made up of living things as
elements, thus encompassing organisms, ecosystems, and social sys-
tems. An ecosystem is considered an organism at a higher level of
complexity. A social system is likewise considered as a living sys-
tem because it is made up of human beings.
One of the most basic tenets of GST is that living systems perform
three critical functions with respect to its environment and other
living systems: the exchange of materials; the exchange of energy;
and the exchange of information. Without exception, every organ-
ism, be it a one-celled amoeba or a complex creature such as man,
an organization, or a society, performs all three functions because
these are vital for its survival. If any of these critical functions were
hampered, then it would spell the doom of that organism. The
third and last critical functionthe exchange of informationis
nothing else but communication.
All living systems are purposive. All living systems have desired
or ideal states. The goal or purpose of a living system is to achieve
this desired or ideal state. Living systems are prone to entropy in
accordance with the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
Dependency
Media Systems
Societal Systems
Number of Info Functions
Degree of Structural
Centrality of Info
Stability
Functions
Audiences
Degree of Dependency
on Media Information
Effects
Cognitive
Affective
Behavioral
What this model says is that our dependence on radio, TV, and
newspapers is positively correlated to the kind of information that
we get from the media. Our dependence is also positively corre-
lated to the instability of our government and institutions. Our
dependence is likewise correlated to changes in our knowledge, at-
titudes, and actions attributed to media.
During times of crises, wars and calamities have you observed the
changes in our newspaper reading, radio listening or TV viewing
habits? We became more avid readers of the Philippine Daily In-
quirer during the impeachment trial of Joseph Estrada. Our ears
were glued to DZMM during EDSA II. We watched CNN instead
of HBO when the World Trade Center was crash bombed and when
coalition forces invaded Iraq. Indeed, during times of crises, we
become voracious consumers of information, very dependent on
the media.
Unit II Chapter 8 109
Domains
Cognitive
Psychomotor
Affective
ICT
Information Society
former began with the invention of the plough, the latter with the
introduction of the steam engine. Today, human civilization is in
the Information Age. This period commenced with the launching
of the Sputnik satellite and the development of the computer.
Invasion of Privacy
Knowledge Management
Undocumented or Documented or
Tacit Knowledge Knowledge Explicit Knowledge
Ideas, Experiences, ... Management captured
Information Base in Documents
We can see that meanings and language are intrinsically joined to-
gether. Because the main function of language is to express and
elicit meanings (Berlo, 1960), then meaning is part of the definition
of language. As communicators, we are concerned with the mean-
ings that we communicate.
114 Introduction to Development Communication
Our freshman English course tells us that there are two types of
meaning: denotative or the dictionary meaning; and connotative
or the implied meaning. However, there is more to meaning than
this distinction.
Yes, people have different meanings for different things and ideas
because we interpret what we know from the perspective of our
culture, education background, and field of experience. This is why
we even have different meanings for colors. Black for a long time
was the color of mourning in the Philippines. But for the Chinese,
white is used at funerals. Truly, meanings are in people.
Unit II Chapter 8 115
Interpersonal Communication
Words have great potential for both good and evil. Interpersonal
communication can bring about changes in what people know, what
people think, and what people do.
Mass Communication
For so long, we have been taught that generally, mass media do not
bring about change in peoples behavior. However, the Johns
Hopkins University Center for Communication Programs explained
that some communication scientists are actually revising their stand
on this. They believe that the mass media today can bring about
radical changes in behaviorpositive or otherwise. We should work
on understanding these influences and harnessing them to bring
about positive changes in the lives of people and in society.
116 Introduction to Development Communication
Memetics
Networks
Donna
Nancy
Kathy Charles
Tanya Stuart
Wynn Carol Harold
Sharon Fred
Susan
Bob
Non-Verbal Communication
Body language is culture bound for the most part. Witness South
Asians turn their heads from side to side as a sign of agreement. In
our cultural context, this would mean disagreement. Observe how
a Javanese would be offended if you hand over something to him
with the left hand.
Selectivity
1. Selective exposure
2. Selective perception
3. Selective retention
What do you usually do when you get home from school in the
evenings? Many of my friends flop down in front of the television,
pick up the remote control, and spend a few hours glued to the set.
How do they decide on what to watch? The decision isnt too diffi-
cult to make when you have few choices but once you subscribe to
cable, then the choices are legion!
120 Introduction to Development Communication
The choices you checked indicate which shows you would prefer to
watch. This is selective exposure, the process of selecting what
messages you would like to listen to or watch or read. As communi-
cators, we need to design messages that our audiences will choose
to listen to, watch, or read.
