Notes, Formulas and Definition

Speed
Speed is the rate of change of the distance moved by an object

Distance and displacement

Distance is the total ground covered
Distance is scalar
Displacement is distance moved by an object in a particular direction
Displacement is a vector quantity
s = vt
Distance or displacement is the area under a v-t graph

Velocity
It is the rate of change of the displacement of an object
It is a vector quantity
Velocity = change in displacement/time
Unit is m s
Velocity is the gradient of a s-t graph

Acceleration
It is the rate of change of an objects velocity
It is a vector quantity
Acceleration = change in velocity/ time
a = v-u/t
Unit = m s
Acceleration is the gradient of a v-t graph

Equations of motion
v = u + at
s = ((u+v)/2) x t
s = ut + at
s = vt - at
v = u + 2as

Force
It is the push or pull on an object that can change the way the object is moving
Force is a vector quantity
Force = mass x acceleration
SI unit is N and base unit is kg m s

Mass and inertia

Mass is the amount of matter within an object
Mass is a scalar quantity
The mass of an object is the measure its inertia or its ability to resist a change in motion
Inertia is a measure of the mass of an object

Weight
It is the force on an object caused by a gravitational field acting on it
It is the force that acts on an object because of gravity
Weight is a vector quantity which always acts downwards
Weight = mass x acceleration of free fall
SI unit is N and base unit is kg m s
 Newton's laws of motion
1st law: An object will remain at rest or keep moving at constant velocity unless it is acted on by an external
force
2nd law: For a body of constant mass, its acceleration is directly proportional to the resultant force applied to it
2nd law: the net force acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of its momentum
3rd law: When two bodies interact, the forces they exert on each other are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction

Moment
The moment of a force about a point is the magnitude of the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance of
the point from the line of the force
Moment is the turning effect
Moment is a vector quantity
Moment = Force x perpendicular distance
Unit is N m and base unit is kg m s

Torque
Torque is the product of one of the forces of a couple and the perpendicular distance between them
Torque is the total moment of a couple
A couple is two forces acting on the same object at different point
Torque is a vector quantity
Torque = (Fxd/2) + (Fxd/2) = Fd
Unit is Nm and base unit is kg m s

Work
It is the product of the force and the distance moved in the direction of force
Work is a scalar quantity
Work done = force x distance
Work done = energy transferred
Work done in a gas = pressure x change in volume
SI unit is J and base unit is kg m s

Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy of an object due to its motion
Gravitational potential energy is the energy a body has due to its position in a gravitational field
Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in an extended or compressed object
Energy is a scalar quantity
k.e = mv
g.p.e = mgh
SI unit is J and base unit is kg m s

Power
It is the rate at which energy is transferred or the rate at which work is done
Power = work done / time
Power = k.e/time or g.p.e/time
Power = force x velocity
SI unit is W and base unit is kg m s

Efficiency
It is the ratio of useful output energy to the total input energy expressed as a percentage
Efficiency = (useful output energy/total input energy) x 100
Efficiency = (useful output power/total input power) x 100

Momentum and impulse

Momentum of an object is the product of the mass of the object and its velocity
Momentum is a vector quantity
Momentum = mass x velocity
 Impulse is when a force acts on an object for a short period of time
Impulse is the product of the force and the time for which it acts
Impulse is a vector quantity
Impulse = change in momentum
Impulse = Fxt
Change in momentum = mv - mu
Ft = m(v -u)
Unit of moment and impulse is N s and base unit is kg m s

Density
It is the mass per unit volume
It is a scalar quantity
Density = mass/ volume
Unit are kg m or g cm

Pressure
It is the force acting normally per unit area of the surface
Pressure is a scalar quantity
Pressure = force/area
Pressure of a liquid = density x gravity x height
SI unit is Pa and base unit kg m s

Hooke's law
It is the extension produced in an object is proportional to the force producing it, provided the elastic limit is
not exceeded
F = kx

Young modulus, stress and strain

Stress is the force acting per unit cross-sectional area
Stress = force/cross-sectional area
Unit of stress is N m and base unit is kg m s
Strain is the extension per unit length produced by tensile or compressive forces
Strain = extension/ original length
Strain has no unit
Young modulus is the ratio of stress to strain for a given material, provided Hooke's law is obeyed
Young modulus = stress/strain
Unit is N m and base unit is kg m s

