Physical Acoustics and The Properties of Solids

PHYSICAL ACOUSTICS AND THE PROPERTIES OF SOLIDSTue Bevt TeverHone Lazoratories Series —— PROBABILITY AND ITS ENGINEERING USES. By Tuosnson C. Fay. ELEMENTARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS, By Txonnzon C. Fry. TRANSMISSION NETWORKS AND WAVE FILTERS. By T. E. Suea. ECONOMIC CONTROL OF QUALITY OF MANUFACTURED PROD- UCT. By W. A. Suewnart. ELECTROMECHANICAL TRANSDUCERS AND WAVE FILTERS. By ‘Warren P. Mason. Second Edition. RHOMBIC ANTENNA DESIGN. By A. EB. Hanrer. POISSON'S EXPONENTIAL BINOMIAL LIMIT. By E. C. Mout. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES. By S. A. Scneuxunorr. NETWORK ANALYSIS AND FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER DESIGN. By Henpricx W. Bone. QUARTZ CRYSTALS FOR ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS. By R. A. Heistna. CAPACITORS—THEIR USE IN ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS. By M. BrorHERTON. FOURIER INTEGRALS FOR PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS. By Grorce A. Camprett and Ronaup M. Foster. VISIBLE SPEECH. By Raurx K. Porter, Geonce A. Korp, and Harner C. GREEN. APPLIED MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS AND SCIENTISTS. By S. A. ScuetKunorr. EARTH CONDUCTION EFFECTS IN TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS. By Enune D. Sunpe. THEORY AND DESIGN OF ELECTRON BEAMS. By J. R. Perce. Sec- ont ition. PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTALS AND THEIR APPLICATION TO ULTRA- SONICS. By Warren P. Mason. MICROWAVE ELECTRONICS. By Joun C. Srarer. PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF WAVEGUIDE TRANSMISSION. By Grorce C, Sourzwortx. TRAVELING-WAVE TUBES. By J. R. Prrce. ELECTRONS AND HOLES IN SEMICONDUCTORS. By Wim Suockiry. FERROMAGNETISM, By Ricuarp M. Bozortu. THE DESIGN OF SWITCHING CIRCUITS. By Wiunian Kerster, ALASTAIR E. Rrrers, and Sern H. Wasnpurn. SPEECH AND HEARING IN COMMUNICATION. By Harvey Fustcuen. Second Edition. MODULATION THEORY. By Hanow S. Butcx. SWITCHING RELAY DESIGN. By R. L. Peex, Jr. and H. N. Wacar. TRANSISTOR TECHNOLOGY, Volume I. Edited by H. B. Brworrs, J. H. Scarr, and J. N. Sve. TRANSISTOR TECHNOLOGY, Volume II. Edited by F. J. Bronpr. TRANSISTOR TECHNOLOGY, Volume III, Hdited by F. J. Bionpt. PHYSICAL ACOUSTICS AND THE PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS. By Warren P, Mason. —_——————————PHYSICAL ACOUSTICS AND THE PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS by WARREN P. MASON, Ph.D. Head, Mechanics Research Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. CHECKED D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, INC. PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY TORONTO LONDON NEW YORKD. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, INC. 120 Alexander St., Princeton, New Jersey (Principal office) 287 Fourth Avenue, New York 10, New York D. Van Nosrranp Company, Lr. 358, Kensington High Street, London, W.14, England D. Van Nosrranp Company (Canada), Lr. 25 Hollinger Road, Toronto 16, Canada Copyricrt © 1958, ny D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, Inc. Published simultaneously in Canada by D. Va Nosrnanp Company (Canada), Lrp. Library of Congress Catalogue Card No. 58-11114 No reproduction in any form of this book, in whole or in part (except for brief quotation in critical articles or reviews), may be made without written authorization from the publishers. y a ay”Preface It is the purpose of this book to provide an introduction to the uses of wave transmission in solids. Background information is contained in chap- ters on wave propagation in solids, in transducer materials, and in phenomenological models. One chapter describes various methods that have been used in measuring the properties of solids and polymer liquids which are the equivalent of glassy solids at high frequencies. Since the principles are the same for device applications as for analytical applications, both types are covered in this book. A chapter is devoted to low-amplitude devices and another to high-amplitude devices. In the field of analysis, subjects covered are the effects of thermal conductivity, sound scattering, effect of domain wall motion and domain rotation on the acoustic properties of ferromagnetic and ferroelectric materials, interstitial and substitutional atom relaxations, dislocation models for low- and high-amplitude strains, internal friction in quartz, fused silica and glasses, and crystal lattice interactions with electrons and phonons. It is emphasized that the fields of devices and analysis are closely coupled, since improvements in devices can only come from an analysis of the fundamental transmission properties of solids. Because of the wide diversity in the possible applications of these devices and in the professional backgrounds of their potential users, the underlying physics is presented as simply as possible with a minimum of mathematics. Plausibility arguments are used in the place of rigorous derivations. Results are often quoted with references to more complete discussions. An excep- tion is the Appendix, in which the stress-strain relations and the tensor relations between elastic variables and electric and magnetic fields are developed from fundamentals by means of thermodynamic potentials. These relations are applicable to piezoelectric, electrostrictive, and magnetostrictive transducers in a general enough form so that they can be evaluated for any type of crystal system. Since the resulting tensor matrices are applicable to a large number of effects in addition to those connected with transducers, a list of such relations, fundamental to crystal physics, is given for tensors up to rank four. No effort is made to discuss in detail any effects except those needed for transducer theory. ‘The author is indebted to many colleagues for helpful suggestions and criticisms. Among these may be mentioned O. L. Anderson, H. E. Bom- mel, R. M. Bozorth, R. K. Cook, J. K. Galt, Conyers Herring, A. N. Holden, vvi PREFACE, H. J. McSkimin, W. T. Read, R. A. Sykes, and R. N. Thurston, These gentlemen, however, are not to be held responsible for the form of the ideas expressed in the book. The author is indebted to J. Mysak for drawing the figures and to Mrs. Annette Favetta for painstakingly typing the manuscript. ‘Warren P. Mason Murray Hint, N. J. June 1958Contents Part I. Types, Generators, and Practical Applications of . Waves in Solids CHAPTER I, Pracricat Apprications anp AnatyticaL Uses or Wave Propa- GATION IN SoLips Il. Types of Waves TRansmitrep in Soitps III. Properties anp Equivarenr Circuits or Transpucer MarTerrats IV. Merons ror Mrasurine THE Properties or Sotms anp PotyMER Liquins V. Practica, Appiications or Low-AMmpLirupe Waves 1n Sotips VI. Practica. Appiications oF Hicu-Ampirrupe Waves 1n Sorips Part II. Analysis of the Sources of Dissipation and Elastic Dispersion in Solids VII. PHenomenotocicat Description of Loss Processes VIII. Atrenuation mv Soups Dug to THermat Conpuctivity, Grain AnD Domatn Bounpary Errects, AND Interstitial Atom Dirru- SION, TX. Errecr or Distocatrons on Uzrrasonic Wave ATTENUATION IN Merats X. Sounp TransMisston in Non-Meratttc Crystars anp GLaAsses XI. Interaction Between Larrice Viprations anp Exectrons Aprenpix. Derivation or THE RELationsHips Between SrREss AND Srraiy anp THE Appitep Execrric anp Macneric Frecps Usep iw Transpucers Name Invex Susyecr Invex : PAGE 3 12 51 87 123 156 181 197 231 ” 286 314 355 395 399LIST OF SYMBOLS (For list of tensor symbols see end of Appendix) A = cross-sectional area; attenuation constant A(t) = indicial admittance a = fixed radius B= phase constant; dislocation damping constant; flux density; bulk modulus b = Burger's distance; design parameter of filter C = capacitance; compliance C,, C, = specific heats at constant volume and stress ¢,; = elastic stiffness moduli D = thermal diffusivity D, = electric displacements D(t) = displacement function d;; = piezoelectric constants E = elastic modulus E, = conversion efficiency E;, = electric fields E(x) = line energy of a dislocation e = electronic charge piezoelectric constants force force function frequency, f, = critical frequency, fy = mean frequency; coefficient of friction = stress relaxation function Gibbs potential alue of gravity piezoelectric constants magnetic field; hysteresis constant; activation energy ritical magnetic field for superconductor Planck’s constant, i = h/2a piezoelectric constants moment of inertia ; = saturation magnetic intensity 1 = current Jo{r), Ji(r) = Bessel’s functions of zero and first order IxLIST OF SYMBOLS jav-1 = radius of gyration; thermal conductivity anisotropic energy Boltzmann’s constant; coefficient of electromechanical coupling; ratio of w/I” = coefficient of self-induction = dislocation loop length; direction cosine; length mean free path mass; moment of force root of flexure equation; direction cosine number of turns number of dislocation loops per cm* number of dislocations per cm? harmonic order; direction cosine; parameter in flexure equation power polarization components hysteresis power loss pressure internal friction ratio of reactance to resistance; quantity of heat; quantity of charge Q, = scattering cross-section q = acoustic “charge” = B,Vcq, qi; = electrostriction constants Qm = pyroelectric constants R = electrical or mechanical resistance; resistivity; function of radius r; gas constant roots of equations variable radius; reflection factor; ratio of capacitances entropy; area strain components compliance constants T = temperature; tension T, = critical temperature for superconducting material T, = stresses = Peierls’ stress t = time; thickness t) = relaxation time = internal energy function; energy stored ; magnetomotive force displacement along x-axis; 1; = displacement components + j K Ky= k L l I & iLIST OF SYMBOLS xi V = electric potential ; velocity Vp = velocities for longitudinal, shear, extensional, and Rayleigh waves = group velocity displacement along y direction = mean velocity = energy of self diffusion; energy of breakup displacement along 2 direction; width = mechanical or electrical reactance distance along coordinate axis; x; = three coordinate axes = Young’s modulus Bessel’s functions of the second kind y = distance along coordinate axis Z = function of z 21, Z,, Zo = Characteristic impedances for longitudinal, shear, or extensional waves 2 = distance along coordinate axis temperature coefficient of expansion; direction cosine; angle direction cosine; angle dielectric impermeability constants A+jB = propagation constant ratio of specific heats; direction cosine; taper constant of exponential rod = dilation; strength of a relaxation = change in elastic modulus; 4p = change in shearing modulus decrement, small addition to = (r'—7)/r = ratio of difference in radii to solvent radius = dielectric constants at constant stress or strain = shear viscosity function of @ angle, temperature compressibility; bulk viscosity = V,/V, = ratio of Rayleigh to shear velocities = wavelength; total magnetostrictive or electrostrictive strain; Lamé elastic constant temperature coefficient of stress Lamé shear modulus; magnetic permeability = density Poisson’s ratio transmission factor; relaxation time; intervalley scattering time VV, ext? V Se hs Sagas Yor), Yi(r) Rg i] nt By > F x eaOsdha ow ll axii LIST OF SYMBOLS ® = expression for traveling wave; total magnetic flux ©, = deformation potential ¢ = transformer turns ratio ¢(t) = creep function X = compressional viscosity; magnetic susceptibility Xo tial magnetic susceptibility w = angular frequency, i.e., 2nf G,, &,, &, = rotations about x-, y-, and 2-axes a ee we 2 testes Vi= tet a + ie Laplace operatorPart I Types, Generators, and Practical Applications of Waves in SolidsChapter I Practical Applications and Analytical Uses of Wave Propagation in Solids 1.0 Introduction Mechanical waves in solids have long been used practically, in such devices as tuning forks and musical instruments, and wave propagation in solids has been a favorite subject for theoretical and experimental studies by mathematicians and physicists for several centuries. But it is only within the last few decades that very wide application has been made of this knowledge, ¢.g., in mechanical filters, for separating definite voice or telegraph signals from a number of signals of different frequencies, and in delay lines for storing information in the form of pulses. The device known as a delay line was developed under the stimulus of the Second World War. It will receive a pulse from a transmitter and return the pulse to the receiving end, essentially undistorted but delayed by a time interval which is determined by the path length and the velocity of sound in the line material. Such a delay line was used as a memory device for producing at the proper time the echoes returned from a first radio pulse in a radar system. These echoes were used to balance out fixed echoes from the second and successive pulses sent out by the radar system. This type of system, known as a moving target indicator, was used successfully to accentuate moving objects in the presence of a background clutter. The memory properties of delay lines have been used extensively in computers and for decoding pulse codes. The applications of delay lines are now very extensive. Such devices require transmission paths that are free from imperfections. If such imperfections are present, they cause reflections or refractions of the sound pulses. These reflected or refracted waves produce responses, arriving after the time of the sending pulse, which can be picked up by the same or an adjacent transducer. Hence these pulses provide a means for examining or inspecting the imperfections of a solid body. Ultrasonic inspectoscopes and thickness gauges are among the best devices for determining the integrity and dimensions of metal castings or other solid bodies. 34 APPLICATIONS OF WAVE TRANSMISSION IN SOLIDS Another device of considerable practical importance is the electromechanical wave filter for selecting a band of frequencies from a continuous spectrum of frequencies, for the purpose of radio or carrier telephone communication. These devices are competitive with wave filters made from electrical elements, and also with quartz crystal filters, in which part of the filtering action is due to the mechanical properties of the crystal reflected as an electrical impedance through the transducer action of the piezoelectric effect. The performance of electromechanical filters has reached a level comparable to that of other types of filters, and it appears likely that they may play a large role in the communication field. These devices all employ small-amplitude vibrations, Recently, a series of high-amplitude devices has become of increasing importance. These include ultrasonic drilling and cutting equipment, wear testers, and also magnetic flux, adhesion, and fatigue-measuring devices. The second large field of use for the transmission of sound waves in solids is the analytical one of determining the properties and composition of sound transmission media. On a large scale, most of the information on the composition of the earth’s core comes from analyzing the transmission of earthquake waves. Sound waves from explosive sources are used extensively by exploration geophysicists to analyze the composition of rock structures associated with oil deposits. On a smaller scale, the transmission of sound waves, and the variations found with temperature and frequency, have been used to analyze the composition of polycrystalline metals, the properties of domain wall motions of ferromagnetic and ferroelectric materials, the motions of interstitial and substitutional atoms in a crystal lattice, the presence of imperfections such as dislocations and vacancies, and even the interaction of lattice vibrations with free electrons and phonons. In this respect, sound waves provide information similar to that obtained from electromagnetic waves and X-rays. As with these types of waves, the information furnished by sound waves is not very direct, and models have to be set up to simulate the action, These range from the phenomenological types such as the Maxwell, Voigt, and linear elastic solid models, to more atomistic models such as those proposed for the motions of dislocations and for the interaction of lattice vibrations with free electrons and phonons. The coupling, between lattice vibrations and electrons and phonons, can only be measured at very low temperatures, for which the electron and phonon mean free paths are large. In these measurements, acoustic waves are being used in the region where quantum considerations govern the interaction. Data of interest are obtained for theories of super- conductivity in metals. While it is too much to expect that all of the models proposed will emerge as completely accurate representations ofLt MECHANICAL WAVES IN SOLIDS. 