Social Mobilization
The Net
Several metaphors have been used to describe the Net. It has been
called: a living network; an ecosystem of computers; and a world
brain of Pentium-powered neurons.
All of us are online. Our big tri-media outfits are online. We have
access to the World Wide Web at the touch of a finger and the
world has access to us.
Yet, uncontrolled access raises issues such as: control over Internet
content and the digital divide.
The Internet has been around since the 1950s but it only went pub-
lic in the 1980s. Since then, the number of users has grown to en-
compass billions all over the world.
The information one gets over the Net can be very helpful and
entertaining. For example, I subscribe to several services that send
me news articles on topics of my choice. I also subscribe to ser-
vices that inform me when something I am interested in is pub-
lished the Net. All one has to do then is access the websiteand
the material can be downloaded and linked to other related materi-
als.
The world has been made conscious of the Digital Divide when
this formed part of the agenda of the July 2000 G10 Summit in
Okinawa. During this summit, the 10 richest nations in the world
resolved to bridge the ever-widening digital divide.
References
Brand, S. (1987). The media lab: Inventing the future at MIT. New York:
Viking Press.
De Fleur, M.L. and Ball-Rokeach, S. (1982). Theories of mass commu-
nication (Fourth Edition). New York: Longman.
Flor, A.G. (1998). The Philippine Communication Scene. The Asian
Communication Handbook. A. Goonasekara and D. Holiday, Edi-
tors. Singapore: Asian Media Information and Communication
Center and the Nanyang Technological University.
Flor, A.G. and Matulac, L.A. (1994). Cultural dimensions of environ-
mental IEC. Los Baos: Dalhousie University and UPLB, CIDA.
Flor, B.G. (1989). Media dependency during crises situations. Unpublished
MSDC Thesis, Los Baos: University of the Philippines Gradu-
ate School.
Index on Censorship, 1997-99. All Issues, Volumes 32 to 28. London:
Writers and Scholars International, Ltd.
Unit II Chapter 8 125
Ito, Y. and Kochevar, J.J. (1983). Factors accounting for the flow of
international communication. KEIO Communication Review No. 4.
Jones, L.Y. (1980). Great expectations. New York: Ballantine Books.
Kelly, K. (1988). Signal: Communication tools for the information age. New
York: The Point Foundation and Harmony Books.
McKee, N. (1992). Social mobilization and social marketing in devel-
oping communities. Penang: Southbound Press.
Millennium Whole Earth Catalogue, 1995. New York: The Point Foun-
dation.
Negroponte, N. (1995). Being digital, New York: Alfred P. Knofp.
Rivers, W.L., Schramm, W. and Christians, C.G. (1980). Responsibility
in mass communication. New York: Harper and Row.
Yoshizoe, Y. (1988). An economic interpretation of Information
flow census data. KEIO Communication Review No. 9.
Unit III
Chapter 9
Definitions
U nit III will acquaint you with the concept and practice of deve-
lopment communication. Some of us in the academe have
spent the best years of our lives growing with the discipline. We
hope that Unit III is where your love story with dev com begins.
We expect every love story to have a happy ending, so let this chap-
ter be your guide in seeing to it that your relationship with this
discipline will proceed meaningfully, if not blissfully.
Objectives
Quebral Definition
Art
Science
Human Communication
Speedy Transformation
Dev com acts as a catalyst for social change. The word catalyst is
a borrowed term from chemistry, which refers to a substance that
132 Introduction to Development Communication
People
sector. Why do we need to? Because they make the decisions for
the people and they fund the development projects. As Quebral
(1975) puts it, We need to influence their ideas and thoughts. They
can, like the end users of development projects, be as resistant to
change and as traditional in their ways of thinking. The dev com
practitioner must also win over this group of people.
Poverty
The goals that dev com endeavors to fulfill for the nation, any na-
tion, are three: a dynamic state of economic growth, greater social
equality, and the larger fulfillment of the human potential. Con-
sider that Quebral set these goals more than 30 years ago. These are
pretty much related to what development planners now refer to as
the triple bottom line: economic goals, social goals, and environ-
mental goals.
dev com practitioner uses the same media that a publicist does
but the difference lies in the purpose why the dev com uses
these media. The dev com practitioner uses these media to stimu-
late public awareness and understanding of planned change.
Lents Perspective
Cybernatic Definition
Ideal state or
End state
deviation caused
by entropy
desired path
System X
actual path
One dimension that has been neglected thus far is the fact that a
desired goal changes in space and time. Negentropic initiatives
should always be considerate of these changes. It is like playing
Chinese baseball where the bases change locations every time the
ball is in flight.
