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CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

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SOUND
REFLECTIONS
FOREWORD
WE are undertaking in
tions," to present the
"Sound Reflec-
accumulated
knowledge gained by our Acoustical Engi-
neers in extensive practical experience, to-
gether with such other available information
on the subject as may be interesting.
Certainly architects are entitled to this
information, since it is to their vision and
courage that credit is largely due for the
development of the Science of Architectural
Acoustics to its present usefulness.

We hope it will be helpful; to that end


and the encouragement of our purpose, com-
ments, criticisms, suggestions or experiences
will find a cordial welcome at all times.

\ President

[3]
ACOUSTICS
5y George C. Hannam, M. E.
Manager, Dept. of Architectural Acoustics, Junius H. Stone Corp.
New York City
lis position of importance in every-day life; acoustics
formerly a gamble; attacking the subject scientifically;
a definite scientific basis established; factors governing
acoustics;echo; interference; reverberation; a reterberation
problem worked out; wire stretching; other fallacies.

^t'O the average engineer, the architecture increased until even


%hJ/ subject of acoustics does the spoken service became in-
not loom large in the every-day toned as a Gregorian chant, and
matters of a practical world, that it is not going beyond the
but when it is realized that it is bounds of reason to say that in
an important consideration in the those magnificent churches in
design of practically every court Europe, which are housed in
room, church, music hall, theatre, magnificent cathedrals, the Cath-
auditorium, legislative chamber, olic, the Lutheran and the Pro-
bank and even office building, the testant Episcopalian, the form of
importance of a knowledge of the service is in part determined by,
subject will be appreciated. Faul- the acoustical condition.
ty acoustics might be found to be
the real reason for the failures of Acoustics Formerly a Gamble
some of the most capable actors, In the past, it has been cus-
divines and politicians, the world
tomary in the vast majority of
has never had a chance to know.
cases to design theatres, churches
Many a speaker and singer has and auditoriums in general, build-
been severely criticised, thereby
ing them at considerable expefase
suffering considerable loss of pres-
to secure strength, desired seating
tige, when the fault has been en-
tirely due to the faulty acoustical
capacity, noble architectural lines
conditions. asthetic illumination, wholesome
There are thousands of audi- ventilation, etc., and then gamble
toriums in the world that are as to whether the acoustics in the
acoustic nightmares. The late resulting auditorium would be
Professor Wallace C. Sabine, of good or bad.
Harvard University, said that
the reverberation which accom- * Luncheon Address, August 31, 1920,
panies lofty and magnificent Engineers' Club of Philadelphia.

-*
[4]
A Definite Scientific Basis In this case the sound spreads in
Established a hemispherical wave, diminish-
Before 1895 but little definite ing in intensity as it increases in
information was to be obtained size. If instead of one person,
by an architect on tlie subject. there is a large audience, the
He was guided in large measure intensity decreases more rapidly,
by his own limited experience or due to the absorption occasioned
by studies made in existing build- by the clothing of the people.
ings. The late Professor Wallace The upper part of the sound from
C. Sabine, of Harvard University, the speaker in such an audito-
is to a considerable extent respon- rium is entirely lost. The first

sible formost of our knowledge on improvement that suggests itself

this subject to-day. He began is to elevate the speaker. The


his researches in 1895 and in 1900 next step is to have the ground or

published in The Engineering floor sloped so that each row of


Record the results of his five persons will be slightly elevated.
years' work. This was the first Then, a wall should be placed
real contribution on the subject, back of the speaker to reflect
and due to the scope of the work that part of the sound towards
and the fact that a mathematical the audience. We
now have the
basis was established, the former design- of the old Greek amphi-
necessity of chance and guess theatres. With the addition of
work was done away with. For a roof to prevent the loss of the
eighteen years after the publica- upper part of the sound waves
tion of this paper he continued
.
and the construction of galleries
his researches, following the pro- to elevate and bring further front
gram of investigations there out- part of the audience, we have the
lined. typical form of our modern au-
ditorium.
The knowledge gained from
these researches and from their
Factors Governing Acoustics
practical application, augmented
by contributions from other phy- The and shape of an audit-
size
sicists, has made it possible to orium determine the distance
determine from the plans of an traveled by the sound between
auditorium, with a knowledge of reflections;while the materials
the materials of construction, used in the construction deter-
what the acoustical conditions in mine the loss at each reflection,
the finished building will be and for which reason it is possible for
to make such changes as might be two rooms designed exactly alike
necessary to overcome faults. to have entirely different acous-
The simplest type of audi- tics. An illustration of this is the
torium imaginable is a level plane well-known case of Sanders Thea-
with a single person as audience. tre in Cambridge and the audit-