5 these interactions, nevertheless, they are of considerable interest in the development of the science of physical acoustics. All of these practical and analytical applications depend on the types of wave transmission occurring in solids, the methods for generating such waves, and the reactions such waves have on measuring instruments. It is the purpose of this book to provide an introduction to the uses of wave transmission in solids. Practical applications and analytical uses are both discussed since it is felt that the same principles apply for both cases. 1.1 Mechanical Waves in Solids The propagation of mechanical waves in solids has been studied theo- retically for many years, and quite complete descriptions have been obtained for simple boundary conditions. In general, three types of plane waves can be transmitted by the unbounded medium. In isotropic materials these are a longitudinal wave with particle motions along the direction of propagation, and two shear waves with particle motions perpendicular to the direction of propagation. In anisotropic materials three waves are also propagated, but the particle velocities are not usually along or at right angles to the direction of propagation, so that no wave is strictly longitudinal or transverse. There are special directions, however, for which the particle motions are either along or perpendicular to the direction of propagation, and such directions are used in measuring elastic constants of crystals. Elastic waves are reflected at the boundaries of solids, but not usually in the simple way that they are reflected at the boundaries of liquids and gases. Generally, a longitudinal or a shear wave, after reflection, becomes a mixture of both longitudinal and shear waves, the amplitude of each depending on the angle of incidence and on the elastic constants. A review of the conditions is given in Chapter II. Shear waves with their particle motions parallel to the reflecting surface are reflected into pure shear waves, and this property is made use of in delay lines which delay an input wave for a period of time depending on the length of the transmission path and the elastic properties of the medium. Such delay lines have information-storing properties whose practical applications are discussed in Chapter V. Reflections of waves from imperfections in solids are also used for inspection. . Bounded media will transmit guided waves. Such waves are transmitted at velocities which depend on the mode of transmission, the frequencies of excitation, the elastic constants, and the dimensions of the sample. ‘They have been used for many years in tuning forks and piano strings. Elastic constant and internal friction measurements have been made with guided waves in extensional, flexural, shear, and torsional modes. The frequencies of measurement have usually been above the6 APPLICATIONS OF WAVE TRANSMISSION IN SOLIDS audible range, and the name ultrasonics has often been applied to this field of work. There is really no dividing line for the frequencies used in measurement, however, for such devices as torsional pendulums work in the low audible or subaudible range. Hence the Acoustical Society of America has favored the name Physical Acoustics for the study of wave propagation and the interpretation of the velocity and attenuation effects that are measured in any frequency range. Guided waves have had many applications, not only in classical tuning forks and other mechanical resonators, but also in newer devices, such as mechanical filters for separating out a region of the frequency range from other frequency ranges, and in delay lines affording large delay in a small space. On account of the low internal friction and the stable properties associated with mechanical vibrations, devices using mechanical waves have considerable promise, as described in Chapter V. Most of these applications are in devices for which the amount of strain is small, but recently, those which incorporate a very large strain have come into use. Such high-strain devices (discussed in Chapter VI) have been used in producing drills and saws for cutting through brittle materials, in the study of wear in various materials, and in studying the nature of fatigue and fracture. 1.2 Devices for Generating Waves in Solids and for Measuring the Transmission Properties of Solids In order to utilize the properties associated with wave transmission in solids, it is necessary to have transducers for generating the appropriate waves. A number of types are in general use. In the lower frequency ranges these are usuaily of the electromagnetic or electrostatic type, but for the ultrasonic range they are usually of the piezoelectric or magnetostrictive type. Transducers of the piezoelectric type can be cut in various orientations from crystals, to generate the types of waves required. They have the advantage of very low internal friction, and quartz in particular has had much use in generating ultrasonic waves in liquids and solids and as part of physical acoustic measuring systems. Since piezoelectric crystals are somewhat limited in the amount of mechanical power they can generate in the intermediate frequency range, magnetostrictive materials have generally been used in such devices as ultrasonic drills and cutters which require large mechanical power. Recently materials of another type—ferroelectric ceramics, such as barium titanate—have been employed in generating large amounts of mechanical power. These materials are electrostrictive, in the sense that the motion generated in them is an even function of the applied polarization. A ferroelectric ceramic, like a magnetostrictive material, must be polarized to obtain a linear response to an applied driving field. This can1.3 USE OF PHYSICAL ACOUSTIC TECHNIQUES 7 be done by applying a large electric field, usually at a temperature above the Curie point, and cooling the ceramic with the field applied. After cooling, a good share of the possible polarization is lined up in the direction of the field. The ceramic then acts like a piezoelectric crystal and has equivalent piezoelectric constants. Such materials can produce considerable mechanical power and have been used in high-amplitude devices as described in Chapter VI. Because they have a higher electromechanical coupling factor, they can provide a more efficient drive over a wider frequency range than can most piezoelectric and magnetostrictive transducers. Hence they have been used in wide-band filters and delay lines, as discusséd in Chapter V. Chapter III describes the properties of various types of transducing materials. Transducers of various types have been incorporated in devices for measuring wave transmission properties and the mechanical impedance of liquids and solids. For example, the properties of many polymer liquids and solids have been investigated by employing transducers capable of exciting various modes of motion. The properties of solids having low internal dissipation are usually investigated by determining the velocity and attenuation of free or guided waves. The effects of dislocations, segment motions in polymer materials, scattering of sound waves by grain boundaries, and also the motions of interstitial atoms, vacancies, and domain wall boundaries, usually make themselves known by dispersions of the velocities or peaks of attenuation which are studied as a function of frequency and temperature. In materials with high attenuation, it is not feasible to measure wave transmission, and a number of instruments have been devised which measure the characteristic mechanical impedance of the material, Since there is a relation between the characteristic impedance Z, and the wave transmission properties of an infinite medium, which can be expressed as ZI = (R+jX\A+jB) = jup (1.1) a measurement of the characteristic resistance R and reactance X, will determine the attenuation A and phase shift constant B at a given frequency f=«/2m when the density p is known. Hence one can study dispersion effects in materials with high attenuation by measuring the characteristic impedance Z), Instruments for performing such measurements are described in Chapter IV. 1.3 Use of Physical Acoustic Techniques in Investigating Imperfections and Characteristic Solid State Motions A perfect crystal would probably transmit waves with no attenuation except that caused by thermal effects, and with a velocity independent of the frequency so long as the wavelength was large compared with the8 APPLICATIONS OF WAVE TRANSMISSION IN SOLIDS period of the crystal structure. Quite perfect crystals of silicon, germanium, and quartz indeed approach this ideal rather closely, Even these materials, however, show peaks of attenuation and velocity dispersion at low temperatures and high frequencies which suggest the presence of certain types of imperfections. Less perfect materials, such as metals and polymers, exhibit a dispersion of the velocity and attenuation peaks at definite frequencies and temperatures which clearly show the presence of some molecular motions in the interior of these materials. These motions have been studied not only by physical acoustic methods but also by applying magnetic and electromagnetic forces. In some cases, all three methods for studying the properties of solids produce identital results. In other cases, characteristic differences occur, usually because the different forces do not drive the molecular motions in the same manner. For example, electromagnetic waves produce their effects by driving simultaneously all the dipoles of a given solid, while mechanical waves act successively on the moving elements as the waves proceed through the material, Hence the two techniques do not always measure the same relaxation frequencies. ’ The resulting relaxations in solid materials can be examined on several levels, varying from a phenomenological description to an analysis of such motions as dislocation motions and those involving chains or segments of long chain molecules. A good description of many of the properties of wave propagation can be obtained by setting up phenomenological models, and this is usually the first step in considering more fundamental processes. Chapter VII describes the Voigt, Maxwell, and standard linear solid models, and the generalizations required to describe distributions of relaxation frequencies. Chapter VIII discusses several of the better known types of loss mechanisms. ‘These include thermal loss mechanisms which were investigated by Kirchhoff} and others, thermal relaxation effects described by Zener,? the magnetic and electrostatic 4E effect® and associated micro-eddy current and microhysteresis effects in ferromagnetic and ferroelectric materials, sound scattering due to grain structure in metals, and relaxations in metals due to stress-induced diffusion® of interstitial and substitutional atoms through the metal. All these effects have been known for some time and the interpretations given them appear to be quite conclusive. 1G, Kirchhoff, Poggendorf's Ann. Phys., 134, 177 (1868). ®C. Zener, Elasticity and Anclasticity of Metals, p. 84, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 3N. Akulov and E. Kondorsky, Z. Physik, 78, 801-807 (1933); M. Kersten, Z. Physik 8, Jo8-716 (1933); R. Becker and W. Déring, Ferromagnetismus (W. Springer, Berlin, “W. P. Mason and H. J. McSkimin, 9. Appl. Phys., 19, 940-946 (1948). $J. L. Snoek, Physica, 8, No, 1, 711-733 (July 1941); L. J. Dykstra, Philips Research Reports, 2, 357 (1947).13 USE OF PHYSICAL ACOUSTIC TECHNIQUES 9 During recent years, some of the mechanical properties of metals have been explained as due to the presence of a type of imperfection known as a dislocation. An edge dislocation is a region in the crystal for which a plane of atoms is missing with respect to the number on the other side of the dislocation. Such an imperfection glides in-a direction perpendicular to its length, is relatively mobile, and interacts with other dislocations, impurity atoms, and vacancies in the metal. Another type of a dislocation, known as a screw dislocation has its glide direction along the length of the dislocation. This type has been shown to be intimately connected with the growth process in some crystals. When a screw dislocation cuts another screw dislocation, it produces a length of dislocation, known as a jog along the slip vector of the cut dislocation. One part of the original dislocation is one atom plane higher than the other part, and these two parts are joined by the jog. When a jog is dragged through the metal by the stress applied to the dislocation, it generates vacancies which are believed to be the cause of such phenomena as fatigue in metals. In general, dislocations are mixed, i.e., they have both edge and screw components. The fact that the motion of dislocations can cause ultrasonic attenuation, was first pointed out by T. A. Read.¢ However, the dislocation models for producing internal friction by dislocation motion are the subject of considerable discussion. Several possibilities are discussed in Chapter IX. The internal friction produced by dislocations depends on the strain amplitude. For longitudinal strains above 10-5, Frank-Read sources, as described in Chapter IX, appear to be the principal cause of internal dissipation. This type of internal dissipation is of a hysteresis type, i.c., for a given stress level the strain is a two-valued function of the stress and the area of the loop traversed is independent of the frequency of the applied stress. For strains from 10-7 to 10-5, the internal friction is also of the hysteresis type and is amplitude-dependent. The very considerable data obtained on this type of internal friction,” shows rather conclusively that it is due to the energy loss associated with the breakaway of dislocations from pinning impurities. Finally when strains are less than 10-?, the stress is not great enough to cause breakaway and another source of dissipation must be operative. Theoretical studies® suggest that there is a dissipation proportional to the velocity of motion of a dislocation, and a . model of a dislocation loop pinned by impurity atoms, proposed by Koehler,® taking into account this dissipation, appears to agree reasonably © T. A. Read, Phys. Rev., 58, 371 (1940);7. Appl '5., 12, 100 (1941); Trans. A E. ( » 58, 371 (1940); ¥. Appl. Phys., 12, yy 1M: A. Granato and K. Liicke, 7. Appl. Phys., 27, No. 6, 583-593 (1956); ibid., 27, 789- , (1956); » 27, “J. D. Esheby, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A197, 396 (1949); G. Liebfried, Z. Physik. ), (1949); ried, "h . °J,S, Koehler, Imperfections in Nearly Perfect Crystals, p. 197 iley neds Kesher ly Perfect Crystals, p. 197, John Wiley and Sons,10 APPLICATIONS OF WAVE TRANSMISSION IN SOLIDS well with measurements made in the high megacycle range.” In the kilocycle region the internal friction is much greater than this and moreover appears to be independent of the frequency. It has been suggested in Chapter IX that the stress-displacement relation of a dislocation may not be exactly linear, but may occur in the form of a hysteresis loop. These low-amplitude losses should occur for zig-zag dislocations which are not oriented along crystallographic directions with minimum energy positions in the lattice. Recently it has been observed?