The Shakespeare Handbook

Literature and C u lt u re H a n d b o o k s

G en e ra l E d itors: P h ilip Tew a n d S tev en B arfield

L iteratu re a n d C u ltu re H a n d b o o k s a re an in n o v a tiv e serie s o f g u id es to m ajo r

p erio d s, to p ics and au th o rs in B ritish and A m erica n literatu re and culture.
D esigned to p ro v id e a co m p reh en siv e, o n e-sto p reso u rce for literatu re
stu d en ts, each h a n d b o o k p ro vides the essen tial in fo rm atio n and g u id an ce
n eed ed from th e b eg in n in g o f a co u rse th rou gh to d ev e lo p in g m o re ad van ced
k n o w led g e a n d skills.

T h e E ig hteen th-C en tu ry L iteratu re H an dbook

E d ited b y G ary D ay and B rid g et K eegan

V i e M edieval B ritish L iteratu re H an dbook

Ed ited by D an iel T. K line

T h e M odern ism H an dbook

E d ited b y P hilip Tew a n d A lex M urray

T h e P ost-w a r B ritish L iteratu re H an dbook

E d ited b y K ath erin e C o ck in and Ja g o M o rriso n

T h e R en aissan ce L iteratu re H an dbook

E d ited b y S u san B ru ce and R eb ecca Stein berg er

V i e S even teen th-C en tu ry L iteratu re H andbook

E d ited b y R o b ert C . E v a n s and E ric J. Sterlin g

T h e V ictorian L iteratu re H an dbook

E d ited b y A lexan d ra W arw ick and M artin W illis
The Shakespeare
Handbook

Edited by

Andrew Hiscock
and

Stephen Longstaffe

A
c o n t in u u m
Continuum
T h e Tower Building 80 M aiden Lane, Suite 704
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w w w.continuum books.com

Andrew H iscock, Stephen I.ongstaffe and contributors 2009

A ll rights reserved. N o part o f this publication m ay b e reproduced or transm itted

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recording or any inform ation storage o r retrieval system , w ithout prior
perm ission in w riting from the publishers.

British Library C ataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN: 978-0-8264-9521-1 (hardback)

978-0-8264-9578-5 (paperback)

Library o f C ongress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library o f Congress.

Typeset by RefineCatch Lim ited, Bungay, Suffolk

Printed and bound in G reat Britain by M P G Books Ltd, Bodm in, Cornwall
Contents

D etailed Table o f C o n ten ts v ii

A ck n o w led g em en ts x iii
G en e ra l E d ito rs' In tro d u ctio n xv
F orew o rd - H ow to u se th is B ook xvii

P art I: S h a k e s p e a re 's T im e 1

1 In tro du ctio n : F rom Sh a k esp e a re to Sh ak esp eare S tu d ies 3

A n d rew H iscock a n d Stephen L on gstaffe
S h ak esp e arean T im elin e P eter Sillitoe

2 H isto rical C o n tex ts for the A g e o f Sh ak esp eare 26

W illiam E. E ngel

3 S h a k e sp e a re 's L iterary a n d C u ltu ral C o n te x ts 46

Stephen L on gstaffe

P a rt II: H o w to R ead S h a k e s p e a re 69

4 C a se S tu d ies in R ead in g I: R ead in g the Texts 71

K irk M eln iko ff

5 C a se S tu d ies in R ead in g 11: F rom T exts to T h e o ry 93

M a rk Robson

6 S h ak esp e are in P erfo rm a n ce and F ilm 112

Stu art H atn plon-R eeves

7 K ey C ritica l C o n cep ts and T o p ics 129

A drian S treete

P a rt I I I : S h a k e s p e a re S tu d ie s N o w 145

8 R ecen t C ritical R esp o n ses and A p p ro ach es 147

L isa H opkin s

v
Contents

9 N ew C o n te x ts for Sh ak esp eare 1 73

G abriel Egan

10 R ecen t Issu es in Sh ak esp eare Stu d ies: From M arg in s to C en tre 190
W illy M aley

11 M ak in g M ean in gs: S h ak esp e are's P o etry for the T heatre 206

R os King

G lo ssa ry o f C ritica l and T h eo retical T erm in ology 215

P eter S illitoe

A p p en d ix: Sh ak esp eare: Teach in g , C u rricu lu m a n d Learning 223

D av id W ebb
(A vailable at w w w .co n tin u u m b o o k s.co m /re so u rce s/
9780826495785)