Elastic potential energy

It is energy stored in an extended or compressed material
Energy = area under graph
Energy = Fx
Energy = kx
SI unit is J and base unit is kg m s

Electric field strength

It is the force per unit charge at a point
It is a vector quantity
E = force/ charge
E = voltage/ distance
Unit is N C or V m and base unit is kg m s A

Current
Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge past a point in a circuit
It is a scalar quantity
Current = charge/time
SI unit is A
 Voltage
Potential difference is the energy needed per unit charge to move two points in the circuit
E.m.f is the energy needed per unit charge to move through the whole circuit
Voltage is a scalar quantity
Voltage = energy/charge
SI unit is V and base unit is kg m s A

Resistance
It is the ratio of the potential difference to the current
Resistance is a scalar quantity
Resistance = voltage/current
Resistance = 1/ gradient of I-V graph
Resistance = l/A
SI unit is and base unit is kg m s A

Electric power
It is the rate at which energy is transferred
Power is a scalar quantity
Power = voltage x current
P = I x R
P = V/R
SI unit is W and base unit is kg m s

Kirchhoff's laws
1st law: The sum of the currents entering any point in a circuit is equal to the sum of the current leaving that
same point
The first law conveys the conservation of charge
I = I + I
2nd law: The sum of the e.m.f. round a closed loop in a circuit is equal to the sum of the p.d. in the same loop
The second law conveys the conservation of energy
E = IR + IR...

Combining resistance
Resistors in series
V = V + V
IR = IR + IR
R = R + R
Resistors in parallel
I = I + I
V/R = V/R + V/R
1/R = 1/R + 1/R

Internal resistance
E = IR + Ir
V = IR
E = V + Ir
V = -Ir + E
Y = -mx + c
y=V, r=m, x=I, E=c

Amplitude and wavelength

Amplitude is the maximum displacement of a particle from its equilibrium position
Wavelength is the distance between two adjacent peaks or roughs
Unit is m
 Time period and frequency
Time period is the time taken for one complete oscillation of a vibrating object
T = 1/f
Unit is s
Frequency is the number of oscillation of a particle per unit time
f = 1/T
Unit is Hz

Intensity
It is the power transmitted normally through a surface per unit area
Intensity = power/ cross-sectional area
Intensity = amplitude
Unit is W m

Wave speed
It is the speed with which energy is transmitted by a wave
Wave speed = wavelength/ period
Wave speed = frequency x wavelength
Speed of light can be measured using c = f

Wavelength of electromagnetic waves

Radio waves - >10 to 10
Microwaves - 10 to 10
Infrared radiation - 10 to 7x10
Visible light - 7x10 (red) to 4x10 (violet)
Ultraviolet - 4x10 to 10
X-rays - 10 to 10
Gamma rays 10 to 10

The Doppler effect

Doppler effect is when you hear a higher pitch when an object is approaching and a lower pitch when is recedes
into the distance
Wavelength observed by the observer if the source is stationary is =v/f
Wavelength if the source is moving away=(v+v)/f
Observed frequency is f= v/ = fxv/(v+v)
Wavelength if the source is moving away from them is =(v-v)/f
Observed frequency is f= v/ = fxv/(v-v)
Observed frequency of light from a moving source f = fxc/(cv)

Interference and path difference

Interference is the resultant of two coherent waves
Path difference is the difference in the distance travelled by two waves from coherent sources at a particular
point
Destructive interference is when two waves cancel to give reduced amplitude
Path difference in destructive interference = (n + ) x
Constructive interference is when two waves reinforce to give increased amplitude
Path difference in constructive interference = n x

Young's double slit experiment

= ax/D

Diffraction grating
d sin = n

Wavelength in stationary waves

Wavelength of two adjacent nodes or antinodes = /2
 Progressive waves and stationary waves
Progressive wave is a wave that carries energy from one place to another
Stationary wave is a wave pattern produced when two progressive waves of the same frequency travelling in
opposite direction combine

Beta decay
- p n + e *(positron)
- n p (neutrino) + e + (anti neutrino)

Energy-mass conservation
E = mc

Electron volt
eV = energy of 1 charged particle (J)
E = qV

Drift velocity
Number density = number of electrons/ volume
Number of electron = number density x volume
No. of e = n x A x l
Q = n/e
Q=nxAxlxe
I = Q/t
I = nAle/t
v = l/t
I = nAve
I = nAvq
v= velocity, q= any charged particle, A= area, n=number density