° for freshly strained materials that an internal friction peak occurring at low temperatures, has a characteristic activation energy. As discussed in Chapter IX, it appears that this peak is due to dislocations lying in minimum energy positions. Dislocations are restrained from moving by the energy barriers (due to Peierls’ stresses), and thermal energy is required to sur- mount the barriers. These measurements give fundamental information on the nature of forces acting on dislocations. Dislocations are much more numerous in a metal than they are in such crystals as quartz. Nevertheless, rate of growth considerations show that there must be some dislocations in the crystal. Q measurements over frequency and temperature ranges show relaxations which are connected with dislocation motions in quartz. Impurities in the quartz also cause changes in the structure, which produce a relaxation with the frequency determined by atomic motions. Measurements in fused silica and glasses show a similar relaxation which has been associated with the side- wise motion of oxygen atoms in the Si—O—Si bonds. ‘The relaxations found in polymer materials are much more numerous and extend over a much wider frequency range than those found for any other group of materials. Polymer liquids and polymer rubbers show a rubbery range at low frequencies for which the shear stiffness is from 10° to 107 dynes/cm.®, and a glassy range at higher frequencies for which the shear stiffness is as high as 1019 dynes/em.* A description in terms of relaxation frequency ranges is of course possible. Recently, theories of Rouse!! and Bueche!* have connected the properties of polymers in solution with the motion of a series of segments in the polymer. The idea has been extended?* by introducing the concepts of a thermal relaxation time for segment motion and a stiffness due to natural constraints. This stiffness is effective for frequencies higher than the thermal relaxation frequency. Agreement is obtained with measurements over the entire frequency range. For polymer liquids, a three-dimensional network is 7 See footnote on page 9. 2°P. G, Bordoni, 7. Acous. Soc. Amer., 26, 495-498, No. 4 (July 1954). 11 P. E. Rouse, F. Chent. Phys., 21, No. 7, 1272-1280 (1953). 12 F. Bueche, ibid., 22, 603 (1954). 18Sce W. P. Mason, “Dispersion and Absorption of Sound in High Polymers,” Vol. XI, Encyclopedia of Physics, Springer—Verlag, 1958, Berlin, Géttingen, Heidelburg.1.3 USE OF PHYSICAL ACOUSTIC TECHNIQUES 11 required to agree with static viscosity measurements, the rubbery state, and the glassy state. In rubbers, cross-linking extends the effective length of the chains, and in solids the closer cross-linking destroys the effect of segment motion. Side groups, however, can affect the attenuation and elastic dispersion at low temperatures."* It has recently been shown}® that free electrons in metals can cause an attenuation at very low temperatures and very high frequencies. ‘This loss drops out when the metal is in the superconducting state. When the mean free path of the electrons is less than the acoustic wavelength, the action is of a viscous nature,‘® ie., by the transfer of momentum from the lattice to the electrons, and the attenuation is proportional to the square of the frequency. When the mean free path is larger than the acoustic wavelength, the process is closer to a scattering process!’ and the attenuation becomes independent of the conductivity, i.e., the mean free path length. In the viscous range it can be shown that the attenuation is determined by the shape of the Fermi surface, and the effect may have some application in the measurement of Fermi surfaces for metals as discussed in Chapter XI. 4 E. A. Hoff, D. W. Robinson, and A, H. Willbourn, ¥. Polymer Sci., 13, 565 (1954); 18, 161 (1955), 18H, E. Bommel, Phys. Rev., 96, 220 (1954). 36 W. P. Mason, ibid., 97, 557 (1955). 27 A. Pippard, Phil. Mag., 46, No. 388, 1104-1114 (Oct. 1955).Chapter IT Types of Waves Transmitted in Solids 2.1 Introduction It is the purpose of this chapter to develop the fundamentals of wave propagation in solids considered as continuous media. Since some of the applications have to do with transmission of waves in single crystals, the presentation in the Appendix is made general enough to include wave transmission in non-isotropic media. ‘This chapter, however, is limited to isotropic media. Many solids not ordinarily thought of as crystalline are anisotropic. For example, wood! can be considered as an ortho- thombic structure, and a rolled metal rod has a symmetry called transverse isotropy, i.e., the rolling axis is a unique axis while all directions perpendicular to this axis are equivalent. A rolled metal plate may develop characteristics similar to those of an orthorhombic crystal. A longitudinal or shear transducer can produce simultaneously two waves with different velocities in a crystal or anisotropic metal or wood sample. This phenomena, known as acoustic birefringence, can be used to investigate the degree of anisotropy ina solid. Similarly, a conversion of one type of wave to others can occur by reflection at a boundary. This property of wave propagation has been made use of in delay lines to con- vert longitudinal waves, which are easily generated by barium titanate transducers, into shear waves which have the advantage of slower propagation, In a finite body, the boundaries determine the normal modes of wave propagation, As one dimension becomes large with respect to the other two, the modes simplify considerably and accurate formulae exist for longitudinal, torsional, and flexural waves in rods and bars, When one dimension becomes very small compared to the other two, plate theory can be applied and the motions simplify considerably.2 Since all the measur- 1 R, F, S. Hearmon, “The Elastic Constants of Anisotropic Materials,” Rev. Mod. Phys., 18, No. 3, 409-440 (July 1946). ? A number of special solutions have been obtained by a project at Columbia University under the direction of Prof. R. D. Mindlin. These have appeared in a Signal Corps report, An Introduction to the Mathematical Theory of Vibrations of Elastic Plates (1955), Signal Corps Contract DA-36-039 SC-56772. 122.2 TRANSMISSION OF WAVES IN ISOTROPIC SOLIDS 13 ing techniques presented and all the applications discussed require either plane waves or guided waves in structures for which one dimension is long compared to the other two, discussion in the present book will be limited to these cases. 2.2 Transmission of Waves in Isotropic Solids Stress and strain in a solid body can each be resolved into six components: three extensional and three shearing. The definitions of these components and the method for transferring them to other sets of axes are discussed in the Appendix, Section A.1. According to Hooke’s law, each stress component can be expressed as a linear combination of the strain components, and vice versa. For the most anisotropic material there are 21 constants of proportionality or elastic constants. As the symmetry increases, the number of elastic constants decreases. For an isotropic body, only two elastic constants are independent, and the six stress-strain equations are Ty = (A+2u)S, + A(Sq+S3) = AM 4205; Ty = wSy Ty = (A+2u)Sg+A(S,4+S3) = AA+2nS,; Ts = wSs (2.1) Ts = (A+ 2p) S3+A(S1+ So) = A4+2pS5; Ty = pSo, where 4=S,+S,+53. The T;’s are the six stresses and the S,’s the six strains. A and p are the two Lamé elastic constants. Three other elastic constants—Young’s modulus, Y», the bulk modulus B, and Poisson’s ratio o—are also of interest. Young’s modulus is defined as the ratio of stress to strain for a bar to which extensional stress is applied only along one axis. If we take this axis as the z-axis, T,=7,=0. Solving for the ratio of J’, to S; when S, and S; are eliminated from the third equation of (2.1), we find Fy _ wGA+2y) _ 3° Yo (2.2) If at the same time we take the ratio iv Sy Se “se “3, 7% (2.3) the Poisson’s ratio, we find a °.= 2p G4) The third elastic constant, the bulk modulus B, is defined as the ratio of a hydrostatic pressure p to the change in volume of the material. Setting T,=T,=T;=—p and solving for A, the change in volume, we find A = ~3p/(3A+2u). (2.5)i4¢ TYPES OF WAVES TRANSMITTED IN SOLIDS Hence the magnitude of the ratio of p to 4 is Pp 3A+2p 2 =B 2.6 Raz Ate HB (2.6) The equations of motion for waves in an unbounded medium can be derived from Newton’s law giving the relation between the mass times the acceleration and the force. For the three directions of motion along the x-, y-, and z-axes, the equations can be written pat de dy ds = F, i; l=x; 2=y; 3=2, (2.7) where dx dy dz is an infinitesimal unit of volume of density p, having particle displacements 1, along the three directions. F,, the force components in the three directions, are determined by the rates of change of the stresses along the edges of the unit volume as discussed in Section A.1 (Appendix). For the x direction - (is ay as Fy= 1 wt “Gs and similar equations apply to the other two directions. Introducing the stress-strain equations of (2.1), yields the equations of motion in an isotropic medium: eu ou dv bw 2) dx dy dz. (2.8) 2 Poe = arn A uy u las nt ptm Sy+ Sot Sy Bo ad | a ee a (2.9) Pap = tH) tev? yt (fet at ie =) aw @A eae = Ate) a tee. These equations follow from the elastic Equations (2.1) which relate the stress components to the strain components, and Equations A.3 of the appendix which give the relations between the strains and the space derivatives of the displacements. By considering wave transmission in a general medium by means of Christoffel’s method and reducing the number of constants to correspond with isotropic symmetry, it is shown in Section A.1 D that two types of waves can be propagated, namely, longitudinal waves with their particle motion in the direction of propagation and transverse or shear waves with their particle motion transverse to the direction of propagation. These two waves propagate with the velocities Ys ee, V,= Jé (2.10)2.2 TRANSMISSION OF WAVES IN ISOTROPIC SOLIDS 15 The same results can be obtained more simply by noting that Equation (2.9) can be regarded as defining two types of waves, i.e., dilatational waves and rotational waves. To show this, we can differentiate the three equations of (2.9) by x, y, 2, respectively, and add, obtaining ie 3 2.11 pe = (A+2n) vd, (2.11) an equation which shows that the dilatation 4 will be transmitted with a velocity v= [SE ex For a plane wave with a single particle motion w, independent of y and z, this equation can be put into the form Ou Ou PoE = (A+ 2p} Pet (2.13) As can be seen by direct differentiation, this equation describes a wave of the type x UU = uy coswli-+}, 2.14 ccose (1-7) (24) which travels with the velocity V, of Equation (2.10) and has a particle displacement 1, in the same direction as the wave propagation x. The Equations (2.9) show also that another wave known as a rotational wave can be transmitted with the velocity V, of Equation (2.10). To show this, we differentiate the first equation of (2.9) by z, the third by x and subtract, obtaining @ (eu dw eu bw ae (e-%) =e? (e-%): (2.15) We note that ou ow . Fe ax = AH» (2.16) where &, is the rotation about the y-axis. If we have a plane wave with only a particle velocity 1, this equation takes the form eu au Pape = hogy (2.17) which has a solution for a plane wave traveling with the velocity V, of16 ‘TYPES OF WAVES TRANSMITTED IN SOLIDS Equation (2.10), for which the particle displacement 1 is at right angles to the direction of propagation 2. Such a wave is known as a transverse or shear wave. We see also by differentiating the second of Equations (2.9) by z and the third by y, that another wave with the same velocity can be transmitted along z with its particle displacement along y. In fact, waves can be transmitted along z with their particle displacements along and yy and hence two shear waves and one longitudinal wave can be transmitted in any direction in an isotropic material. Table I shows the fundamental and derived elastic constants for a number of metals, glasses, and plastics and the corresponding longitudinal and shear velocities. The characteristic impedances, whose significance is discussed in Section 2.3 D, are also shown for these waves. ‘The velocities for the simplest guided waves, whose values are determined by Young’s modulus and the torsional modulus (the latter equal to the shear modulus #), are also given by the table. Table II shows the densities of these materials. When the materials occur in single-crystal form, the densities are usually slightly higher. The crystal densities are calculated from the molecular weight and the x-ray determinations of the lattice spacings and represent the highest possible densities. 2.3 Effects of Boundaries on the Transmission of Plane Waves In an unbounded isotropic solid medium, only longitudinal and shear waves can be propagated. When there is a single plane boundary, it is possible to obtain surface waves and reflection of waves from the boundary. It is the purpose of this section to discuss these two cases. A, Rayleigh Waves Elastic waves similar to surface gravitational waves can be transmitted by an elastic medium as was first shown by Lord Rayleigh.? Their particle motions decrease rapidly with depth and their velocity, which depends on the value of Poisson’s ratio, is always less than that for a shear wave. ‘These waves have considerable importance in seismology, but since they are not used directly in this book, only a general description of them is given. Mathematical justification for the equations given can be obtained from the reference.* A plane Rayleigh wave is one for which the particle velocities are contained in the plane determined by the direction of propagation and the normal to the surface, as shown by Fig. 2.1. The equations determining the particle velocities result from a solution of the wave equations for an > London Math, Soc. Proc., 17 (1887); or Scientific Papers, 2, 441. ‘These waves are discussed in Love's Theory of Elasticity, pp. 307-309, 4th Edition, Cambridge University Press, 1934, See also H. 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Densities of Glasses, Plastics, and Metals in Polycrystalline and Crystalline Form (X-ray Densities for Crystals) Density Temperature — /kg/m? x 10 Materials Composition Cc) or ) gicm® Aluminum, hard drawn eee 20 2.695 crystal wae 25 2,697 Aluminum and copper 10 Al, 90 Cu oe 7.69 5 Al, 95 Cu wee 8.37 3 Al, 97 Cu wee 8.69 Beryllium, see eee 20 1.87 crystal see ae 18 1.871 Brass yellow 70 Cu, 30 Zn we 8.5-8.7 red 90 Cu, 10 Zn ue 8.6 white 50 Cu, 50 Zn 8.2 Bronze 90 Cu, 10 Sn 8.78 85 Cu, 15 Sn 8.89 80 Cu, 20 Sa . 