N o tes o n th e C o n trib u to rs 224

N otes 22 7

A n n o tated B iblio g rap h y 228

R obert C. Evans

W orks C ited 240

In dex 256

vi
Detailed Table of Contents

A ck n o w led g em en ts xiii
G en e ra l E d ito rs' In tro d u ctio n xv
F orew o rd - H ow to u se th is B ook xvii

P a rt I: S h a k e s p e a re 's T im e 1

1 In tro d u ctio n : From S h a k e s p e a re to S h a k e s p e a re S tu d ie s 3

A n d rew H iscock a n d Stephen L on gstaffe

Sh a k esp e a re a m o n g h is C o n tem p o raries 3

T h e S e v e n te e n th a n d E ig h te en th C en tu ries 5
T h e N in eteen th C en tu ry 7
T h e Tw entieth C en tu ry : th e G ro w th in P ro fessio n al C riticism 9

S h ak esp e arean T im elin e P eter S illitoe 21

2 H isto rica l C o n te x ts fo r th e A g e o f S h a k e s p e a re 26
W illiam E. E ngel

Telling H isto ry , T h e n a n d N o w 26
R eligio u s C h an g e 27
C om m ercial and M ilitary E x ch an g es 34
R elatio n s w ith th e C o n tin en t: M artial and M arital 38
U rb a n G ro w th in th e C a p ita l 41
C o u rt C u ltu re and C en tres o f P ow er 42
C o n clu sio n 43

3 S h a k e s p e a re 's L itera ry a n d C u ltu ra l C o n te x ts 46

Stephen L on gstaffe

A ctin g 47
A u th o rsh ip 48
B lackfriars P lay h o u se 48

vii
D etailed Table o f Contents

B lazo n 49
Boy P la y ers 50
C en so rsh ip 50
C la ssica l H eritag e 52
C o m ed y 52
C o stu m e s 53
C o u rt 54
E d u ca tio n 55
G lo b e T h eatre 56
H isto ry P lay 56
K in g Ja m es B ib le 57
L o nd on 57
M asq u e 58
E a rl o f O xfo rd 59
P asto ral 59
P atro n ag e 60
P lag u e 60
P lay in g C o m p an y 61
P ro p s 62
P u b lish in g 62
R ep erto ire 63
R h e to ric 64
R om an ce 64
S cen ery 65
Sta g e D irectio n s 65
S ta g e s 66
Su m p tu ary L aw s 66
T rag ed y 66

P a rt II: H o w to R ead S h a k e s p e a re 69

4 C a se S tu d ie s in R e a d in g I: R e a d in g th e T exts 71
K irk M eln ik o ff

Sh a k e sp e a re 's E n g lish 72
Sh a k e sp e a re 's V erse 73
A n aly sin g th e S o n n e t 75
L an g u ag e and D ram atic C o m m u n icatio n 77
Sh a k e sp e a re 's P rose 79
T h e M o v em en t betw een P o etry an d P rose 82
Sh a k e sp e a re 's Im ag ery 84
P la y s a s D ram atic P oem s 86
Sh a k e sp e a re 's W o rd -p lay 87

viii
 D etailed Table o f Contents

L an g u a g e and th e L o w e r O rd ers 89
Sh a k e sp e a re 's L an g u a g e E x p erts 90

5 C a se S tu d ie s in R e a d in g II: F rom T exts to T h e o ry 93

M ark Robson

Sh a k esp e a re in T h e o ry 93
R ea d in g R ead in g 95
N ew H isto ricism 96
'R a c e ' and E th n icity 100
G en d er and S e x u ality 103
P sy ch o an aly sis and D eco n stru ctio n 105
Sh a k esp e a re A fte r T h e o ry 110

6 S h a k e s p e a re in P erfo rm a n ce and F ilm 112

Stu art H am pton -R eeves

A P la y e r's H id e 112
R ed isco v erin g S h ak esp e are in P erfo rm a n ce 114
Sh a k e sp e a re 's T h e a tre 114
V iew in g Sh ak esp eare 116
M acbeth W o rk sh o p 117
M acbeth in P erfo rm an ce 122
C o n clu sio n 127

7 K e y C ritic a l C o n c e p ts a n d T o p ics 129

A drian S treete

Settin g the S cen e 129

K ey C o n cep t O n e: A u th o rity 130
K ey C o n cep t Tw o: C a rn iv a lesq u e 134
K ey C o n cep t T h ree: C o lo n ialism an d R ace 136
K ey C o n cep t Four: D esire 137
K ey C o n cep t F iv e: R elig io n 140
K ey C o n cep t Six: T extu ality 141
C o n clu sio n 143