[Sl
:

orium of the Fogg Art Museum would result in an acoustical


of Harvard College. Sanders horror.
Theatre is an old building noted If a sound be produced in an
for its good acoustical properties. empty room, having exposed sur-
When the Fogg Art Museum was faces that are absolutely rigid, it
designed, the architect was in- will last almost indefinitely
structed to make the auditorium that is, if we disregard the loss
a replica of Sanders Theatre. It due to the viscosity of the air,
was taken for granted that similar which in practical cases is neg-
design assured similar acoustical ligible. The sound will travel
conditions. When the audit- back and forth from one surface
orium was completed, everyone to another, and if the surfaces are
was greatly surprised to find the absolutely rigid, the original in-
acoustics almost impossible. As tensity of the sound would be
a result of the development of maintained. Of course, no build-
the subject since that time, the ing materials are absolutely rigid.
reason for the difference is well Taking an open window as being
known. Sanders Theatre was totally absorbent, and calling its
constructed of comparatively soft co-efficient 1.00, Professor Sabine
materials. All seats were heavily in his researches determined the
cushioned. The other audit- co-efficient of sound absorption
orium was of fire-proof construc- of most of the materials employed
tion. The change produced in in building construction.
the absorbing power of the vari- The co-efficients of some of the
ous surfaces was mainly respon- more common materials are given
sible for the difference in acous- below
tical conditions.
1 square foot each
Most people are acquainted
Open Window 1.000
with the wonderful acoustical Wood sheathing (hard pine) 061
conditions of the Mormon Taber- Plaster on wood lath 034
nacle. From an ac6ustical stand- Plaster on wire lath . .033

point the design could not be Glass 027


Plaster on tile .025
much worse. However, the build- Brick 02S
ing is constructed of wood, which Concrete 015
has the highest co-efficient of Glazed tile 01
sound absorption of any building Following are some miscella-
material, and it is due entirely to neous co-efficients which are of
the presence of so much wood interest:
that the acoustics are satisfac-
tory. The shape of the ceiling is 1 sijuare foot each

responsible for the remarkable Carpet 20


Cheese-cloth 019
echo. Areplica of this building Cork 2.5 centimetres thick, loose
with the use of hard materials on floor 16

[6]
Audience per person 4.7 ber was a xylophone solo with
Hair Felt 1" thick S3
orchestral accompaniment. The
It frequently of assistance to
is echo was so pronounced that at
compare the reflection of sound one time the leader of the or-
waves with the reflection of Hght chestra beat time to the echo,
waves. A white ceiling will re- whereas the players who were
flect about ninety-five per cent of immediately around the xylo-
the light striking it. The same phone kept time to it. Those
surface painted a dull black will farther away kept time with the
reflect at the most but five per leader, and the resulting con-
cent of the light. A glazed tile fusion can well be imagined.
ceiling will reflect pinety-nine per Curved surfaces should be
cent of the sound striking it. The avoided in the design of an audit-
same surface covered with one orium as far as possible. When
inch of hair felt (the best sound used, the center of curvature
absorber) will only reflect forty- should be located a considerable
seven per cent of the sound. distance from the location of
Increasing the thickness of the seats. The harmful efltects pro-
felt will further reduce the per- duced by a dome, curved ceiling,
centage of sound reflected. pendentives, etc., cannot be en-
tirely overcome by acoustical
Echo treatment because such surfaces
Echo is a special case of rever- cannot be made totally absor-
beration. Ordinarily the pro- bent. Surfaces covered with felt
longation of a sound after the one inch thick will absorb fifty-
source has ceased vibrating is three per cent of the sound energy
continuous until it becomes in- striking it. Forty-seven per cent
audible. When the sound, in- willstill be reflected, which is

stead of being maintained, is sometimes sufficient to be a source


short and sharp with a noticeable of complaint.
interval between the direct sound
Interference
and the reflection, an echo is pro-
duced. It is necessary in the So-called "dead" spots in an
case of the average ear for the auditorium are caused by inter-
time interval to be greater than ference. A
body in vibration
one- twelfth of a second. Pro- sends off awave of condensation,
fessor Watson, of the University which is immediately followed by
of Illinois, in writing about the a wave of rarefaction. As long as
acoustics of the University Audit- the vibration continues, these
orium, mentions an interesting waves follow each other. Should
condition that developed during sound waves traveling by differ-
a concert being given by the ent paths come together again,
University orchestra. The num- the condensation wave of one