8.74 75 Cu, 25 Sn we 8.83 Chromium, fee tee 20 6.92-7.1 crystal sete 18 7.193 Cobalt, fee nee 21 8.71 crystal center we 8.788 Constantine 60 Cu, 40 Ni see 8.88 Copper, fea wn 8.3-8.9 crystal sees 18 8.936 Duraluminum 95 Al, 4 Cu oe 2.79 0.5 Mg; 0.5 Mn Germanium, nee aes vee 5.3 crystal eee 20 5.322 German silver 26.3 Cu, 36.6 Zn, a 8.30 36.8 Ni 52 Cu, 26 Zn, a 8.45 22 Ni 59 Cu, 30 Zn, vee 8.34 11 Ni 63 Cu, 30 Zn, wee 8.30 6Ni Gold, see ee wee 18.9-19,3 crystal see nee 20 19.32 (continued on next page)2.3 BOUNDARIES AND TRANSMISSION OF PLANE WAVES Table 11—(continued) 19 Density Temperature — /kg/m? x 10? Materials Composition (°c) or g/em? Indium, 7.28 crystal wee eee 731 Invar 63.8 Fe, 36 Ni, 8.0 0.20 C Tron, 20 7.6-7.85 crystal 20 7.87 Lead, 20 11.34 crystal wee ae 18 11.34 Lead and tin 87.5 Pb, 12.5 Sn 10.6 84 Pb, 16 Sn 10.33 72.8 Pb, 22.2 Sn 10.05 63.7 Pb, 36.3 Sn 9.43 46.7 Pb, 53.3 Sn 8.73 30.5 Pb, 69.5 Sn 8.24 Magnesium, tae 1.74 crystal 25 1.748 Manganese, TAQ crystal ae 7.517 Mercury cee ae 20 13.546 Monel metal 714 Ni, 27 Cu, 8.90 2¥Fe Molybdenum, oe 10.19 crystal 25 10,19 Nickel, we 8.6-8.9 crystal wee aes 25 8.905 Phosphor bronze 79.7 Cu, 10 Sn, 8.8 9.5 Sb, 0.8 P Platinum, 20 21.37 crystal 18 21.62 Silicon, 15 2.33 crystal 25 2.332 Silver, see 10.4 crystal 25 10.49 Stainless steel, 347 71 Tin, 7-7.3 crystal 7.3 (continued on next page)20 TYPES OF WAVES TRANSMITTED IN SOLIDS Table 11—(continued) Density ‘Temperature —_/kg/m? x 10% Materials Composition (°C) or g/om® Tungsten, ae 18.6-19.1 crystal 25 19.2 Zinc, oe 7.04-7.18 crystal 25 718 Fused silica 2.2 Pyrex glass (702) wee ve 2.32 Heavy silicate flint glass 3.879 Light borate crown glass 2.243 Lucite 1.182 Nylon 6-6 en oo Lat Polyethylene 0.90 Polystyrene 1.056 g/cm (Reproduced by permission from American Institute of Physics Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1957.) isotropic material—Equations (2.9)—and a vanishing of the stress T.,, T yz, Ty, at the surface z=0. A solution satisfying these conditions is _ Mol2—H4) [evr e_2ve =a Deven] WV 1 — a} . 2-@ y . me xsin (wt #). (2.18) 5 i ws w= —Wol— a “rp 1-20 V, where aes a= 7-555 Vp= velocity of Rayleigh wave; V,=velocity of shear wave=/, ‘plo; o=Poisson’s ratio for the isotropic material; and w=2n times the frequency f. The ratio «= Vp/V, satisfies the equation te] — Bic} +- (24 — 1609) + (1603 — 16) = 0. (2.19) Figure 2.2 gives a plot of the ratio of the velocity of Rayleigh waves to the velocity of shear waves as a function of the Poisson’s ratio, and we see that the former varies from 0.8743 to 0.9554 as the Poisson’s ratio varies from2.3 BOUNDARIES AND TRANSMISSION OF PLANE WAVES 21 w/Wo ° y 2 a 2 ae ° o 2 ye RATIO OF U/Wo AND W/Wo ° & | +7 0.21 | ° OF 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 I 42043 104 RATIO OF Z/A Fic, 2.1. Particle velocities, parallel (w) and perpendicular (x), to the surface, as a function of the ratio of z (the distance from the surface) to A the wavelength for a Rayleigh surface wave. aso iar 6 0 0.05 0.10 015 020 025 030 035 O40 O45 050 VALUE OF POISSON'S RATIO T Fic. 2.2 Ratio of the velocity of a Rayleigh wave to the velocity of a shear wave as a function of Poisson’s ratio c.22 ‘TYPES OF WAVES TRANSMITTED IN SOLIDS 0 to 0.5. Figure 2.1 shows a plot of the particle displacement amplitudes n and w, both divided by the surface displacement wp, as functions of distance from the surface for a value of = 1/4. The particle motions are large only near the surface and die out rapidly as the ratio of x/A increases, where A is the wavelength for a Rayleigh wave, ie., A= Pplf. (2.20) For example, in fused silica with a shear velocity of 3.765 x 105 cm/sec at 25°C and a Poisson’s ratio of 0.169, the wavelength at 10 megacycles is ‘ a = SAGRIO" = 0.034 om. (2.21) Figure 2.1 shows that most of the energy is concentrated within a distance from the surface, less than a wavelength, i.e., less than 0.3 millimeter. Rayleigh waves are of primary importance in seismology, and as will be discussed in Chapter V, they have been proposed for investigating surface cracks by the ultrasonic inspectoscope methods. B. Reflection of Shear Waves From a Surface Parallel to the Direction of Particle Motion Another effect of a surface on the transmission of plane sound waves is a reflection from the surface which may involve a change in the type of wave propagated. Since reflections are x used in delay lines, a discussion of the simpler cases will be useful. The simplest case, which is applicable in some instances to ultrasonic delay lines, is the reflection of a shear wave from a surface parallel to the direction of particle motion. As shown below, the reflected wave is a pure shear wave whose angle of inci- Fic. 2.3. Angles of incidence and dence is equal to its angle of reflection. reflection for a shear wave with Chapter V shows how such reflections its particle velocity parallel to the are used in delay lines to cut down the reflecting surface, volume of material producing a given amount of delay. If a shear wave, having its particle displacement v in the y direction, strikes the surface z=0 at an angle f, as shown by Figure 2.3, the equation of the wave is 2a(x sin B—= cos BY oy = Agile 222.3 BOUNDARIES AND TRANSMISSION OF PLANE WAVES 23 where sin B and —cos f are the direction cosines of the wave direction with respect to the «- and z-axes. This wave strikes the surface and is reflected at an angle a, The reflected wave has a particle velocity. | 2n{x sin a-t= cos «) +i [ors tee . (2.23) At the reflecting surface the stresses are zero. This requires from (2.1) that UV, = Ase eu ev Ty = Tex = (A421) anes Me +). 0: ew Ou Ty=T ep (+3) =0; (2.24) 1 ou ew TT. = T.. = (e+e) =0. The first and third equations are automatically satisfied since « and w are zero and v is not a function of y. The second equation requires that ~ Ay (cos 2) oa ae Qn(x sin ste cos wlasneteena (2.25) when z=0. This equation can be satisfied for all values of ¢ and x only if sin « = sin f, (2.26) and hence the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence. ‘The right side of the equation equals zero then if A,-A,=0 or A, = Ay (2.27) Hence the reflected amplitude is equal to the incident amplitude. No change in mode occurs. C. Reflection of a Longitudinal Wave From a Plane Surface When a longitudinal wave is incident on a plane-reflecting surface, the reflection consists not only of a longitudinal but also of a reflected shear wave, as shown by Figure 2.4. To prove this, we can write the wave description in the form of a plane longitudinal wave &, = Agtl 1. (2.28) The particle displacements are uno, sinB; w,=—®cosp. The reflected longitudinal wave, which reflects at the angle of incidence is given by the ‘men Age ee] (2.29)24 TYPES OF WAVES TRANSMITTED IN SOLIDS For this wave, the particle displacements are ty = P,sinB; Wy, = P, cos B. (2.30) The third wave, a shear wave, is reflected at the angle « and its propagation is represented by the equation 2ulx sin ats cos. ‘| y= Agile % (2.31) In a shear wave the particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. If / and m are the direction cosines of the w and w particle motions, perpendicularity is assured if Jsinat+tmcosa=0, (2.32) 9% This equation is satisfied if /=cos ¢; m=—sin a. Hence, uz = O,cosa; wz = —Pgsina. (2.33) Summing the three contributions tox and the three to w and calling these Du and 3w, the boundary conditions that Fic. 2.4 Reflection of a longitudi- have to be satisfied are the vanishing _nal wave from a plane surface asa of the three stress components of longitudinal and a shear wave. Equation (2.24). From the form of Equations (2.28), (2.29), and (2.31), it is obvious that to satisfy these conditions for all values of ¢ and x, we must have sin _ sine snB oA, V, ew or gna (2.34) Taking this into account, the two conditions T= T;=0 yield the equations 0 = 2(A,~A),) sin « cos B— A; cos 2; (2.35) (Ay + A,)(A+ 2p cos? 8)— A ry sin 2a = 0. By introducing the value At+2n VP V? ‘sin? B | TBR or A= e(pa- ) = (Saxe -2): (2.36) the second can be written (A, +A,) sin B cos 2e— A, sin « sin 2a = 0. (2.37)2.3 BOUNDARIES AND TRANSMISSION OF PLANE WAVES 25 One special case is of interest, namely, the reflection of a longitudinal wave at normal incidence. For this case B=a=0, and from Equations (2.35) A,+A,=0; and A; = 0. (2.38) Hence the longitudinal wave at normal incidence is reflected as a longi- 4,00, > o 0.80} pnt O44 0.60) O49 0.40 w x 8 8 2 F 0.2; 0.20) Y g g < &Y 0.25, yy Book & 2 $ Z § u a ~0.20) . 0.28 jc ~0.40) 0.31 -0.60) 0.35 -0.80) 0.38 a 0.455. =1.001 0.5 LIQUID ° 40 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 COMPRESSIONAL WAVE AND ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IN DEGREES Fic. 2.5 Ratios of the reflected longitudinal stress amplitudes to the incident longitudinal stress amplitude as a function of the angle of incidence and Poisson’s ratio o (after Arenburg II, 4, p. 25). tudinal wave without conversion to shear, and since A,= —Ay,, it is reflected 180° out of phase with the incident wave. Figure 2.5 shows‘ the ratio of the reflected stress amplitude A, to the transmitted stress amplitude A, as a function of the angle of incidence, with the value of Poisson’s ratio as a parameter. For Poisson’s ratios less 19g) was calculated by D, L. Arenburg, ¥. Acoust. Soc. Amer., 20, 1-26 (January26 TYPES OF WAVES TRANSMITTED IN SOLIDS than 0,26, there are two angles of incidence at which the reflected longitudinal wave is zero, At these angles all of the energy goes into shear waves, a consideration of some importance in delay lines as discussed in Chapter V. If a shear wave is incident upon a plane surface, it results in another shear wave that is reflected at the same angle @ from the normal as the “y ~~ r=0%, 0.80] 0.60] 049 0.40] 0.20} RATIO alo =0 20/-—+- 1 0.40] |__| 0.35 ~0.60] ~0.80| 0.455 1.00) oO S 10 18 20 25 30 35 a0 45 SHEAR WAVE AND ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IN DEGREES Fic. 2.6 Ratio of the reflected shear stress amplitude By to the incident shear stress amplitude B, as a function of the angle of incidence and the Poisson’s ratio o (after Arenburg, II, 4, p. 25). angle of incidence. By a calculation similar to that given above, it is readily shown that the reflected shear amplitude B,, the incident shear amplitude B,, and the reflected longitudinal amplitude B are connected by the equations (B,+ B,) sin 2a sin a— By sin B cos 2« = 0; (B,—B,) cos 2a—2B; sin « cos B (2.39)23 BOUNDARIES AND TRANSMISSION OF PLANE WAVES 27 The relation between « and f is again given by sine sing snB_ oA Vy % ~ @ sna’ 2, FV, (2.40) s Since sin 8 cannot be larger than 1, there is an angle sine = V/V, (2.41) beyond which a Jongitudinal wave cannot be reflected. For angles larger than this angle—called the angle of total reflection—the shear wave is reflected at the angle of incidence and is equal in amplitude to and 180° out of phase with, the transmitted wave. Figure 2.6 is a plot* of the ratio of B,/B, against the angle of incidence with the value of Poisson’s ratio as the parameter of each curve. For Poisson’s ratios less than 0.26, there are two angles of incidence for which the reflected shear wave is zero and all the energy is converted into longitudinal waves. D. Reflection and Refraction at an Interface Benveen Two Media When an elastic wave of either type reaches a slip-free boundary, in general four waves are generated, two of which are reflected from the boundary and two refracted into the second medium. A general account of these waves will be found in the publications of reference.> As shown by Figure 2.7, a longitudinal wave having an amplitude of A, and an angle of incidence a,, gives rise to two waves reflected and refracted from the interface and two waves refracted into the second medium. It can be shown that these waves satisfy the angle conditions sina, sina, _sinB, sine, _ sin By V7, (2-42) where V7, and V, are the longitudinal and shear velocities in the first medium, and VY, and V, are the longitudinal and shear velocities in the second medium. The only case considered in this book is the case of normal incidence. For this case, the two shear waves are zero and the reflected and transmitted longitudinal amplitudes are A, = PV o~ ply ; Ay = 2pVy Poot pV” pV a+ pV Ay (2.43) The product pV is called the characteristic impedance of the medium and ‘Table I shows the values of this quantity for a number of metals, glasses * See footnote on page 25. . C.G. Knoth, Phil. Mag., 48, 64 (1899); J. B. Macelwane and F. W. Sohon, Introduc- ton to Theoretical Seismology, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1936.28 ‘TYPES OF WAVES TRANSMITTED IN SOLIDS and plastics. The ratio between A, and A, is called the reflection factor, and the ratio between A, and A, is called the transmission factor. Another case of reflection and refraction considered in this book is that of an incident shear wave, with its particle velocity parallel to an interface, reflected and refracted from a viscoelastic medium. The amplitude and phase of the reflected wave can be used to measure the properties of the viscoelastic medium; an instrument for making this measurement is described in Chapter IV. As with normal incidence, both the reflected wave and the wave refracted into the liquid are shear waves, Hence this instrument measures the shear properties of a normal or viscoelastic liquid Fic. 2.7 Angles of reflection and refraction of a longitudinal wave transmitted in one medium and refracted in another. or solid. This type of instrument, and instruments using torsional vibrations, provide the simplest methods for measuring the shear properties of liquids at high frequencies, Before discussing the reflection from such a liquid layer, it is necessary to discuss the properties of a viscoelastic liquid. A sufficiently general representation of such a liquid is the Voigt model discussed in more detail in Chapter VII. For such a model the relation between the stress, strain and strain rate in an isotropic material can be written in the form Ty = 442pS,+x(4) +2843 Ty = PS, t+08q5 Ty = A+ 2S, 4+x(A)+ 2895 Ts = pSotnS53 (2.44) Ty = A+ Sy +x(4)+ 2983; Ty = wSet9Se32.3 BOUNDARIES AND TRANSMISSION OF PLANE WAVES 29 a é where 4=S,+5,+53; 4 = 3 Sat Sot Ss)i S,= q Sw ete. The new constants x and are correlated with the two Lamé elastic constants. “Just as the bulk elastic modulus is useful for some purposes, so the expression. xt = «, (2.45) is useful in discussing liquids. For monatomic gases, it can be shown that « is zero and hence, x= -3% (2.46) For most liquids « is not zero; it has been called the compressional viscosity. 7 is the ordinary shear viscosity. For a light liquid, the shear stiffness 2, is usually neglected. However, for long chain polymer liquids of the viscoelastic type, 2 cannot be neglected. Equations (2.44) describe simple cases of such liquids. In more complicated cases, with multiple relaxations, all the constants are functions of the frequency. However, even in these cases, one usually measures the constants of equation (2.44) as a function of frequency, and constructs a relaxation model which will fit the measured results. For a plane sinusoidal shear wave having its particle motion in the y direction and propagated in the z direction, the equation of motion can be written ae ar, . , eae = -otv = 4, if v= Colo, (2.47) Introducing the value of 7’, from Equations (2.44), and also the definitions of the strains and their time derivatives, we have eo, av . _\ &y — pwn = pation a3 = (4+ jen) s5 (2.48) A plane wave solution for this equation is v = veliet-re), (2.49) This is a solution if = ee gp. delle pAjer Ton Jon J/ 44122 Bb where 4 is an attenuation factor expressed in nepers (a neper is a reduction of amplitude by a factor equal to e~1), and B is a phase factor expressed in radians. Hence, = A+B, (2.50) BD = vgelAtiBletjat, (2.51)30 TYPES OF WAVES TRANSMITTED IN SOLIDS If the ratio “!