Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Meriam (p 36), Critical feminist research focuses on issues of power and oppression in terms of
The origin of feminism could be said to be unclear, as it has been around in some form
almost as long as women have been, with references to feminism in writings as old as the Bible.
In Galatians 3:28, it is written, There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free,
there is neither male nor female: for ye are all one in Christ Jesus.
Historically, feminism has grown through several iterations. Liberal feminism (Tong,
2009) was the first major movement, in which women may maintain equality through their
actions and choices. In Mary Wollstonecrafts A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, written in
1792, women are more than objects. They are true companions to their husbands and humans
deserving of equal rights and consideration as men. As such, unless they are allowed to
participate fully in all areas of society, their potential remains unfulfilled. Betty Friedan wrote
The Feminine Mystique in 1963 and founded the National Organization for Women in the 1960s
as a strong womens rights advocate and supporter of Equal Rights Amendment to constitution.
eliminate male domination in society and economy. Shulamith Firestone wrote The Dialectic of
Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution, in which she challenges traditional Marxist economic
John W. Hancock, DBA, MBA 3
classes and asserts that the first class division is gender. Women are oppressed by patriarchal
society due to the biology of pregnancy, childbirth, and child rearing (Tong, 1995).
Contributions to the Theory of Sexuality introduced the idea of penis envy and traditional
Psychoanalysis and Feminism she furthers and yet distances herself from Freuds ideas with the
postulation that psychosocial development is derived from biology in a social context (Tong,
1995).
consists of two basic and opposing tenets. The dual-system theory says that patriarchy and
capitalism are distinct areas of society that oppress women when they intersect. In Juliet
Mitchells Womans Estate she notes that women are oppressed by both economic status and
reproductive status. The unified-system theory, however, states that patriarchy and capitalism
should be analyzed together as an oppressor of women, as written in Iris Youngs Beyond the
Existential feminism is a critique on the oppression of patriarchy, in that women are not
constrained by their gender and are free to be their true selves, with all consequences, both good
and bad. Simone de Beavuoir is the pioneer in this area with her ideas in The Second Sex, as one
Postmodern feminism is the most recent feminist movement. It strives for equality for all
genders, as well as for racial and sexual equality, and focuses on the interplay between all.
John W. Hancock, DBA, MBA 4
sometimes unclear. In New Maladies of the Soul, Julia Kristeva postulates that women cannot
be anymore than men can as everyone is always striving to be. She suggests women should
use the female gender identity merely as a tool to advocate for equality (Tong, 1995).
The goal of feminist inquiry is to explore topics from a standpoint of gender equality,
including interpersonal issues, that is, domestic violence, body and health, health and illness,
medical knowledge, and social movements. Policy research is also a newer focus of feminist
Feminist theory makes several assumptions. An individuals daily experiences provide the
society, the more limited his/her understanding of society. Lower status individuals must
understand their own place in society as well as the standpoint of their superiors in order to be
successful in their daily activities. In other words, the more oppressed a person, the higher her
knowledge. Postmodern feminism aims to empower the oppressed with the ultimate goal of
Feminist theory seeks to understand knowledge. Who has or owns the knowledge? How
There is no standard feminist methodology; however, there are several themes. Research
should be not only about women, but also for women and by women. The method has created
innovative methodologies by challenging the status quo in research. Initially, it challenged the
positivist framework common in quantitative methods to find new ways to study and describe the
female experience. More qualitative methods developed out of this challenge. Feminist research
more often focuses on social justice or change. Feminists strive to keep in mind how power
John W. Hancock, DBA, MBA 5
affects their data and knowledge gains, as the relationship between researcher and subjects is
often unequal. Reflexivity is pivotal in feminist research; most research is openly reflective and
aware of the researchers influence on the outcome of the data/knowledge gained (Doucet and
Mauthner, 2006).
One study that illustrates how feminist inquiry may be used in qualitative research is
Schmied and Luptons study of first-time Australian mothers and their experiences with
and experiences with breastfeeding from before birth to 1-2 years after. Their findings include
how long each mother breastfeed, why she chose to continue or stop, whether she returned to
work within 6 months after birth, and her feelings about the various aspects of breastfeeding. The
findings are then analyzed, with various aspects of the different theories of feminism.
harmony or conflict with the blending of self and other. The minority of mothers felt joy with
breastfeeding as it gave them a sense of giving and connection with their infants. The majority,
however, are conflicted with the loss of autonomy in their schedules and bodies due to the
demands of infant feeding and closeness. Most mothers also felt alone in that their husbands
could not physically help them with breastfeeding, which is in conflict with the basic liberal
Many mothers also felt a conflict with existential feminism. They had a change in the
feeling about their bodies, particularly their breasts, from objects of sexual desire to objects of
feeding. The anti-feminist idea that female bodies are inferior due to the uncontrolled and
unclean nature of the female body (as in menstruation) is also perpetuated by the lack of control
John W. Hancock, DBA, MBA 6
in lactation and untimely leakage of milk. However, in contrast to previous studies cited, these
women do not feel embarrassed to expose their breasts to feed their infants.
breastfeeding. The medical and public health rhetoric is strongly in favor of breastfeeding with
slogans such as, Breast is best. This idea is meant to empower women by making them feel
proud of providing for their infant with their own milk. However, this feminist ideal of
breastfeeding ultimately disempowers and shames women who cannot or do not want to
breastfeed.
The article demonstrates several aspects of feminist methodology. The authors use
reflexivity in their conclusions and discussion. It is also entirely female (researchers and
subjects). The authors focus on the knowledge gained from the womens perspectives on
breastfeeding and challenge prior data on the subject, as well as the public health propaganda in
favor of breastfeeding.
John W. Hancock, DBA, MBA 7
References
Doucet, A. and Mauthner, N.S. (2006). Feminist methodologies and epistemologies. In Clifton
D. Bryant and Dennis L. Peck (Eds.) Handbook of 21st Century Sociology (36-
Hesse-Biber, S.N. (2012). Feminist research: exploring, interrogating, and transforming the
Publications, Inc.
Meriam, S.B. (2009). Qualitative research: a guide to design and implementation. San
Oleson, V. (2011). Feminist qualitative research in the milleniums first decade: developments,
Publications, Inc.
Schmied, V. and Lupton, D. (2001). Blurring the boundaries: breastfeeding and maternal