[7]
will meet the condensation wave form of energy, generally heat.
of another, causing the sound at This process is called absorption.
this place to be re-enforced; or, The duration of a sound after the
should one path be slightly source has ceased vibrating is
shorter than the other so that the called reverberation. When the
condensation wave of one meets duration of audibility of the
the rarefaction wave of the other, standard sound used exceeds the
there will at this point be no sound. ideal amount, the reverberation
An interesting example of this is excessive. By using the form-
phenomenon is the tidal inter- ula developed by Professor Sabine
ference observed on the Tongking it is possible readily to determine
Peninsula in Asia. The tide of the reverberation for any room
the Pacific Ocean enters the from the plans. From experience
Chinese Sea through two chan- I know the desirable reverbera-

nels. One of these channels is tion in various sized rooms used


broken up by many small islands, for different purposes, and can
which force the tide in going readily figure by means of the
through to follow a tortuous same formula the number of
course, greatly retarding it. The sound absorbing units it is neces-
other channel is short, deep and sary to introduce to obtain this
practically unobstructed, causing condition.
but little retardation. The tide In the average room used only
coming through these two chan- for speaking,when the volume is
nels produces an effect which approximately 150,000 cubic feet
varies from place to place. At the reverberation under average
one port on this peninsula the audience conditions should be not
tide coming from one channel is more than 1.9 seconds nor less
just six hours later than the tide than 1.3 seconds. For most
from the other channel. It is, forms of music it is desirable to
therefore, high tide from one when have the reverberation exceed
it is low tide from the other. As the 2.1 seconds. When a room is to
two tides are equal in size, they be used for both speaking and
neutralize each other so that there music, it is usual to compromise,
is no change in the water level. having the reverberation slightly
excessive for ideal speaking con-
Reverberation ditions, and slightly less than

Of acoustical defects, the most that demanded for ideal musical


common excessive reverbera-
is
conditions. The solution can be
tion. A
sound produced in a varied, of course, to suit the
confined space will travel from special conditions presented by
surface to surface until it is either each case.
transmitted by the walls, or is As the volume increases it is
transformed into some other necessary to increase the dura-

[8]
: ,

tion of reverberation. Unfortu- 1,000,000 times the minimum


nately, a reduction in the rever- audible intensity and of pitch
beration produces a correspond- one octave above Middle "C" on
ing reduction in the intensity. the piano.
For this reason, in a room having Area concrete floor 60' x 100' = 6,000
a volume of say 400,000 cubic sq. ft.
feet, it would not be advisable to Co-efficient of absorption of concrete
is .015.
reduce the reverberation below
6,000 sq. ft. X .015 =P(? units.
2.7 seconds. This duration of Area side-wall surfaces (60-1-60-1- lOO-f
reverberation is slightly exces- 100) 20 = 6400 sq. ft.
sive for an untrained speaker but Area of glass windows = 500 sq. ft.
necessary to insure sufficient in-
Net area plaster on hollow
tensity in the furthermost parts tile =5900 sq. ft.
of the room. Co-efBcient of plaster on hollow tile is
.025.
A Reverberation Problem 5900 sq. ft. X .025 = 147.5 units.
Area of glass 500 sq. ft.; co-efficient
Worked Out .027.
To the method of
illustrate 500 sq. ft. X .027 = 13.5 units.
Area of ceiUng 60' x 100' = 6,000 sq. ft.
calculating the reverberation and
Co-efficient for plaster on wire lath is
the determining of the area of .033.
acoustical treatment required, I 6,000 sq. ft. X .033=198 units.
will take the case of a court-room, 450 seats, co-efficient .1.
60' wide, 100' long, and 20' high. 450 X .1=45 units.
70 persons, co-efficient 4.7.
The following assumptions are The co-efficient for one person is taken
made: at 4.6 due to the fact that the chair
Floor, Concrete. occupied by each person has already
Side-walls, Plaster on Tile. been considered at .1 and when occu-
Ceiling, Plaster on metal lath. pied its value as a sound absorber is
Area of glass windows, 500 square almost nothing.
feet.
70 persons x 4.6=322 units.
450 seats.
Total number of units, 90-|-147.S4-
Correct conditions desired, when 13.5-M98-|-4S-|-322 = W(5.
70 persons are present. Volume of room 60' x 100' x 20' =
120,000 cubic feet.
Sabine formula for reverbera-
tion is:
Substituting in formula r = k
^j V
r = k-
a Si
, the following results are

where "r" equals reverberation in obtained


seconds; V equals volume in cubic r = .05 X pi = 7.34 seconds,
feet; "a" equals open window olo
units of sound absorption; "k" is Experience has shown that the
a constant and is .05 when foot- ideal reverberation for a court-
second units are used. A sound room of this size is 1.5 seconds.
is used having an intensity of A reverberation of 7 seconds is