<1, the attenuation and phase factors are approximately H fn af A= ve B= Tap v (2.52) For larger values, the simple series expansion is not valid, and one has to take half the angle @ and the square root of the absolute value to determine the real and imaginary parts of the square root, i.e., fee ay [i a = ji + (2) [cos Si sin 3) where tan = a (2.53) Introducing the expression for v into the equation for the force (2.44), we find Gi ey, Ty = (uh joon) = joy VUHjunyp eer, (2.54) The characteristic impedance is defined as the ratio of the stress T, to the particle velocity 3, and hence, ) — ZaZe Fesayetier V(utjon)p = R+jX. (2.55) 1f7=0, the characteristic impedance is R = Vp = p = pV, in agreement with the value used above. From Equations (2.50) and (2.55), it is seen that ZT = (R+jX)(A+jB) = jwp, (2.56) and hence if one measures either the characteristic impedance Z, or the propagation constant I, the other quantity can be evaluated from Equa- tion (2.56). When a shear wave in a medium (usually fused silica), in which the dissipation can be neglected, is sent into a viscoelastic medium, the boundary conditions that have to be satisfied at the interface s=0 are % = %5 (Ta), = (Talos (Tada = (Tada (2.57) where the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the media.® Neglecting the time factor, which is the same for each wave, the three waves considered are iF (in Be cos Bs) v= Aer , 2 JF (sin Bx-+e0s #2) Oy = Ayre’ VOD rene Be) (2.58) Da = Ayrel4+iBysin ax-cos ps), * This reflection and refraction process has been discussed by H. T. O'Neil, Phys. Rev., 75, 928-935 (March 15, 1949),2.3 BOUNDARIES AND TRANSMISSION OF PLANE WAVES 31 where 7 is the reflection factor, 7 the transmission factor, and « in general is a complex quantity which satisfies the relation sin? a+cos?a = 1. (2.59) The reflection and transmission factors also are complex; the real part represents the reduction in amplitude of A, and the imaginary part represents the phase shift on reflection or transmission. The first condition of (2.57), when s=0, requires jw By si A,(laner™ Pf eh 1458) sin ox (2.60) To satisfy this equation for all values of x, we must have jo. sin B = (A+jB) sina = —— sina, , 14/28 Be sing _ r2,/ jones °F sin B Vy t+ Py’ (61) where V, = @ We must also have l+r=7. (2.62) The second condition of (2.57) is automatically satisfied since the longitudinal stress component is zero for a shear wave. The third condition yields (1-1) pay 008 B = 7 palin F jeans) 08 (2.63) Introducing (2.62) and noting that the expressions under the square root signs are the characteristic impedances of the two media, we reduce this equation to 1—rcosB a= 1T+7 cosa (2.64) In practice we measure the absolute value and the phase angle of the reflection coefficient, which can be represented as r = ree, (2.65) where ry is a ratio less than unity and @ is the phase angle caused by the : reflection. The easiest case to consider is that of normal incidence, in which sinB =sine =0 and cosB = cose = 1. (2.66)32 ‘TYPES OF WAVES TRANSMITTED IN SOLIDS Then (cos 0+; sin 8) iy 1—ro(cos 6+7 sin 2p = R+jX = lhe (cos 8+] sin 4) (i- a lee 14 2r, cos +78 (2.67) Since Z, for fused silica is a pure resistance within 1 part in 50,000, the measurement of r, and 6 determines the resistive and reactive characteristic impedance and, hence from (2.56), the attenuation and phase constants of the medium also. Although normal incidence provides the simplest relation between the measured values and the impedance, the measurement is more sensitive when the angle f is high, i.e., 80° to 85°. The reason for this is that cos B then becomes small, while cos « does not become very small for a liquid having a much lower characteristic impedance than fused silica. In this case, however, we have to evaluate the complex quantity cos «, An approximate value of Z can be obtained as follows: from Equation (2.61) = Jone ing = PiZe sina = a + awa ? sin B. (2.68) Hence, ign? ae _ (prZ2 — JZ sin, where V J 3 Z,=VIM=5 at/up for a circular rod. Hence the Pp velocity of propagation is identical with that for a shear wave. The fact that the characteristic impedance of a torsional rod is proportional to the fourth power of the radius has considerable significance (as discussed in Chapter V) when combinations of such elements are used to construct wave filters. Another advantage of torsional waves is that their velocity is independent of frequency. Since a pulse of vibrations is not distorted, torsional lines are very useful for low-frequency delay lines. C. Flexural Vibrations The theory of the flexural vibrations of bars is more difficult than the theories of extensional and torsional waves, since it involves fourth-order differential equations. Furthermore, even in the first order of approxima-~ tion, the velocity of a wave shows dispersion, and hence there is no interest in flexural waves for the propagation of pulses. Bars vibrating in flexure have been used, however, as resonators, as impedance elements for obstructing waves of definite frequencies, and as coupling media in mechanical filters. Hence a brief description of their resonances and impedances is given in this section. For the condition that the length of the bar is large compared with its width, it is assumed that the only strains are extensional and compressional strains along the axis of the bar, as shown by Figure 2.8, and that all the motion in each element of the bar is normal to the length of the bar. Figure 2.8 shows the forces and moments acting on an element of the bar of length dz. The equation of motion of the displacement « along the a-axis is then eu oF eu oF 2 WE Os dz or pAae =% (2.84) pA dz where p is the density and A the cross-sectional area of the bar. To introduce the elastic constants, which are related to the moments, Wwe see that there is a relation between the force and the derivative of the36 TYPES OF WAVES TRANSMITTED IN SOLIDS moment. ‘Taking moments around an axis in the y direction through the center of the element, we have aM be aM de+(2P)S =0 o F=—- 3. (2.85) The relation between the moment, the elastic constants, and the displacement u can be derived on the assumption that the filaments above the neutral axis are lengthening and those below the neutral axis are shortening. If 7 is the radius of curvature of the section, the strain, i.e, the increase in length per unit length, can be represented by the relation S,=a/r where x is measured from the neutral axis. For x positive, this is an extension and for x negative, a compression. The elastic constant Fic. 2.8 Forces and moments for a bar bending in flexure. is Yy, the Young’s modulus, and hence the force on each filament at distance x from the neutral axis is p=" aa, (2.86) where dA is the area of the filament. The moment due to this stress is — vorye Yo fe Yow M= ase dA=—t Jp de = tp (2.87) 2 for a rectangular section where t is the thickness in the y direction, and the width in the x direction. In general, the formula reduces to Yo r M =~ Ka, (2.88) where K, the radius of gyration, is w/V12 for a rectangular section and2.4 PROPAGATION OF WAVES IN BARS 37 a/2 for a circular section. For small deformations, 1/r is given by 2°u/22*, so that 0M Bu Fa -2 = -Y ARS (2.89) Hence, inserting this value in Equation (2.84) and canceling out common terms ' — a vax: oe =0, where V= fe (2.90) This is the equation of motion to be solved. Since this is a fourth-degree equation, there are four boundary equations to satisfy. Depending on the conditions, these may be satisfied by specifying any of the four quantities ou eu wu, 5 M=YI 5Bi om lateral force, F = —— Bu gz = 7 Vol age (2.91) An example is considered whose solution is required in Chapter V, p. 142. This is for a flexure bar free at the two ends and acted on by a difference of forces at the center, and it is required to find the impedance and equivalent circuit of such a bar near its first anti-resonant frequency. The method for deriving the equivalent circuits of other examples is similar to this and will not be considered further. The equation of motion (2.90) can be written for sinusoidal waves in the form dtu w? oa 7 pagee =n. (2.92) A solution for this equation is u = A cosh nx+B sinh nx+C cos nx+D sin nx, (2.93) where A, B, C, and D are constants. This solution can be directly verified by differentiation. For the case of Figure 2.9, the rod with forces at the center can be considered as made of two pieces which are free on the two outside ends with a zero slope at the interior ends. Hence the boundary conditions are . du z=0; Z= -Ffi, and m7 atz=1M=F=0. (2.94) The negative sign for the impedance results from the fact that the force F=(F,—F,) and the particle displacement w are in opposite directions in38 TYPES OF WAVES TRANSMITTED IN SOLIDS Figure 2.9. For the two conditions at =0, we have $f = Oat z=0, which results in B+ D=0; and F _ Yin? (2 ) “jou ~ jo \A+C, (2.95) Performing the differentiations indicated in Equation (2.94) with respect to z, and introducing the relation B+ D=0, we find for M and F the expressions at s=/ = M = Y,In*{A cosh nl—C cos nl+ B(sinh nl+ sin nl), 0 =F = ~ ¥)In3[A sinh nl+C sin nl + B(cosh nl+ cos nl)]. Solving for the ratio 2B/(A+C), and introducing this in the last equation of (2.95), we find for the impedance of such a bar , YyAK2n3 (sinh nl cos ul+cosh al sin nl eaj o ( 1+ cosh mf cos nb ): (2.57) The impedance for the two bars of Figure 2.9, is double this value. At low frequencies, when 2 is very small, we can write (2.96) sinh xl = al; sin nl = nl; (2.98) nt 272 cosh nl == 12. cos 7] = 1-7 Fic. 2.9 Flexure 2° bar acted on by a difference Therefore at low frequencies, of forces at its 2Y AK nt) center with its 2 = “io Rot = ju(2pAl) = juM, (2.99) ends free to move, where M is the mass of both bars. As the frequency increases, the positive reactance increases until the denominator becomes zero at a frequency determined by the equation w w cosh wl pieteos Jee = The value of al= J pe! that satisfies this equation is 1 (2.100) 4/2 .8751)% QV 12 2 (2.101) my ma nt= [Peta 18751; or fa =24 PROPAGATION OF WAVES IN BARS 39 At this frequency the impedance becomes infinite, and a parallel resonant circuit, with a mass M and a compliance C of the right value to resonate with the mass, is the first approximation to the impedance of (2.97). A little closer approximation in the neighborhood of the anti-resonant frequency is obtained by expanding the functions of (2.97) about the anti- resonant frequency. ‘This can be done by using the approximation ~ [212 ase ee Be nf 141 8%). w= foot] I= mf1+2 m(145 sl] (2.102) Using the multiple angle formulae for trigonometric and hyperbolic functions and assuming that 3 is a small quantity, we have mdw mw ~ ge mda mio _ mw (2.103) cos 5— Jong = cosh Te, =1; sing = sinh s=— Jog — Bog Inserting these multiple angle formulae with the approximations of (2.103) in Equation (2.97) and canceling common terms oz 4jY AK*n3 (= m cos m+ cosh m sin =| mwdw — | sinh m cos m—cosh 2 sin m. 4 = aE) {0.5393}. (2.104) OA, This compares with a mass and compliance in parallel, which have the value iw) —f GoM) TO jwM _ —ju,M aM 1 Be (2.105) ac tse “oe wy Comparing this equation with (2.104), the impedance 2Z is equivalent to a mass and a compliance in parallel having the values _ ~8 (sinh m cos m+ cosh m sin m M = Fe (Sehmcos monk win m)P4l = 1227 (lA); (2.106 C = BAS AVY oI. Hence the effective mass has dropped to 0.613 of its value at low frequencies.40 TYPES OF WAVES TRANSMITTED IN SOLIDS 2.5 Pochhammer Equations for Cylindrical Bars A. Introduction It is possible, as shown by Pochhammer and Chree,® to obtain exact solutions for the propagation of extensional, torsional, and flexural waves in a cylindrical bar. Since the solutions show that the phase and group velocities are not independent of frequency for extensional waves whereas they are for torsional waves, these solutions have some bearing on the type of wave to use for delay lines. ‘These solutions show also that a number of modes similar to wave guide modes occur for both types of waves and to obtain a single mode of motion it is necessary to maintain a ratio of wave length to diameter under a critical value, Hence a short discussion of these solutions is given. Love® has given the transformation equations for stress and strain from Cartesian into cylindrical coordinates, the resulting equations of motion, and the boundary conditions for circular rods, when r=a. He has considered the solutions of waves propagated along the cylinder and has shown that the displacements u,, w,, u, along the 7, @, « coordinates can be written in the form ti, = ReiBe-w; yy = OeitBe-ws 4, = ZetB-0; (2,107) where R, @, and Z are functions of r and 4 only, and B is the phase constant for the propagation. When one inserts the condition that the stresses vanish on the surface of the cylinder, expressions may be obtained for the phase velocity V=w/B for a given frequency. B. Extensional Waves For extensional waves, it is assumed that v,=0 and that the particle motions are independent of 6. Under these conditions, the Pochhammer— Chree solutions take the form a R= AF Jolhir)+ CBA (hr) = — Abd, (lr)+CBJ, (kr), (2.108) . jC a Z = AJBI g(r) += & fr, (n)] = j[ABJo(Ir) +ChJo(kr)], where A and C are constants, h? = w*p/(A-+ 2) — B®; k2=w%p/p— BY. To determine the constants A and C, use is made of the boundary conditions of zero stress on the cylinder. The stress 7;,, is automatically *L, Pochhammer, 7. reine anger. Math, (Crelle), 81, 324 (1876); C, Chree, Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc., 14, 1158 (1889). An account of the Pochhammer solution is given by Love's Theory of Elasticity, p. 287. * ibid. For a transformation by tensor methods, see W. P. Mason, Piezoelectric Crystals and Their Application to Ultrasonics, p. 486, D. Van Nostrand Co. Inc., 1950.2.5 POCHHAMMER EQUATIONS FOR CYLINDRICAL BARS 41 zero, while the vanishing of the stresses 7,, and T,, yield the two equations B[Jo(ha)] w®pA @a® «A+ Du? aap Woh) alba} +¢(2B*-" “Pn (ka) = 0, (2.109) @ La(ha)} Ale Jo(ha’ «| - 2u CB = 0; é where 4 is a shorthand method for writing Gpatraa. Eliminating C, we have for the frequency equation alte] AI, (Ra)] ea = (2B-* - (2.115) «6B 4.0) 0.9 alS aps 2 s z 0.8] g 8 ‘SE VELOCITY wo 0.7 <> Zo ~SHEAR VELOCITY a & 06 o> RAYLEIGH WAVE of VELOCITY 5 6 05 eg > GROUP VELOCITY 0.4] 0.3 0 02 64 06 08 £0 12 14 16 18 20 22 2.4 2.6 RATIO OF RADIUS a TO WAVELENGTH A Fie, 2.11 Phase and group velocities of an extensional wave in a cylindrical rod having a Poisson’s ratio of 0.29 (after Davies II, 11, p. 42). where w is the frequency and B the phase shift per unit length for the wave in the rod. Figure 2.11 shows the group velocity, calculated by Davies, of the lowest mode in the rod and it is seen that if the ratio of the radius to the wavelength is more than about 0.1, the group velocity begins to diverge from the initial value. As will be shown in Section 2.5 D, this is not the case for a torsional wave and hence a torsionally vibrating rod provides a much more satisfactory delay line than an extensionally vibrating rod. Experimentally, it is found that the velocity of an extensional pulse in a rod for which the diameter is many times the wavelength, is close to the velocity V;=(A+2y)/p. This is not obvious from the lower-order solutions of Pochhammer’s equation, which would appear to indicate ‘4 Sce footnote on page 42.44. ‘TYPES OF WAVES TRANSMITTED IN SOLIDS that the velocity should be the velocity of the Rayleigh surface wave, However, for a Rayleigh wave the energy is concentrated near the surface, which is not true for a pulsed longitudinal wave. All the experimental evidence!