P a rt I I I : S h a k e s p e a re S tu d ie s N o w 145

8 R e c e n t C ritic a l R e sp o n se s an d A p p ro ach es 147

L isa H opkin s

P sy ch o an aly sis 147

F em in ist C riticism 150
N ew H isto ricism 153
D etailed Table o f Contents

B akh tin 154

C u ltu ral M aterialism 157
Q u e er T h e o ry 158
P resen tism 160
P ostco lo n ialism 162
B ritish S tu d ies 163
E co criticism 166
P erfo rm a n ce S tu d ies 168
B ey o n d T h e o ry ? 171

9 N ew C o n te x ts fo r S h a k e s p e a re 173
G abriel Egan

Sh a k esp e a re an d B io g rap h y 173

C a th o lic S h ak esp e are 175
Sh a k esp e a re a s C o llab o rato r 177
Sh a k esp e a re a s A u th o r? 180
T extu al T ran sm issio n 181
M an o f the T h eatre? 182
E d itin g Sh ak esp eare 183
T h e G lo b e 185
V irtual Sh ak esp eare 188

10 R e c e n t Is s u e s in S h a k e s p e a re S tu d ie s : F ro m M a rg in s
to C e n tre 190
W illy M aley

W h a t's a t Issu e? 190

Issu e: F am ily , L ineage, S u ccessio n 195
N atio n alism , C o lo n ialism a n d R ace 198
R ep u blican ism 203
Se x u ality 204

11 M a k in g M e a n in g s : S h a k e s p e a r e 's P o etry f o r th e T h e a tre 206

R os King

W ord s and S o u n d s 206

M em o ry a n d P erfo rm an ce H isto ry 207
Text a n d P erfo rm an ce 209
Sh ak esp eare: L iterary A u th o r 209
P u b lish in g Sh ak esp eare, P erfo rm in g Sh ak esp eare 210
Sh ak esp eare: P erfo rm a n ce P o e t 211

x
 D etailed Table o f Contents

G lo ssa ry o f C ritica l and T h eo retical T erm in ology 215

P eter S illitoe

A p p en d ix: Sh ak esp eare: Teach in g , C u rricu lu m a n d Learning 223

D av id W ebb
(A vailable at w w w .co n tin u u m b o o k s.co m /re so u rce s/
9780826495785)
C o re T opics
W ays o f Teach in g

N o tes o n th e C o n trib u to rs 224

N otes 22 7

A n n o tated B iblio g rap h y 228

R obert C. Evans

W orks C ited 240

Index 256
This p a g e intentionally left blank
Acknowledgements

It h a s b een a p leasu re to w o rk w ith s o m any d ed icated sch o la rs in b rin g in g

th is v o lu m e to fruition . W e w o u ld lik e to th an k all o f the co n trib u to rs for the
co m m itm e n t to and en th u siasm fo r S h ak esp e are stu d ies w h ich they brou gh t
to this pro ject. T h e serie s ed ito rs P h ilip Tew a n d S tev en B arfield h ave
rem ain ed ex p e rt and p a tie n t g u id es th ro u g h o u t th e p re p a ra tio n process
fo r th e Shakespeare H an d book a s h as th e ed ito ria l team a t C o n tin u u m , A nna
F lem in g and C o lle en C oalter. O u r sin cere th an k s to y o u a ll. T h is volu m e
w o u ld n o t h a v e b een p o ssib le w ith o u t th e su sta in ed and carefu l attention
w h ich I.ind a Jo n e s at B an g o r U n iv ersity d evoted to the p re p a ra tio n o f the
m an u scrip t. Sh e p erfo rm ed an in v alu ab le role in a ctin g a s a d v ise r as w ell as
co rresp o n d en t for e v e ry o n e w o rk in g o n th e S hakesp eare H an d book and it w as
a n d is m u ch ap p reciated . Step h en L o n g staffe w o u ld like to th an k th e U n i
v ersity o f C u m b ria for g ran tin g h im a te rm 's sab b a tica l to w o rk o n th is book,
a n d for fu n d in g trip s to research lib raries. H e w ou ld also lik e to th an k co l
leagu es, frien d s and fam ily P en n y B rad shaw , B rian and N o rah L ongstaffe,
A m an d a F lattery , M argaret F lattery and R o b ert W ard for th e ir help and
su p p o rt. A n d rew H isco ck w o u ld like to exp ress h is th an ks o n ce a g a in to his
co lleag u es at the S ch o o l o f E n glish , B an g o r U n iv ersity , b u t m o st o f all his
lon g -su fferin g fam ily , S in , B ro n w en , Huw. T h is v o lu m e is d ed ica ted to the
H iscock a n d L o n g staffe fam ily m em bers.
A n drew H iscock a n d S tep h en L on gstaffe
O cto b er 2008
This p a g e intentionally left blank
General Editors' Introduction