Unit III Chapter 9 139
e
l stat
Idea
convergence
desired path
A B
D
There are three major values that guide the practice of develop-
ment communication:
One, it is purposive.
Two, it is pragmatic.
Three, it is value-laden.
As you may have gleaned by now, dev com is different from other
communication fields although it draws strength from the principles
of these older disciplines. We may call mass communication or com-
munication arts as cousins of development communication in
the communication family tree.
Mass Communication
In contrast to mass com which has for its audience large groups of
people or the general public, dev com audiences are commonly
groups, communities or sectors, although they vary from the lowly
fisherman to the highest policymaking body of the land. We can
say that dev com audiences are more specific, mass com audiences
are broader.
Communication Arts
Advertising
Agricultural Extension
A Historical Perspective
Basically, we can infer that dev com in the Philippines grew out of
agricultural communication. The political environment in which dev
com was born was the Martial Law years, where agricultural devel-
opment was considered as a priority thrust to stem rural unrest.
However, there were other development concerns that needed at-
tention such as the ballooning population, the economy, and re-
forming agrarian structures. The small teaching staff of agricul-
tural communications in Los Baos realized this and expanded their
coverage. They used a bigger umbrella, which can accommodate
more concerns related to the development of the country.
Summary
References
Objectives
This chapter argues not just for the legitimacy of development com-
munication but also for its potential of becoming a unique and
separate paradigm in the social sciences. For purposes of expedi-
ency and contrast, we will take off from Sieberts Four Theories
typology.
Siebert et al. outlines four basic rationales for the mass media: the
Authoritarian Theory, the Libertarian Theory, the Social Res-
ponsibility Theory, and the Soviet-Totalitarian Theory. Techni-
cally speaking, these are not theories but types in a typology of
press systems, duly noting that typologies are regarded as legitimate
ventures into theory construction.
The press belonged to the office of the king or the emperor or the
Pope and, in some cases, to private individuals who favored and
were favored by royalty and authority. The press was the servant of
the state.
...a tool of the ruling power just as clearly as did the older
authoritarianism. Unlike the older pattern, it is state rather
than privately owned. The profit motive has been removed,
and a concept of positive has been substituted for a con-
cept of negative liberty... The American press is not truly
free, the Soviets say, because it is business controlled and
therefore not free to speak the Marxists truth. (Ibid, p.5)
The primary thesis of the Four Theories model is that the press
always takes the form and coloration of the social and political
structures within which it operates. Ogan (1982) correctly identi-
fies this as the basic assumption for a fifth theory. Moving a step
further, we could even argue that such press systems were in fact
needed to achieve the goals of the given society. It may be noted
that Siebert et al.s typology covers the major types of social and
political structures analyzed by historians and political scientists
during their time. Less than a decade after the publication of their
work, however, another type of social structure began to emerge,
one that would hardly escape notice if only for its pervasiveness.
This was the developing society, the predominant social genre in
post-colonial Asia, Latin America, and Africa. It is in the context
of this particular society and its global environment that a fifth
theory finds its application.
A fifth column may be added to the Siebert matrix with the follow-
ing entries:
Development Communication
Developed:
In the Third World
In United Nations food and agriculture programs, Latin Ameri-
can educational campaigns as well as international population
programs
154 Introduction to Development Communication
Out of:
The philosophy of Gandhi (the full realization of mans poten-
tial)
The writings of Seers, Lasswell, Lerner, Freire, Schramm, and
Quebral
Chief purpose:
Social transformation and development
The fulfillment of basic needs
Ownership:
Development agencies
Communities
Unit III Chapter 10 155
Dialectical Superiority
We may deduce from the standard Four Theories model that the
relationships between the different types are dialectical. From an
authoritarian thesis there developed a libertarian anti-thesis. The
synthesis of these two resulted in the Soviet totalitarian model dur-
ing the early years of the twentieth century. The label Soviet to-
talitarian, however, is quite loaded with connotations reminiscent
of the Cold War Era when this typology was formulated. We could
profit from Lowensteins example of calling the Soviet totalitarian
system as the social centralist system instead. Transformed into
a thesis itself, the social centralist rationale developed an anti-thesis
in the form of the social responsibility theory of post-war United
States. Granting that the social centralist model is the thesis and
that the social responsibility theory is the anti-thesis, there ought to
be a new synthesis. This synthesis may be found in development
communication.