® indicates that such a wave may be considerably distorted and will be followed by trailing pulses which become small compared to the main pulse, only when the diameter is 20 or more times the wavelength. These trailing pulses correspond in timing to longitudinal energy being 09 os 07 i 0.6) 05 | DISPLACEMENT IN ARBITRARY UNITS. 04 | 0.3 | | 02 ——+ oy ° 0.1 0 01 02 03 04 05 O06 OF 08 09 tO RATIO OF T/a Fic. 2.12 Limits of longitudinal motion as a function of rfa (after McSkimin IT, 13, p. 45). reflected from the boundary as a shear wave, then propagated across the rod, and converted back into longitudinal waves. Second and further pulses occur when the shear wave is transmitted 2 or more times across the rod. The question then, is whether Pochhammer’s equations can indicate this result. Higher modes of the Pochhammer-Chree equation have recently been 1? See W. P, Mason, Piezoelectric Crystals and Their Application to Ultrasonics, p. 409, Fig. 15.10, D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1950.25 POCHHAMMER EQUATIONS FOR CYLINDRICAL BARS 45 investigated,!® and it has been shown that the dispersion curves have plateaus in the region of V,;=V(A+2p)/p, the velocity for an infinite medium (see for example Figure 3, A. N. Holden).1* As shown by McSkimin,}* the particle displacements of modes in this plateau region approximate the displacements impressed by the sending crystal. A particular case, calculated by McSkimin, is shown in Figure 2.12. This figure shows the particle displacement in the z direction as a function of the radius, the two lines being the limits taken by Z as a function of r. The variations over the radius probably denote the interference between shear reflections from the boundary. The phase velocity of such a guided wave is very close to the value V;=~/(A+2u)/p, and since the velocity is independent of frequency in this region, the group velocity will equal the phase velocity. Hence Pochhammer’s equation does indicate that transmission of pulsed waves should occur with the velocity V’;. McSkimin?* has also investigated the transmission of pulsed shear waves in a circular rod and has shown that such waves will be propagated with a velocity nearly equal to the shear velocity V,=/u/p. The first mode should have a particle displacement which reverses sign at a distance 0.6R in a direction perpendicular to the particle motion. This conclusion was verified experimentally by using a divided plating arrangement and showing that for high order reflections, the phase of the wave beyond 0.6R was the reverse of that for r<0.6R. For directions parallel to the particle displacement, the relative amplitude does not change sign over the rod but decreases from a large value in the center to nearly zero at the edge of the rod. C. Phase and Group Velocities in Dispersive and Attenuating Media When a pulse of waves is transmitted in a dispersive medium, the pulse is not only attenuated, but the shape of it changes as a function of the distance propagated. Since this is an important matter when pulses are used to measure the properties of attenuating and dispersive media, or are used for the transmission of information in delay lines, a short discussion is given in this section. If a very sharp pulse is analyzed by the Fourier integral method, it is found to contain a very wide frequency distribution. On the other hand a long pulse of a sinusoidal wave contains a narrow frequency range. To analyze the properties of such a pulse in an attenuating and dispersive medium, it is sufficient to write the equations of two nearly equal "5G. E, Hudson, Phys. Rev., 63, 46 (1943); AN. Holden, Bell System Tech. F., 30, 956-969 (Oct. 1951); T. F, Hueter, J. Acous, Soc, Amer., 22, 514 (1950); H. J. MacSeinie’ ibid. 28, 484 (1956). See also M. Redwood and J. Lamb, Proc. Phy. Soc., B, LXX, 136 (1957), for a more complete calculation.46 ‘TYPES OF WAVES TRANSMITTED IN SOLIDS frequencies which, according to Equation (2.49), are propagated with the particle displacements Dy = velar]; Vy = ue Fae ti(Bas—oat)1, (2.116) Since the medium is independent of the amplitude, the sum of both particle velocities will represent the total wave transmission. If we add these and assume that the two frequencies are near together, we have wy = 0,480; A, = A,+34; By = By+8B. (2.117) Fig. 2.13 Sum of two nearly equal frequencies results in the modulation of their average frequency. We can combine these into the form V = Vy+V, = 2up cosh [F oti(F HB) ele DCO) ho Since for two frequencies close together 8A is small, this wave corresponds to the sum of two waves—with a modulating function depending on the difference in frequency between the two waves, as shown in Figure 2.13. As the frequency difference becomes small, the cosh function equals unity and the wave is transmitted with a velocity Seo 77 (2.119) Since the modulating function contains all the information that can be2.5 POCHHAMMER EQUATIONS FOR CYLINDRICAL BARS 47 obtained from the wave, this velocity becomes, when the two frequencies are very close dw = oF It can also be shown that this is the velocity at which the energy is transmitted in the medium. The same result holds for a pulse whose frequency spectrum is narrow enough so that the change in the phase shift constant 5B is proportional to a change in frequency Sw. For this case, the particle displacement waves can be written in the form V, (2.120) v= tre since vertaersene-n|, (2.121) iad where 4, B and o are the average values for the pulse, and a, are the individual particle displacements of the pulse. If now the frequency region is narrow enough so that 5B/Sw is a constant for every frequency in this range, the last term can be made to equal unity if bw dw V, =3p 7 OR 5B, A sharp pulse requires a wide frequency range, and in a dispersive medium the energy in different frequency ranges is propagated with different velocities and different attenuations. Thus the form of the pulse changes, and such media are not suitable for information transmission. Moreover it is difficult to measure their attenuation and phase properties by sending out pulses. As discussed in Chapter IV, such properties are more easily measured by using long pulses and employing phase cancella~ tion techniques. With these techniques, the attenuations and phase velocities can be uniquely measured. D. Torsional Waves in Rods The solutions of the form (2.107), satisfying the conditions that R and Z vanish and that © is independent of 6, correspond to torsional waves. Love® has shown that the particle displacement u, takes the form . Uy = OeilBs-ot], with 8S 16 =0, (2.122) where pa P B. Hence ols of the form O = DJ, (Rr). (2.123)48 TYPES OF WAVES TRANSMITTED IN SOLIDS The conditions at the surface are that the stress T,, vanishes at r=a or Ty = ofr 5) =0arsa (2.124) With the form (2.123) for @, and in view of the identity wv, aalhe) = kg(hr) —Z Jatt, (2.125) Equation (2.124) is satisfied if Jo(ha) = Phe) 5 ha a) = 0. (2.126) The lowest order solution of this equation is given by k=0 or Va$- J and uy = DreX@-00), (2.127) For this mode, the phase and group velocities are independent of the frequency and a pulse is transmitted without distortion. The higher modes have the characteristic roots for kr given by ha = R, where Ry = 5.136; Ry = 8.417; Ry = 11.62. (2.128) Ry, Rs, and Rg are the next three of the infinite number of roots of the Equation (2.126). With these values the displacement becomes = DJ, (Eze @-@y1, (2.129) As long as ° Ry <3, (2.130) Se the coefficient of z in the brackets is imaginary; the displacement is Rn’ 1 = D, (Be “Ye L1G), (2.131) and the wave is attenuated up to a frequency f, given by RV f= Ira’ Hence if the frequency is below the critical frequency, then even if the upper modes are generated by the driving force, they are attenuated by a factor . a anf (2.132) nepers per unit length, (2.133)2.5 POCHHAMMER EQUATIONS FOR CYLINDRICAL BARS 49 For the most general case, the particle velocity for a torsionally vibrating rod can be written in the form 4 ~ Re at RAE en > [oo ) oo JG) = n=O +p(®) sin [a a) ‘z. (2.134) If we set z=0, this reduces to tle x Ry jo = > mAb ), (2.135) n=0 where 1 is the particle velocity. Hence if the initial particle distribution is given, the set of constants C,, can be determined. The stress distribution over the surface can be determined from the equation — Ht Bt) Te = 55 ( ie ) (2.136) Performing this differentiation, m _—_ ——— lw? (RR, : lw? (/R,\? ta fs DA~ [Cola (2) | Jia (2) = n=O 2 2 2 2 + [>../F- (©) | cos a ) 2}. (2.137) Hence the D constants can be determined from the initial stress distribution although each D constant will be a function of frequency. This shows that all the modes are independent of one another, both on transmission and reflection, and a torsional rod has higher independent modes just as an electrical wave guide. The same statement is true for longitudinal and flexural waves as well. If, however, the frequencies of all the components of the signal are below the critical frequency f,, all the higher modes are highly attenuated and after a short distance the only mode transmitted is the zero-order mode which does not have any dispersion. Hence in all the applications of torsional rods, the frequency of operation is kept less than . 5.136V f DECIBELS, 6 (b) 14] 12] 4 10 Q a i) z 5 yn Q| a J g4 a all Se. 4 SHE Ald elle 5 qQ 2 ol oO 0.2 0.4 06 08 1.0 12 14 16 16 2,0 Ho Fic. 3.10 (a) Mid-band loss for barium titanate transducer coupled to various materials, (b) Overall band width for barium titanate transducers (after May IIT, 12, p. 71). The shape of the transmission band depends to some extent on the terminating resistance. Figure 3.9 (b) shows a calculation of the shape of the band: the loss which must be added to the midband loss in order to74 ‘TRANSDUCER MATERIALS equal the total loss for a 10-megacycle, Y-cut quartz crystal is plotted against the ratio of the frequency to the mean frequency, for various materials and various termination resistances. This loss is the voltage loss between input and output terminals of the transducer with the output terminated in a resistance R. For materials of very high impedance, such as steel, the midband loss is high but the band width is large. Similar curves have been calculated for polarized barium titanate transducers (composition BaTiO, 80%, PbTiO, 12%, CaTiO, 8%) and the results are shown by Figure 3.10 (a) and (b). A gain results when the mechanical impedance is low compared to the electrical impedance. Figure 3.10 (b) shows the band width when the reactance of the termination equals that of the ceramic transducer. 3.4 Electrostrictive and Magnetostrictive Materials Other types of materials that have been used in transducers are ferroelectric crystals, ceramics of the barium titanate and related types, ferromagnetic crystals, polycrystals, and sintered materials of the ferrite type. All of these materials have changes in length proportional to even powers of the polarization (electric or magnetic), and to obtain a linear response they have to be polarized. When they are polarized, the relations among stress, strain, electric field, magnetic field, electric displacement, and magnetic flux in these materials are similar to those of Equation (3.7) for a piezoelectric crystal. Hence these materials can be said to have “equivalent” constants, which depend not only on the material, but also on the degree of poling, and in some cases on aging effects. The dielectric, permeability, and elastic constants are those associated with the polarized medium. In treating magnetostrictive materials, it is customary to use equations expressed in terms of the elastic energy, the magnetostrictive energy, and the anisotropic magnetic energy. Similar equations can be used for electrostrictive materials, and in fact, the same form holds for either magnetostrictive or electrostrictive materials. For materials with a large change in dimension for a given polarization—materials with large magnetostrictive or electrostrictive deformations—it is necessary to include “ morphic” elastic corrections, i.e., changes in the elastic constants due to a change in the direction of polarization. As shown in Appendix A, the terms dealing with these effects can be derived from thermodynamic considerations coupled with symmetry conditions, The symmetry conditions of interest for polycrystals, or sintered ceramics, are isotropic conditions for unpolarized materials; or transverse isotropic symmetry for a material polarized in a given direction which we designate as the s direction. By transverse isotropic, we designate a symmetry for which there is one unique axis with all directions3.4 ELECTROSTRICTIVE AND MAGNETOSTRICTIVE MATERIALS 75 perpendicular to this axis, equivalent. For such a symmetry, it can be shown that the potential G can be expressed in the form of (A.71), with the terms for transverse isotropic symmetry given by the tables of Section A.3. The static equations can be obtained by differentiating Gy according to the relations = 8 8 OG, a= aps hm = ap When a permanent polarization is induced in the ceramic, a transverse isotropic symmetry is induced in the material. Introducing the constants for the symmetry (3.47) mt Coy = 6mm (3.48) from Section A.3 of the appendix, which is the same as that for transverse isotropy, we have SRT +527. +5%T 3+ 85:D a ST .+shT 1+ ST 3+ £5D a, Ss = 573+ 5(T14+ 72) +8330 Sq = PT e+ S1sD2 tt . hell Ss = SRT 54 8151 (3.49) So = To Ey = ~gy5T3+Dfi, Eg = —8151'y+ Di, Es = 8531 3—8s1(T1 + T2)+DoB3- The dielectric constants are related to the impermeability constants BE and pF by ef = BT, f = BT; (3.50) The d piezoelectric constants listed in Table V are given as og = Bax633 da. = Eas dis = Bisel (3.51) From the form of the equations it is obvious that there is an extensional mode, a longitudinal thickness mode and a shear thickness mode. The first two are obtained by plating the major surfaces of the ceramic, polarizing the ceramic with these plates and applying the a.c. driving voltage to the plates. The shear thickness plate is obtained by polarizing the ceramic along one of the major axes, removing the polarizing electrodes, and applying a second pair in the thickness direction. The particle motion is in the poling direction, while the shear wave is propagated along the thickness. Two other modes have been used in electrostrictive and magnetostrictive materials, the radial mode and the torsional mode. The first is driven by polarizing the disk perpendicular to the major surface and involves the same fundamental constants as the length longitudinal mode. It has been76 TRANSDUCER MATERIALS shown! that the effective coupling and the resonant frequency of such disks are given by the equations 2 dd). 