T h e C o n tin u u m L iteratu re a n d C u ltu re H an dbooks se rie s aim s to su p p o rt both

stu d en ts n ew to an area o f stu d y and th o se a t a m o re ad v an ced sta g e, offering
g u id a n ce w ith regard to the m a jo r p erio d s, to p ics and a u th o rs relev an t to the
stu d y o f v a rio u s asp e cts o f B ritish and A m erica n lite ra tu re a n d cu ltu re. T h e
sc rie s is d esig n ed w ith an in tern atio n al a u d ien ce in m in d , b a se d o n research
in to to d a y 's stu d en ts in a g lo b al ed u catio n al settin g . E ach v o lu m e is co n
cern ed w ith eith e r a p a rticu lar h isto rical p h ase o r an e v e n m o re sp ecific
co n tex t, su ch a s a m a jo r au th o r stu d y. A ll o f th e ch o se n areas rep resen t estab
lished su b je ct m atter for literary stu d y in sch o o ls, co lle g e s and u n iv ersities, all
a re b o th w id ely tau g h t and the su b je ct o f o n g o in g research and scholarsh ip .
E a ch h an d b o o k p ro v id es a co m p reh en siv e, o n e-sto p resou rce for literatu re
stu d en ts, o fferin g essen tial in fo rm atio n and g u id an ce n eed ed at th e b eg in
n in g o f a co u rse th rou gh to m o re ad van ced k n o w led g e and sk ills fo r the
stu d e n t m o re fa m ilia r w ith th e p a rtic u la r to p ic. T h e se v o lu m es reflect cu rren t
a ca d e m ic research and sch o larsh ip , teach in g m eth o d s a n d strateg ies, and also
p ro v id e an o u tlin e o f essen tial h isto rical co n texts. W ritten in cle a r la n g u ag e
b y lead in g in tern atio n ally -ack n o w led g ed acad em ics, ea ch b o o k p ro v id es the
follow ing:

In tro d u ctio n to au th o rs, te x ts, h isto rical and cu ltu ra l co n texts

G u id es to k ey critics, co n cep ts a n d to p ics
In tro d u ctio n to critical ap p ro ach es, ch an g es in the can on and n ew co n
cep tu al a n d theoretical issu es, su ch a s g e n d e r a n d eth n icity
C a se stu d ie s in read in g literary a n d th eo retical a n d critical texts
A n n o tated bib lio g rap h y (in clu d in g selected w eb site s), tim elin e, and
a g lo ssa ry o f u seful critica l term s.

T h is stu d en t-frien d ly series as a w h o le has d raw n its in sp iratio n a n d stru ctu re

largely fro m th e latest p rin cip le s o f tex t b o o k d esig n em p lo y ed in o th er d iscip
lin es and su b jects, creatin g an u n u su al and d istin ctiv e a p p ro a ch for the

xv
G eneral Editors' Introduction

u n d ergrad u ate arts a n d h u m an ities field. T h is stru ctu re is d esig n ed to be

u ser-frien d ly a n d it is in ten d ed th a t th e lay o u t c a n b e e a sily n a v ig a ted , with
v a rio u s p o in ts o f cross-referen ce. S u ch clarity a n d straig h tforw ard approach
sh o u ld h elp stu d en ts u nd erstan d th e m aterial and in so d o in g g u id e them
th rou gh th e in creasin g a cad e m ic d ifficu lty o f co m p lex , critica l a n d th eoretical
ap p ro ach es to L iterary Stu d ies. T h e se h an d b o o k s serv e a s g atew a y s to the
p articu lar field th at is explored .
A ll v o lu m es m ak e u se o f a 'p ro g ressiv e le arn in g stra te g y ', rath er th a n the
trad itio n al ch ro n o lo g ical ap p ro ach to th e su b je ct u n d er d iscu ssio n s o th at
they m igh t relate m o re clo sely to the le arn in g p ro cess o f th e stu d en t. T h is
m ean s th at the p a rticu lar v o lu m e o ffers m ateria l th at w ill aid th e stu d en t to
a p p ro ach th e p erio d o r topic co n fid en tly in th e cla ssro o m for th e v ery first
tim e (fo r ex am p le, g lo ssaries, h isto rical co n tex t, k ey to p ics and critics), a s w ell
a s m aterial th a t h elp s th e stu d e n t d ev e lo p m o re ad v a n ced sk ills (learn in g
h ow to resp o n d actively to selected p rim ary te x ts and a n a ly se a n d en g a g e
w ith m o d ern critica l arg u m en ts in relation to su ch texts). E ach volu m e
in clu d es a sp ecially co m m issio n ed n ew critica l essa y b y a lead in g au th o rity in
the field d iscu ssin g cu rren t d eb ates and co n texts. T h e p ro g ressio n in the co n
ten ts m irro rs th e p ro g ress o f th e u n d erg rad u ate stu d e n t from b e g in n e r to a
m o re ad v an ced level. E ach v o lu m e is aim ed p rim a rily at u n d erg ra d u a te stu
d en ts, in ten d in g to o ffer itse lf a s b o th a g u id e a n d a referen ce tex t th at w ill
reflect th e ad v an ces in a cad e m ic stu d ie s in its su b ject m atter, u sefu l to both
stu d en ts and sta ff (th e la tte r m a y find th e ap p en d ix o n p ed ag o gy p articu larly
h elpful).
We realise th at stu d en ts in th e tw en ty first-cen tu ry a re faced w ith n u m er
o u s ch allen g es and d em an d s; it is o u r in ten tio n th at th e H a n d b o o k scries
sh o u ld em p o w er its read ers to b eco m e effectiv e and efficien t in th e ir stu d ies.
P hilip T ew a n d Sleven B arfield