Cultural Foundations
One may glean from the wisdom of traditional cultures that devel-
opment communication is what communication at all levels (whether
it be interpersonal, group, media, societal, intercultural) ought to
be.
References
Objectives
Historical Perspective
What are the policy sciences? How may the policy sciences be re-
lated to development communication in conceptual and empirical
terms? This chapter aims to answer the foregoing questions.
Unit III Chapter 12 183
Policy sciences theory states that one should not leave the
problem of crossing a river until the river is reached; rather,
one should survey the territory in advance, identify rivers
flowing through it, decide whether it is at all necessary to
cross the riverand if so, where and how to cross itthen
prepare in advance the materials for crossing the river and
design a logistic network so that the material is ready when
the river is reached.
Some would opt for this wider approach. Narrowing down the list
of variables to work on may contribute to parsimony and to a sober
appreciation of the problem. However, all too often, this sober
appreciation leads to a limited perspective and, consequently, to
inadequate solutions or unsound policies.
For more than two decades, the national government was the most
powerful stakeholder in communication policy. It is a well-known
fact, however, that this setup merely sought to further existing power
Unit III Chapter 12 187
structures.
The governments interest in communication stems from the belief
that The state of politics is a function of the communication pro-
cess (Lerner, 1963). At present, the formulation and implementa-
tion of communication policies rest upon the legislative and execu-
tive branches of the government, respectively. Thus, the govern-
ment is still and will always be a very dominant stakeholder and its
interests should not be divorced from the interests of its constitu-
ents.
Problematique Analysis
Scenario Construction
Policy Delphi
Turoff (1975) outlines six phases of the Policy Delphi: the formu-
lation of issues; exposing the options; determining initial positions
on the issues; exploring and obtaining the reasons for disagreements;
evaluating the underlying reasons; and reevaluating the options. A
Policy Delphi could go from three to five rounds with its respon-
dents all the while maintaining their anonymity. If a consensus
among the respondents is reached, then a policy that would please
all the stakeholders concerned may be formulated.
Unit III Chapter 12 191
This organization could also conduct its own audience related studies
and policy research. It could establish a nationwide network involv-
ing the church, academic communities, grassroots organizations,
and cause-oriented groups.
References
Allen, T. (1973). New methods in social science research. New York: Praeger
Publishers.
Asian Institute of Journalism. (1982). The communication structure in
the Philippines: Issues, problems and opportunities. Working document
for the roundtable meeting sponsored by the Makati Business
Club. Manila.
Dror, Y. (1971). Design for policy sciences. New York: Elsevier Publish-
ing House.
Kraemer, K.L. (1973). Policy analysis in local governments. Washington,
D.C.: ICMA.
Lerner, D. (1958). The passing of traditional society: Modernizing the middle
east. New York: The Free Press.
_______. (1963). Toward a communication theory of moderniza-
tion: A set of considerations. Communications and Political Devel-
opment. Lucien W. Pye, Ed. Princeton University Press.
Linstone, H.A. and Turoff, M. (1975). The Delphi method: Techniques
and applications. Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.
MacBride, S. (1980). Many voices, one world. Paris: UNESCO.
Ocampo, R.B. (1978). The nature of and need for policy studies. Paper
presented at the Seminar on Policy Studies. UP College of Public
Administration. Manila.
Chapter 13
Myths
Objective
People still cling to these five myths as they did years ago. However,
since the Okinawa Summit of 2000, when the G10 nations an-
nounced their resolve to bridge the Digital Divide, a new set of
myths, this time on information and communication technology or
ICT are being embraced by many. Since a considerable amount of
your work will involve ICT, I am enumerating these myths for you.
ICT Myths
This belief forwards that ICT interventions for the poor should be
targeted directly to the poor. This leads to the issue of appropriate
technology. We cannot really expect marginal fishers to surf the
Net. They would rather use nets beyond the surf. But this is hardly
the point. ICT is most useful in building the capacities of support
agencies for the poor. This myth blatantly forgets one of the most
basic principles in development assistance, the multi-step flow of
communication
There is roughly over a billion sites in the World Wide Web. Some
of these sites, such as Google, get millions of hits a day. However,
a larger number hardly get any hits at all. Perhaps, it is a function of
attractive, sophisticated interface designs. Six decades of commu-
nication science research tell us that content needs to be appropri-
ately referenced, packaged, presented, maintained, and managed
with the user in mind. Yes, perhaps the Web is a free marketplace
of information and knowledge. But as Marshall MacLuhan (the
person who coined the phrase global village) said 50 years ago,
The medium is the message.
Epilogue