03/1 . Be Ge 2): Se-Trad Fone OM) where o is Poisson’s ratio, which is approximately 0.3 for barium titanate ceramics. By inducing a permanent polarization circumferentially around the cylinder and applying an alternating polarization along the length, a torsional mode can be generated in magnetostrictive or electrostrictive Fic. 3.11 Methods for constructing torsional transducers from ferroelectric ceramics. materials. For magnetostrictive materials, this is easily done by putting a wire with a large direct current down the axis of the tube and by applying an alternating field by means of a solenoid along the Jength of the tube. If the magnetostrictive material has a retentivity, a permanent circum- ferential polarization can be induced in the material and it is not necessary to maintain a direct current through the inside wire. In an electrostrictive material, one method for obtaining a torsional vibrator is to cut the cylinder in half along the Jength, as shown in Figure 3.11 (a). Each half is then poled in opposite directions along the length. The poling electrodes are removed and the cylinder cemented together by a conducting 23 See W. P. Mason, Piezoelectric Crystals and Their Applications to Ultrasonics, Section A.9, D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1950.3.4 ELECTROSTRICTIVE AND MAGNETOSTRICTIVE MATERIALS 77 cement. Torsional vibrations produced in this manner, may have co-. efficients of electromechanical coupling as high as k=0.4, since they use the dy, constant for the thickness shear mode. Due to the poor Q of the cement, such transducers do not have a high overall Q. A related method, shown in Figure 3.11 (b), is to pole the two halves so that the permanent polarization lies in a continuous circle. The poling electrodes o use? Tied —* — 1.28 oy led 3 « 2 yh? Z 6 e Bia 1.16 Zz a B12 BaTLO; 5 8 A 4%PbTLOs; 96%BaTLOs 2 . . 1,08 © 3%CaTiOs;; 97%BaTLO, @ . . Zz 2 4%PbTLOs; 5.7%CaTLOs; Q 90.3%BaT LO; 1.04] . % 4 8%PbTLOs; 5.5%CaTiOs; w sa? 86.6% BaTLO3, 3 \ z 1.00 x 12%PbTLOs; 8.3%CAaTiO;; 79.8% BaTLOs os ® 8%PbTLO3; 86%CaTLO3; 96 83.4%BaTLOs ose! at 1] “60-40-20 ° 20 700 40 60 TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE Fic. 3.12 Elastic properties for calcium, barium, and lead titanate mixtures. are then taken off, and an evaporated metal film is deposited on the twu end surfaces. Metal plates are then soldered to the ceramics by low melting-point solders, and these serve both as electrodes and as moments of inertia to lower the frequency of the drivers. Good coupling and high Q’s can be obtained with this construction. Another method, applicable for a solid cylinder, is to induce polariza- tions in opposite directions along the top and bottom of the cylinder by one set of electrodes, as shown in Figure 3.11 (c). These electrodes are78 TRANSDUCER MATERIALS then removed and a second set deposited by evaporation. A gap is left on each side at the regions of maximum polarization and a terminal is brought out from each side. With two electrodes, coupling coefficients up to 20 percent have been obtained. The maximum coupling? is 2400-——]——7 3 8 VALUE OF DIELECTRIC CONSTANT, € 8 8 s20 8 * BaTiO; © 3% CaTi103;97% BaTlOy 1D 4%PDTIO3;5.7%CaTIO3;90.3%BaTiOs & B%PHTIOs, 86% CATIO3;83.4%BaliOs x 12%PDTiO3;8.3% Ca TiO3; 79.8% BaTiO, VALUE OF PIEZOELECTRIC CONSTANT, dy ~69 -40-20~=«0~=~C*SS—C«GSC«SSC*SC*NOD Ae TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE Fig. 3.13 Dielectric constants and equivalent piezoelectric constants for calcium, barium, and lead titanate mixtures. obtained when the electrode separation of each set are about 20 percent of the circumference. Complete efficiency is not realized because all of the material is not used to drive the transducer. Higher coupling and larger capacitances are obtained if 4 sets of platings are used, as shown in Figure 3.11 (d). 4R. N. Thurston and Peter Andreatch, I.R.E. Convention Record, Part 9, 45-54 (March 1955).‘u0Isy "T WOT LIE ae OD Ysnig oyAaD wos are BIC “OD Ysnag aItAz[-D ay? Jo uoMsodwioo ouuviao v 10J oUIEU pazYySIIAdoo v SI LZ » 9% ££0'0 Lt — 10 stro - 670 0b7 06 een *oqn)ad (20S EN svg +£0'0 sel — zs'0 9270 _ Zod 4 o's wee (s'0) SW)*OGN SOL 220'0 ve — 070 svo - 5980 098 V6l sL- 29 LZd 91% 99z0'0 sty — ofo z£0 _ s29°0 oozt Ove OFI- *S LZd vet 8920°0 sve — £90 870 _ sts'0 SLs see Lo- «b LZd SONY %8 "OMLGd %ZL Le s10'0 SHO £0 FO E110 6r'0 BTL 00+ 09 ov *ORLYA %08 SOLLYD %8 FOLLd %8 v9 S100 09'0 seo 0 E10 0s" Te oes os e- "OMLYE %t8 SOMLED %9 FOLLAd Yor v6 910°0 £6'0 ev0 8r0 L9T'0 8r'0 eT Ol. St @+)- "OMLYA %06 "OMLGd Yr v6 7100 £9°0 +80 GEO #10 or0 1 088 S01 (s'¢)— “OLLYA %96 FORLYO %oe OF T1100 SLO 6f0 eFO LTO LO eT OezT sel (es)— “ORLY %L6 oyures99 “OLLYE Ser 9010°0 sso wo srO LO 90 srl 00ST-00ZT 9I-€L (9's)- Teprouri0) OLX (uojmau UoIMoU Gdajour Gejoujon onus) eet poms) sous (woimau —_(uounou fsuowwon) i= ego) Sty yy 101% [suousou) —jSpeaes) —_squiojnos) /squiojnes) ——_petgoavyyy aA Sp Heo, (/S8P)E sonoWINpy (HEN — 1yOL™ 310L% 101 X 10LX AOI aimaai) paioig ° T a Bagx P yo *p ‘po ep 90105 odo A3r0uq, ssougng svayg oT DSZ Ie soruEIAD jo sanzadorg “A eIqUI,80 ‘TRANSDUCER MATERIALS ‘Table V gives some typical constants for a number of barium titanate compositions with lead and calcium titanate additions, Figures 3.12 and 3.13 show how the fundamental constants vary with temperature. For delay line and electromechanical filter applications discussed in Chapter V, it is desirable to have considerable temperature stability and as high a mechanical Q as possible. Compositions with 8 to 12 percent of lead titanate and 8 percent of calcium titanate have the most stable properties with temperature and have Q’s up to 2000 after an aging process has occurred. All these ceramics have an aging time’? during which the dielectric and piezoelectric constants decrease and the Young’s modulus and Q increase with time. This process can be speeded up by raising the temperature to 70° to 80°C, and by alternating room and high temperatures. It appears to be due to domain-wall motions which stabilize when the areas of the domains equalize in the individual grains. The principal properties and uses are indicated by the values of Table V. High coup- lings, large open-circuited voltages for a given force, and large force factors are of use. ‘The energy-stored column indicates the electrical energy stored for a given force applied. As will be seen from Table VI, which shows the properties of magnetostrictive materials, the energy stored for ceramics is over 10 times that for magnetostrictive materials. Other ceramics, such as potassium sodium niobate, lead metaniobate Pb(NbO,). and mixtures!® of 45% Icad titanate—55% lead zirconate, have interesting properties, such as high Curie temperatures and high electromechanical coupling factors. A series of compositions labelled PZT 1 to 6 have been produced by the Clevite Brush Co. with characteristics shown by Table V, which shows also Pb(NbO,). and potassium - sodium niobate They have the largest stored polarization of any known ferroelectric. 3.5 Magnetostrictive Materials and Their Equivalent Circuits ‘The strain and field equations of (3.49) are the same for magnetostrictive and electrostrictive materials, provided the electric field and displacement are replaced by the magnetic field H, and the magnetic flux displacement B. Hence we can represent the properties of polarized magnetostrictive bodies by the same set of symbols that are used for piezoelectric crystals. The constant d33, which represents the magnetic flux generated for a given stress, is called the piezomagnetic constant. The first part!” of ‘Table VI gives the properties in mks units of a number of metals and ferrites adjusted in permanent polarization to give the maximum coupling 18 W. P, Mason, J, Acous. Soc. Amer., 27, No. 1 (Jan. 1955). *6 B, Jaffe, R. S. Roth, S. Marzullo, 7. Appl. Phys., 25, No. 6 (June 1954), and Bulletins of Clevite Brush Co, 7 Data from C. M. Van der Burgt, Phillips Research Reports, 8, 91-132 (1953).CLS6L “OD YOO MHH-MUIQ SIA! ‘yoogpunzy saysdyg fo ainjysuy uvoisaupy wor} uoIsstued Aq psonporday) (%05) *O%21 o> +000 600 9c°0 + 80°0 £6'0 sz ” eo ‘(%0s) ON cae a our s1£0'0 ero +50 se's zo Leh ss oer- os— ‘(0b) OIN aes f ser 7870'0 sore 850 TEL £60°0 st vel ssI— Lem “(eze) OIN oe A see 2200 Orr 6s'0 0z 780'0 es'h oe £:0e— 8'6- “ChSt) OIN 1 oat i Gr s9t0'0 si¥o 79°0 +L £20°0 wt SLL s6e— o91— —(%81) ON 0) ved “%se) OUZ 90's £00°0 £90°0 89°0 6fl £00 061 $'8t— TH (%s1) OIN ad ess 8D %S°0 rg £400 . ” +10 re v.61 ” rel “0D MSE Pd %S'6b 19 %S'0 78 60°0 ” ” ” 0v'0 wt £8 ” el 0D 0s PIN 68 soo ” ” 7 +00 4 +87 ” es— %6°66 (uozmou Gu (worms g3aqns) zUoyaaur ) suossou) — (SPU) —ssaqaas) £6; = (w/saruay) ey fsuoyasau) a OLx**p 14/894 (asia ay moe) orx(g)gt raesuog —0IX —ieadizog LEP shuvisuo3) s-O1LX #01 Buydney “Ssougig —“AAeousg —Buydnoy HS =p x jeurpna So OuBeUE — peLiaayAy Ayu hePEqouorss07, “rusty aqisioay == euIpn) = Tory onauseur — “Lozaig . eal . 4 aways suoT = snINpoYE —ayqissaaay “onal reurpna payors s,2unox, 2 3094S -Bu0] sajz1I1a,J pue sjeyayAy JO sarjredorg sarjorysojouseyy “| We “TA 2QUL,“(9S6T) OZOT ‘9 “ONL ‘RZ SAamp “20g “sno -f Bang s9p ULA “IND + AL O- PLEO— 0 PS'O+ %ol8'O+ Dc09 93 D.0%— wosy % ut adueys Souanbasz o000=* = 900'0=* = OT0=* = F100=* == 8100=* s'6t ¥61 £02 80% Oz 2009+ 9'8T +61 S07 Siz siz Do0e+ TRE o6t TW Sez v2 Ds07— {oo0'0) "*4 (oro) *F¥ (OKO) FY (TOO) Fy —_(gr0'0) Y_ aaNyezoduray, (2oueuouras ye are sBuydnoy *ajqey, ui umoYs x oanfea) “FO*Aq*O@- Vin syjnunoy “339 [AHOIN OF VORIPPY 3[eqoD Jo sayy Uo ;wIEC] WaDdy, VIAL 400 oF sto = +01 0% 6800 £9 z0z'0 : eZ st Gopuruneg Az) ” 80r'0 ge eee0 19'e oF 2d Bb es &trO Sf6 8E7'O FE ST 2 HOS “A %Z aa 1400 es sto Let +L 660°0 6 8£1'0 sre er loro tel 6L10 9c $96'0 Coypounsg %sp “o't) Lvs +100 su +510 +68 zo 2d %SS IN %Sb $400 sre- LTO ” Lio sso eee on "8 8 ws ; Ler ys— z " 86°0 ¥0 06°66 uoyasau (uoymou/szaqaat) ux/suoamau) w/staaa. Guy (SE) OL xp sey woteen (ujsouruayy © ISDA) s-OLX on x (gn Sp)F syueasuo Buydnoa Snynporty sOLX ‘Aysuaq Teorey Aqsuog ‘paioig Adiaugq oneusewozerg jeurpnyiguo7y s,dunox “dog ‘Ady “Buoy xn [eurpnaiguo'] lt (panurwoD) t WeA—IA FqUL,3.5 MAGNETOSTRICTIVE MATERIALS AND CIRCUITS 83 factor. The second part of Table VI shows how the parameters change for various metals as a function of the permanent flux density. Due to the similarity of the energy equations, the equivalent circuits of Figure 3.4 also apply to magnetostrictive materials, provided we replace a 2 Eand i respectively, yf H.dl= U, the magnetomotive force, and BS = ®, 0 where S is the cross-sectional area, @ the total flux through the magnetostrictive transducer, and @ the time rate of change of the flux. Hence as discussed above, all the fundamental quantities and coupling factors can be expressed in terms of the analogous quantities as shown in Table VI. These values hold for materials having a closed magnetic circuit with a reluctance small compared to that for the rod. If this is not true, de- magnetizing factors and additional reluctance values have to be taken account of and the value of @ is the average value determined by these factors. All the quantities of Table VI are for d.c. or slowly varying values of alternating flux. For rapidly varying flux values, another effect enters, namely the production of eddy currents which limit the area and retard the flux with respect to the applied field. Eddy current effects are small for the sintered ferrites and can be made small for finely laminated metal magnetostrictive material, so that for these materials, the equivalent circuits of Figure 3.4 also hold for alternating conditions. If eddy currents cannot be neglected, the electromechanical transformer has to have a ratio and phase angle varying with frequency. This effect is discussed in two recent books.18 In a transducer, it is not U and @ that we deal with, but rather the input voltage and current. ‘These quantities are related by equations of the type ad eo where NV is the number of turns and the voltage, current, flux, and magnetomotive forces are directed as shown in Figure 3.14. These are the equations of a gyrator, shown by the symbol of Figure 3.14. A gyrator is a device that does not satisfy the reciprocity relationships satisfied by most electrical networks. If we call Zj, the magnetic impedance, defined by ID Zu =U @, (3.54) pen by direct substitution in (3.53), we find the electrical impedance AS E=N U = Ni; (3.53) E N® Zp=5=5 e557 (3.55) °F. V. Hunt, Electro-Acoustics, Chapter IV, John Wiley and Sons, 1954. ‘T. F, Hueter and R.H. Bolt, Sonics, Chapter V, John Wiley and Sons, 1955.84 TRANSDUCER MATERIALS Hence, the effect of the gyrator coupling is to invert all the elements of the equivalent circuit. For this reason, one should determine the element values of Figure 3.14 for the appropriate terminating conditions and then invert the values in accordance with Equations (3.55) to determine the elements of the magnetostrictive transducer. The values given in Figure 3.14 are for a longitudinally vibrating rod, where S is the cross-sectional area and / the length. 25 is the average value of the permeability in the equations for the reluctance 1 = BS where 5 is for the constant stress condition. Magnetostrictive transducers!® are widely used in the frequency range (3.56) ba * ws poizotan SS Fa a HSh G8 : T_. 33S Com 5 20=SVp/Sz2" i V= rear ie = GOer Fic. 3.14 Equivalent circuit for magnetostrictive transducers. up to 100 kilocycles. Examples are in underwater sound transducers, ultrasonic processing tools, such as the drill discussed in Chapter VI, and for electromechanical filter driving elements as discussed in Chapter V. They have the advantage of being a metallic material and hence more easily joined to other solid objects. Their disadvantage lies in the eddy current effect which produces considerable heating and loss of efficiency. If ferrites are used, then due to their very high internal resistances, eddy current effects are small and transducers in the megacycle range may be realized, While the balance between the uses may change with time, it appears now that the greatest usefulness of magnetostrictive materials is in the low-frequency, high-power range, while piezoelectric crystals and ferroelectric ceramics are best for wide frequency ranges, high frequencies, and low-loss devices. 