xvi
Foreword - H ow to use this Book

T h e C on tin u u m S hakespeare H a n d b oo k h as b een d esign ed to be read in a n u m b er

o f w ays. T h e ch a p ters can b e read in seq u en ce, from co v e r to cover, w ith each
ch a p ter ad d in g to y ou r k n o w led g e o f S h ak esp e a re's tim es, h is w o rks, and
co n tem p o rary u n d erstan d in g s o f b o th . H ow ev er, ea ch p erson stu d yin g
Sh a k esp e a re h a s h is o r h e r o w n p a rticu lar in terests, a n d th e early ch ap ters
h a v e b een d esig n ed s o th a t y o u c a n 'd ip in ' to a re a s th at m a y b e o f p articu lar
in terest to y o u - and y o u can d o th is w ith o u t rea d in g all o f the p reced in g
m a terial. You m a y w ish to use this H an d book to research b ro a d er q u estio n s o f
religion , textu al p ro d u ctio n , o r u rb an cu ltu re in S h a k e sp e a re 's E n g la n d , o r to
find o u t m o re ab o u t p a rticu lar critical ap p ro ach es. T h ere a re regu lar 'cross-
referen ces' in b ra ck e ts w ith in the v o lu m e to help y o u fo llo w y ou r interests
acro ss, a s w ell a s w ith in , ch ap ters.
Sh ak esp eare w as a p ro lific w riter and y o u w ill find referen ces to and
d iscu ssio n s o f m any, if n o t m o st, o f h is k n o w n w o rks. H ow ev er, th e ce n tre o f
g ra v ity for th is v o lu m e a s a w h o le is th e exp lo ratio n o f the follo w in g texts:
1 H en ry IV, T w elfth N ight, th e Sonn ets, H am let a n d T he Tem pest. Sh ak esp eare's
w o rks w ere v ario u sly p u b lish ed at th e e n d o f th e six tee n th a n d th e b eg in n in g
o f th e sev en te en th ce n tu rie s in q u a rto a n d fo lio p u b licatio n s - fo r fu rth er
in fo rm atio n a b o u t th ese, co n su lt the g lo ssary to w ard s th e en d o f th e volu m e
w h ich is arran g ed in alp h ab etical order. A s th e v o lu m e u n fo ld s, y o u w ill
n o tice, fo r ex a m p le, th at th e first p u b lish ed q u arto v ersio n o f H am let is
referred to as Q1 a n d th e first p u b lish ed folio v ersio n o f the p la y is referred to
F I . W h en q u o tatio n s fro m S h a k e sp e a re 's w o rk s are b e in g referen ced in the
critical d iscu ssio n s, th e y all refer to th e fo llo w in g ed ition : Sh a k esp e a re, W.
(1997), T h e N orton S hakespeare, ed . S. G ree n b la tt e t al. N ew Y ork a n d London:
W. W. N o rto n (abbreviated a s N orton S hakespeare). T h u s, w h e n y o u en co u n ter
a sh o rt referen ce su ch a s P ericles, 1. 1. 8 2 , p. 27 2 0 , this lo cates th e q u o tatio n to
S h a k e sp e a re 's p lay P ericles, A ct O n e, sc e n e on e, lin e 82. W h ere relev ant, the
H an d book w ill also d raw y ou r a tten tio n to a p a rticu la r p a g e in th e N orton
S h akespeare, in this case th e referen ce d raw s y o u r a tten tio n to p. 2720.
Foreword - H o w to use this Book