[9]
very excessive, and it would be treatment required, namely, 6,007
difficult, if not impossible, to sq. ft. The ceiling area is 6,000
hold" court in such a room. An sq. ft. sothat treatment applied
increase in the number of persons to this surface will accomplish
present will accomplish a reduc- the desired results.
tion in the reverberation due to
the additional clothing intro- Wire Stretching
duced. The reverberation can I am frequently asked regard-
readily be determined for all
ing the value of stretching wires
audience conditions. to overcome acoustical difficul-
Substituting l.S seconds the
ties. The fact that they have
.

ideal reverberation ^for "r" in


been used so extensively mis-
the formula and solving for "a", leads most persons into believing
'^^^^^\
1.5 = .05 X
120,000
-
that beneficial results can be
thereby obtained. There is no
theoretical basis for their use and
"a" = 4,000.
to my knowledge there is no place
This shows that 4,000 absorptive where any improvement in the
units are required in the room to acoustics of any auditorium has
have a reverberation of l.S sec- been brought about by stretching
onds. There are 816 units al- wires in any shape, form or
ready in the room, so that 4,000 manner.
minus 816 equals 3184 additional It is claimed, e.g., that wires
units which are required. These radiated from above a speaker's
additional units can be supplied head to parts of the room will
by means of acoustical treat- assist in carrying the voice to
ment, which consists of felt, locations where it would other-
usually one inch in thickness, wise be difficult to hear. A
fastened to certain of the avail- knowledge of the fundamentals
able surfaces of the room._ The of sound enables one to see that
felt is concealed by tightly this is an impossibility. wire A
stretching a cloth membrane can only be stretched so as to be
one inch away from it. The in tune with one note. It is, _

cloth is painted or dyed the moreover, only possible to impart


desired color. Only special paints a microscopic vibration to the
can be used for this purpose. wire which is not audible. If the
Each square foot of treatnient wire were connected in the proper
has a co-efficient of .53. Divid- manner to a relatively large
ing the number of additional sounding board, it would be
units required, 3184, by the co- audible. Even if it were pos-
efficient of absorption for each sible to obtain the desired vibra-

square foot of felt, .53, we get tion, it, would be a decided dis-
advantage because an undue
the number of square feet of

110]
prolongation of each sound would I know a court-room where
be produced. It is desirable in wires were stretched the length
both speech and music to have of the room and connected with
each sound absorbed quite rapid- cross wires that were attached to
ly so as not to interfere with the ventilator grills. The clerk of
proper, hearing of succeeding the court told me they thought
sounds. the undesirable reverberation
Sometimes it is claimed that would be carried by the wires
an echo can be broken up by to the ventilators and then out
sitretching wires in front of the of the room by the current of air.
dffending surface. Experience "It seems plausible," he added,
pjroves this cannot be accom- "but unfortunately it doesn't
plished. The sound wave, due work."
t!o its 'large wave front, passes Other Fallacies
tftirough the wires with practi- There are many features of the
cally no change. The action can design of a room that are erro-
b/e studied by watching an ocean neously blamed for the faulty
wave pass through a row of piles acoustical conditions. sus- A
stpaced at various intervals. There pended ceiling, e.g., is thought by
is some disturbance noticeable at some to be set in vibration by
tlie piles but a few feet beyond the sound waves, thus producing
the wave presents a united un- the undesirable reverberation.
broken front. While making an examination of
j
The reason for the misunder- a council chamber, I was told by
standing regarding the use of the Board in charge that they
vii'ires is probably due to the fact thought the trouble was produced
tjiat they have been used for by the barrel vault ceiling, which
ytears as a means for support and due to the suspended construc-
hunting for decorative purposes. tion, was set into vibration by
An improvement in the acoustics the sound waves. They showed
has frequently been noticed and me bags filled with sand which
the credit for the change has been they had placed on top of the
given to the wires instead of to ceiling to stop the supposed
the flags and bunting. It is vibrations. No benefit was ob-
simply the presence of additional tained. The force of the sound
st)und absorptive materials, placed waves produced in this room was
ift usually a particularly desirable actually too feeble to produce
Icjjcation, that causes all sounds to even a microscopic vibration.
be absorbed more rapidly, thus The trouble was due to the use
reducing the period of reverbera- of hard, fire-proof building ma-
tion or making a surface almost terials, without the introduction
totally absorbent, which other- of sufficient sound absorbing ma-
wise Would produce an echo. terials to neutralize their effect.

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