1 A recent book discussing magnetostrictive transducer design is Henrik Nodtvedt, Magnetostrictive Vibrating Systems (Norwegian Defense Research Establishment, P.O. Box 1084, Oslo, Norway, Jan. 1957).3.6 INTERNAL DISSIPATION IN TRANSDUCER MATERIALS 85 3.6 Internal Dissipation in Transducer Materials Since the types of applications depend to some extent on the internal dissipation of the transducers, this chapter will be concluded with a short discussion of the types of dissipation occurring in magnetostrictive, piezoelectric, and electrostrictive materials. All types of transducer materials satisfy equations of the type E = Z 14 Zeyith F = Zyl +Zyits (3.57) where Z, is the electrical impedance of the device when it is prevented from moving, Z,,, the mechanical impedance when the device is open- circuited, and Z,,, and Z,,, are respectively the ratio of the generated voltage to the velocity x, and the ratio of the generated force to the driving current J. For piezoelectric and electrostatic devices Z,,=Ziye, but for magnetostrictive and electromagnetic transducers Z,,,= —Zy_) 1... NON- reciprocal relations occur, due to the gyrator property discussed in Section 3.5. The various types of losses discussed in Chapter VIII can affect all of these constants. For example, hysteresis can affect the electrical impedance Z, and the mechanical impedance Z,, through internal dissipation that occurs in electrical or mechanical hysteresis loops. Since for both ferroelectric and ferromagnetic materials the voltage generated is proportional to the polarization, hysteresis does not affect the electromechanical impedances Z,,, or Z,,,.. On the other hand, eddy currents can cause the generated voltage to lag behind the velocity of motion, and hence devices containing substances, such as ferromagnetic metals, are not advantageous for measuring the mechanical properties of materials electrically because of the corrections resulting from this phase angle. However, magnetostrictive ferrites or moving-coil transducers eliminate this difficulty and prove advantageous for mechanical measurements. For these materials and for piezoelectric and ferroelectric materials, all the dissipation can be considered to reside in the electrical and mechanical elements Z, and Z,,. Piezoelectric crystals such as quartz, ADP, EDT, etc., have very low dielectric and mechanical losses and dissipation can usually be neglected when they are used as transducers. Ferroelectric ceramics, such as barium titanate or PZT, have dielectric Q values that vary from 60 to 250 depending on the material. Over low amplitudes this value is reasonably constant, but at high amplitudes the Q decreases due to the larger size of the hysteresis loops. The mechanical Q is largely of the microhysteresis type discussed in Section 8.3 (C) and the Q varies from 200 to 2000 depending on the material,!5 the degree of aging, etc. *S See footnote on page 80.86 TRANSDUCER MATERIALS ‘The mechanical Q is also somewhat a function of the strain amplitude. Both of these effects can be taken account of in the equivalent circuits of Figures 3.4 and 3.5, by introducing resistances in parallel with the electrical capacitances Cy, and resistances in series with the mechanical compliances Cy, or C, or Cy, with such values that the ratios of the reactances to the resistances equal the measured values of Q. The ratio Q, for the most part, is independent of the frequency but is a function of amplitude. For ferrite magnetostrictive materials the capacitance Cy of Figure 3.14, which becomes a series inductance when taken through the gyrator terminals, has a Q which is determined by the resistance of the electrical winding as well as the small dissipation in the ferrite core. Q's in the order of 100 to 300 are common. The mechanical internal friction in a ferrite ceramic is quite low and Van Der Burgt*? 2° quotes values of 2000 or greater. These materials can also be given a temperature coefficient of frequency that approaches zero, and they appear useful for the construction of mechanical filters and delay lines. °° C. M. Van der Burgt, J. Acous. Soc. Amer., 28, 1020-1033 (November 1956).Chapter IV Methods for Measuring the Properties of Solids and Polymer Liquids 4.1 Introduction The elastic and dissipative properties of metals, glasses, and polymers are of prime importance in some of their uses. Static measurements provide a good deal of information about the elastic properties, but do not provide complete information about how solids behave when stresses are rapidly applied, nor do they indicate how energy is dissipated when waves pass through solids. ‘To investigate these properties, a variety of methods have been used. If the time scale of the effects in solids—particularly in polymeric solids—is very long, the rate at which the applied stress relaxes as a function of time, is often measured. An alternate method, which provides the same information, is to apply a sinusoidal stress very slowly and to observe the resulting strain, and the phase angle between it and the applied stress. Frequencies as low as one cycle per day have been employed. To investigate relaxations in metals, glasses, and solid polymers requires much more rapid sinusoidal stresses, for these relaxations involve smaller movable units than do those in long-chain polymers. For such measurements, three methods are applicable. The lower frequency method consists in generating guided waves in a rod or bar by means of transducers and observing the resonance frequency and the Q of the bar. From these measurements the elastic constants and the internal friction can be determined. Transducers of the magnetic, electrostatic, and crystal types have been used. For the latter, the bar length has to be altered until it is an integral number of half-wavelengths.2 Small changes in the frequency of the combination can still be used to evaluate elastic constants and internal friction if something is known about the properties of the cement layer between the crystal and the bar. The internal friction, i.e., 1/Q, + W. Philippoff, 7. Appl. Phys., 24, 685 (1953). aos” method was first introduced by Balamuth and Quimby, Phys. Rev., 45, 715 8788 MEASURING METHODS can be measured by determining the increase in the electrical resistance of the combination bar and crystal as compared to that of the crystal alone. All of these methods can be applied to extensional and torsional waves. The frequency range covered is from 10 kilocycles to several hundred kilocycles for reasonably sized specimens. Quite low frequencies, i.e., frequencies below 1 kilocycle, can be employed by using flexurally vibrating bars or tuning forks. Another type of measurement employed is the transmission and reflection of waves in an effectively infinite medium. As discussed in Chapter II, such waves are propagated with definitely determined velocities related to the elastic constants of the materials. By observing the rate of attenuation of reflections, the internal friction of the material can be measured. For low-loss material, a careful evaluation has to be made of other sources of loss. If one relies on the timing between reflections to determine velocities, careful consideration has to be given to the effects of seals between the transducer and the material. If these seals narrow the transmission band and introduce dissipation, they can distort the transmitted and received pulse so that it is difficult to determine the time of arrival of the received pulse. This is true, no matter what the seal material, if the sample to be measured has dispersion, i.e, a change in velocity with frequency. As discussed in Chapter II, the various frequency components of the pulse travel with different group velocities and the pulse becomes distorted. For such materials, it is imperative to use very long pulses—which correspond to a very narrow frequency range—and to resort to phasing methods to determine phase velocities and attenuations. A series of transducers have been designed for shear wave measurements in liquids and solids as described in Section 4.4. These cover a wide frequency range and are suited to a variety of load conditions, i.e., from liquids having viscosities as low as 0.001 poise to those with viscosities of thousands of poises. In practically all cases, it is the shear impedance that is measured rather than the wave propagation properties. Frequency ranges can be covered from several kilocycles up to 100 megacycles. With these instruments a range of properties can be measured which extends from purely liquid to approximately solid properties. 4.2 Guided Wave Resonance Methods of Measurement A solid rod of material supported at a nodal point at the center of the rod can be made to vibrate by attaching a transducer to one end. The response of the rod can be measured by measuring the impedance of the transducer and separating out the impedance caused by the load from that caused by the elements of the transducer. If the O of the material, i.e., the ratio of reactance to resistance of the motional part, is high, the motional arm may have a much lower impedance at resonance than do the42 GUIDED WAVE RESONANCE METHODS 89 other elements of the transducer, and resonance frequencies and Q’s can be determined simply from the measured resonance frequency and the width of the output current curve in cycles, 3 decibels down, i.e., when the current is 1/+/2 from the maximum current. At the lowest resonant frequency, the length of the bar is one-half wavelength and hence we have Vv fr= a OOF V = 2lfer, (4.1) where V is the velocity of propagation. As discussed in Section 2.5B, the velocity of an extensional wave in a circular rod depends to some extent on the ratio of the diameter to the thickness. It is usually sufficient to employ Rayleigh’s correction 1 to Worn vo where 7 is the harmonic order, ¢ Poisson’s ratio, r the radius, and / the length of the bar. By measuring several ratios of r// and plotting the ratio folf(r) against the square of the ratio (r//), one obtains a straight line which determines the Poisson’s ratio c. By extrapolating to the value 7-0, one obtains the frequency of a long thin rod, determined by fo= H J o, (4.3) where Y, is Young’s modulus and p is the density. If the material is a metal made anisotropic by rolling or pressing, ‘a series of rods should be cut of known orientation with respect to the pressing direction. If the symmetry is orthorhombic or transverse isotropic, one can use the orientations described in Piezoelectric Crystals and Their Applications to Ultrasonics, Chapter X, for orthorhombic and hexagonal crystals (which have the same set of constants as for transverse isotropic symmetry), and evaluate the constants by processes described there. If the symmetry differs little from isotropic, a simple method for evaluating the constants has been described by Bradfield and Pursey. Using a cylinder of material, an “apparent” Young’s modulus Yo, and an “apparent” modulus of rigidity .’ are measured by attaching extensional or torsional crystals. From these, a Poisson’s ratio oy;p is calculated from the equation (4.2) Onn = Fyre (4.4) where the subscript AVR signifies modulus ratio measurements. Next, a * G. Bradfield and H. Pursey, Phil. Mag., 44, 437-443 (April 1953).90 MEASURING METHODS Poisson’s ratio o,, is measured by taking several ratios of 7/! and using Equation (4.2). An anisotropy index « is defined as a = CMRTOL (45) eu Here the subscript L/ indicates the Poisson’s ratio determined by lateral inertia. Using this definition and the known elastic constants for a cubic metal, ¢41, Cy, and ¢,,, the “isotropic” values of Young’s modulus Y, and the shearing modulus p are given by the equations _ yl gat tees e . Yo= vif (a 5) aw tet) 55 eee [1+ Cy t2eyg ) 25 (#6) For high Q material, a fairly accurate measurement of the Q is obtained by measuring the width of the resonance curve in cycles for the two frequencies 3 decibels (1/1/2) below the maximum amplitude. For this case the Q is given by the formula o-% (#7) where 8f is the frequency difference. This formula follows directly from the equation for a resonant circuit : z (4.8) _ Zi i- “) a wh When re ( 3) i: at times the current at resonance. at PT aR) 75 . 1. 1 wp och = Q = = (4.9) AS) where 8 is the angular frequency difference between resonance and the 3 decibel points. ‘This formula agrees with (4.7). When the Q of the material is not sufficiently high to make this process feasible, the elements of the equivalent circuit can be obtained from bridge measurements. From these elements, the Q can also be calculated. ‘The use of a crystal to drive a mechanical bar of nearly an integral number of half wavelengths, originated with the work of Balamuth and Quimby.? The mechanical impedance of the cement joining the crystal to the bar will be in the nature of a shunt compliance, since its stretching depends on the difference in particle velocity of the crystal and the bar. 2 See footnote on page 87.4.2 GUIDED WAVE RESONANCE METHODS O11. The stiffness of cements is usually low compared to the stiffness of bar materials and is necessary to have the length of the bar close to an integral number of half wavelengths at the crystal frequency. Near half-wave- Jength frequencies, it has been shown‘ that the bar is equivalent to a series resonant circuit having a mass /,,, compliance Cy,, and resistance Ry, equal to Cc where AJ is the total mass of the bar, C the static compliance of the bar, ie., //¥S, where / is the length of the bar, Y, its Young’s modulus, and S the cross-sectional area, while Ax is the total attenuation of the bar expressed in mepers. The Q or quality factor of the bar is defined by AT 2c ar My =a Cu =a Ru = Jo (4s); (4.10) M nz (4.11) where Bg is the total phase shift at the frequency of measurement expressed in radians, and A, is the attenuation in nepers. If such a bar is driven by a crystal free on one end, the electrical impedance measured can be determined by attaching the elements AZ, Cys, and Rj, in series with the mechanical end of Figure 3.4 (d). The reactance of a thin layer of cement and the anti-resonant termination of Figure 3.4(d) have a high impedance compared to the impedance of these elements in series and can be neglected. Hence, we can combine the mass J,, with the mass 17, of the crystal, the compliance Cj, with the compliance C, of the crystal, and the resistance R,, with the crystal resistance Rc. One first makes a measurement of the resonant and anti- resonant frequencies, the resistance at resonance, and the low-frequency capacitance of the crystal alone, and then repeats the measurements for the crystal cemented to the mechanical bar. From these, one can deduce the values of J;,,C,,and Rygand hence can measure the properties of the bar. This process is discussed in reference‘, and it is there shown that the three quantities are given by the equations 7% —1; Ry = - G3 R FRG fit 2 ‘2 My, = Me (S- 1); (4.12) * W. PB. Mason, Electromechanical Transducers and Wave Filters, Chapter VII, Equation (7.40), D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1948.92 MEASURING METHODS where Cp=— WE ae 3 Mo= eet density, and YF is the value of Young’s modulus, measured at constant field, for the crystal. The value of Rj, is not determined unless Re, the crystal mechanical J=length, w=width, ¢=thickness, p= Tee vetoue POINT — CONTAINER —> TO VACUUM PUMP Fic. 4.1 Holder and electrostatic drive mechanism for measuring internal friction and elastic constants at very low temperatures (after Bordoni IV, 5. p. 93). resistance, is known. If we know the static capacitance C4 of the crystal, the value of Q can be determined from the formula a O°" Rye 7 IefeCR-R FF-FE FE-PE In this equation fy and f, are the resonant and anti-resonant frequencies for the crystal alone, fp and f; the same quantities for the composite crystal and bar, and R and R’ the electrical resistance at resonance for - the crystal and composite system. (4.13)42 GUIDED WAVE RESONANCE METHODS 93 Fic. 4.2 Electromagnetic drive system for measuring internal friction and elastic constants in extensional vibrations (after Giacomini IV, 6, p. 95). MAGNETIC FIELD >, Fic. 4.3. Electromagnetic drive system for measuring internal friction and elastic constants in torsional vibrations (after Giacomini IV, 6, p. 95). Figure 4.1 shows an electrostatic driving method used by Bordoni® in measuring the properties of metals at low temperatures. A static field is placed between the metal and a plate close to the end of the rod. An ac ‘4 is superimposed on this through a condenser large compared to the >. G. Bordoni, . Acous. Soc. Amer., 26, No. 4, pp. 495-503 (July 1954).94 MEASURING METHODS 2 oF oe B 8 - CuSO, <4 DAMPING.” Ke ~ DAMPING... SOLUTION (a) (b) Fic. 4.4 Torsional pendulum and damping system for measuring internal friction over a temperature range (after Ké IV, 7, p. 95). capacitance of the driving system, and the resonance and © are measured by plotting the driving current, for a constant applied voltage, against the frequency. The container can be evacuated except for a small gas pressure to act as a heat exchanger, and the whole container can be

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