T h e H an dbook o p en s w ith a h isto rical d iscu ssio n o f th e re cep tio n o f

S h a k e sp e a re 's w ritin g s, b e g in n in g w ith h is co n tem p o ra ries a n d fin ishin g
w ith a n a cco u n t o f th e g ro w th o f 'p ro fe ssio n a l' Sh ak esp eare stu d ies up until
the 1980s. S u ccee d in g ch a p ters fo cu s m o re sq u arely u pon 'o u r' co n tem p o ra ry
re sp o n ses to p la y s and p o em s, am o n g st critics, th e w id er read in g public,
a ctin g co m p an ies and th eatre au d ien ces.
Shakespeare's Time
This p a g e intentionally left blank
 Introduction: From
Shakespeare to Shakespeare
Studies

A n d rew H isco ck and

Stephen Longstaffe

C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w

Shakespeare am ong his C ontem poraries 3

The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 5
The N ineteenth Century 7
The Twentieth Century: th e Growth in Professional Criticism 9
Shakespearean Tim eline - P eter S illitoe 21

S h a k e sp e a re a m o n g h is C o n te m p o ra rie s

In a p re fa to ry tex t to h is o w n d ram a T h e W hite D ei'il (1 612), Jo h n W ebster

clea rly in d icated th at S h ak esp e are w as a fo rce to b e reck on ed w ith by his
fellow d ram atists.

[. ..] for m in e o w n p a rt I h ave e v e r tru ly ch erish ed m y good o p in io n o f

o th er m e n 's w o rth y lab ou rs, esp ecially o f th a t full a n d h eig h ten ed s ty le o f
M a ste r C h ap m an , th e lab ou red and u n d e rstan d in g w o rk s o f M aster
Jo n so n : th e n o le ss w o rth y co m p osu res o f th e b o th w o rth ily ex cellen t
M a ste r B eau m o n t an d M a ste r F letch er: and lastly (w ith o u t w ro n g last to be
n am ed ) the right h ap p y a n d co p io u s in d u stry o f M a ste r Sh ak esp eare,
M a ste r D ekker, and M a ste r H e y w o o d , w ish in g w h at I w rite m ay b e read b y
th e ir lig h t [ . . . ] (W ebster 2006: 6)

3
The Shakespeare H andbook

T h e cu ltu ral sh a p in g o f th e w a y s in w h ich w e en g a g e w ith Sh ak esp eare's

w o rk th u s b eg an d u rin g h is o w n lifetim e b u t, a s w e s e e in W eb ster's su rv ey ,
th e 'co p io u s in d u stry o f M aster S h a k esp e a re' w a s p erceiv ed a s o n e o f m an y
stra te g ic co n trib u tio n s m ad e to th e L on d on d ram a scen e in th e e a rly 1600s.
ln ' the m em ory o f m y b elo v ed , the au th o r Mr. W illiam Sh ak esp eare'
w h ich ap p eared a t the b eg in n in g o f th e F irst F olio (1623) o f Sh ak esp eare's
w o rks, Jo n so n celeb rated th e 'S o u l o f th e A g e ', b u t W eb ster w a s m u ch
m o re rep resen tativ e o f the sev en teen th -cen tu ry referen cin g o f th e d ram atist
in m ak in g him ru b sh o u ld ers w ith h is co m p etito rs lik e B en Jo n so n , Francis
B eau m o n t and Jo h n Fletcher. In d eed , it is w o rth w h ile n otin g th at in a satirical
verse b y o n e Jo h n Tatham w h ich p refaced R ich ard B ro m e's p la y A Jo v ia ll C rew
o r th e M erry B eggars (1652), Shakespeare th e P lebean D rille r' is lu m p ed to g eth er
w ith 'e la b o ra te ' Jo n so n , and B eau m o n t and F letch er w h o m ig h t p a sse 'in
a d a rk n ig h t' (sig. A 4V). A g ain and a g a in it b eco m es a p p a ren t th a t for
e a rly au d ien ces a n d read ers, Sh ak esp eare did n o t sta n d (as he w o u ld in later
cen tu ries) lik e h is o w n Ju liu s C aesar, 'b estrid [in g ] the n a rro w w o rld L ik e a
C o lo ssu s' ( 1 .2 .1 3 6 - 3 7 ) .
In terestin g ly , this sta te o f a ffairs w as o ften reprod uced w h en 'S h ak esp eare
the p o e t' w as d iscu sse d b y h is co n tem p o raries. A fellow p o et, R ich ard
B a rn fie ld , p laces h im in 'fa m es im m o rtall B o o k e', a lo n g sid e Sp en ser, D rayton
a n d D aniel, in h is ly ric R em em b ran ce o f so m e E n g lish p o ets' (1605: sig.
G 2 r). T h e so -called 'w a ter-p o et' Jo h n Tay lor a d o p ts a sim ila r strateg y in a
su b sectio n en titled 'P h y lo so p h ers, H y sto rian s, C h ro n o g rap h ers, P oets an cien t
a n d m o d ern e [ . . ] ' from a m u ch lo n g er p o etic a d d ress w h ere h e celeb rates
Sh a k esp e a re in th e co m p an y o f p o ets su ch a s C hau cer, S id n e y a n d Sp en ser:
'Spencer, and S hakespeare did in A rt e x c e ll' (T aylor 1630: 322). (Taylor refrains
from d iscu ssin g h im in h is brief su rv ey o f co n tem p o ra ry d ra m a tists in the
s a m e p o em .) H ow ever, it see m s th at there w ere o th er w a y s in w h ich to reflect
u pon S h ak esp e are's ach iev em en t, a p a rt from sim p ly ce le b ra tin g h is fam e
and g en iu s a s co m p ared to h is co n tem p o raries. In the eleg y 'T h e m e m o ry o f
m y b elo v ed [ . . . ] ' n o ted ab o v e, Jo n so n co m p ared th e S tratfo rd b ard to th e great
d ra m a tists o f an tiqu ity. T h e sch o la r G abriel H arv ey ch erish ed the cereb ral
a u th o r o f H am let and p laced it alo n g sid e th e n a rra tiv e p o em T h e R ap e o f
L u crece, fin d in g th at th e y b o th co n tain ed th at w h ich m igh t 'p le a se th e w iser
s o rt' (C h am bers e t al. 1932: 56); w h ile in h e r co llectio n S ociable L etters (1664),
M argaret C av en d ish , D u ch ess o f N ew castle, tu rned p a rticu la rly to qu estio n s
o f ch aracte rizatio n and id en tificatio n : 'W h o w o u ld n o t th in k h e h a d been
su ch a m a n a s h is S ir John F alstaff? [ . . . ] on e w o u ld th in k th at h e h a d b een
M etam o rp h o sed from a M an to a W om an, fo r w h o co u ld D escrib e C leopatra
B etter th an h e h ath d o n e ' (C av en d ish 2 0 0 4 :1 7 7 ).

4
 Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies

T h e S e v en te en th an d Eig h teen th C e n tu rie s

It w a s in th e la ter d e ca d es o f th e sev en teen th ce n tu ry th at a m o re su stained

ex a m in atio n o f S h a k e sp e a re 's a ch iev e m en t (and th u s th e b irth o f Sh ak esp eare
stu d ies) m a y b e said to h a v e b eg u n in earn est. L ik e h is p re d ece sso rs in the
sev en te en th ce n tu ry , w h en Jo h n D ry d en tu rn ed h is a tten tio n s in p rin t to
th e a ch iev em en t o f Sh ak esp eare, h e co u ld o n o cca sio n s lim it h im se lf to a
ce le b ra tio n o f th e d ra m a tist's to w erin g g en iu s. Yet h e did ack n o w led g e th at
S h a k e sp e a re 's p la y s m ig h t require 'refin in g ' for h is la tte r au d ien ces, a n d set to
w o rk in 'a d a p tin g ' T h e Tem pest (w ith W illiam D av en an t) a s T h e tem pest, or, The
en ch an ted islan d a co m ed y (1670), for ex am p le, and A n ton y an d C leopatra a s A ll
f o r love, or, T h e w orld w ell lost, a trag ed y f . . . / w ritten in im itation o f Shakespeare's
stile (1678). A n d in th is he w as n o t alone: N ah u m T ate so u g h t to 'rectifie ' the
failu res o f 'R eg u la rity an d P ro b ab ility ' w ith h is o w n H istory o f K in g L ear
(1681); a n d C o lle y C ib b er o ffered T h e T ragical H istory o f R ichard III (1700) w ith
S h a k e sp e a re 's lines italicized - so th at there sh o u ld b e n o co n fu sio n . T h e re w as
ce rta in ly n o co n fu sio n for the w riter F an n y B u rn e y w h en sh e peru sed C ib b er's
o fferin g in 1773: '[S h ak esp e are], w ith all h is im p erfectio n s, is too su p erio u r to
a n y o th e r D ram atic W riter, for th em to b e a r s o n ea r a co m p ariso n : & , to my
E ars, e v e ry Line o f C ib b e r's is feeb le & p a ltry ' (B u rn ey 1988: 242).
In te rm s o f n o tab le critical sch o larsh ip o f th e ag e, in h is E ssay o f D ram atic
P oesie (1668) and h is 'E ssa y o f the D ram atic P o etry o f the L a st A g e ' (1672),
D ryd en sh o w s h im se lf m u ch m o re co n cern ed w ith th e u n w ield y crea tiv e
e n e rg ies o f Sh ak esp eare and h is co n tem p o ra ries, w h ich , h e affirm s, m ig h t h ave
realized th e ir full p o ten tial, if th e y h ad b een held in c h e c k w ith an a tten tio n to
th eatrical d eco ru m . E lsew h ere, in h is preface to y e t a n o th e r Sh ak esp earean
a d a p tatio n , Troilus a n d C ressida, or, Truth fo u n d too late, a trag ed y (1679), D ryden
p u rsu es a carefu l a n a ly sis o f th e w ays in w hich the d ra m a tic tech n iq u es o f
Sh a k esp e a re a n d Jo h n F letch er m ig h t b e co m p ared and co n trasted . H ow ever,
he a ck n o w led g ed m o re g en erally that

T h e P o e t A esch y lu s w as h eld in th e sam e v en era tio n b y th e A th en ian s o f

after A g es a s S hakesp ear is b y us [ . . . ] o u r reveren ce fo r S h akesp ear [is] m uch
m o re ju st, th en th at o f th e G recians fo r A esch y lu s [ . . . ] [yet] it m u st b e allo w 'd
to th e p re se n t A g e, th a t the tong u e in g en eral is so m u ch refin 'd sin ce
Shakespear's tim e, th at m an y o f h is w o rd s, a n d m o re o f h is P h rases, are
sca rce in telligible. A n d o f th o se w h ich w e u n d ersta n d s o m e are
u n g ram m atical, o th e rs co arse; a n d his w h o le stile is so p este r'd w ith
F ig u rativ e ex p ression s, th at it is a s affected a s it is o b scu re. 'T is tru e, that
in h is la ter P lay s h e had w o rn o ff so m ew h a t o f th e ru st; b u t th e Traged y
w h ich I h a v e u nd ertak en to co rrect, w as, in all p ro b ab ility , o n e o f h is first
en d eav o u rs o n th e S tag e [ . . . ] (D ry d en 1679: n o sig.)

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The Shakespeare H andbook

E qu ally in flu en tial, T h o m a s R y m e r's A sh ort v ieio o f tragedy its orig in al, ex cel
len cy a n d co rru p tion : w ith so m e reflection s on S hakesp ear an d oth er p ractition ers fo r
t h e stag e (1693) becam e a sou rce o f o n g o in g d eb ate fo r d ecad es to co m e. R ym er
d ev o ted m u ch tim e a n d sp ace to lam en tatio n s o v e r th e sh o rtco m in g s o f
S h a k e sp e a re 's and h is co n tem p o raries' d ra m a tic art in te rm s o f an ach ron ism ,
d isco n tin u ity , illogical p lo ttin g , im p lau sib le ch ro n o lo g ies - in sh o rt, failures
to sa tisfy th e exp ectatio n s o f n eo -classical d ram atu rg y. In th e n e x t g en era
tio n , A lex a n d er P op e a m o n g m any o th e rs w o u ld feel co m p elled to d efen d
Sh a k esp e a re a g a in st p ersistin g co m p lain ts co n cern in g h is 'w a n t o f learn in g '
a n d th e irreg u la ritie s' o f his d ra m a tic n arrativ es. P op e m o stly co u n tered such
a ccu sa tio n s w ith fu lsom e p raise, 'T h e P o etry o f S h a k esp e a r w a s In sp iratio n
in d eed : h e is n o t s o m u ch an Im itator, a s an In stru m en t o f N atu re; and 'tis
n o t s o ju s t to say th at he sp e a k s fro m her, a s th at sh e sp eak s th ro ' h im ' (Pope
1986: 13).
M o re g en era lly in th e eig h teen th cen tu ry, th e g ro w th in th e rea d in g and
sch o la rsh ip su rro u n d in g Sh ak esp eare w a s en o rm o u sly assisted b y th e p u b li
ca tio n o f his co m p lete w o rks in su ch ed itio n s a s th o se o f N ich o la s Row e
(1709), A lex an d er P op e (1725), L ew is T h eo b ald (1 733), S a m u el Jo h n so n (1765),
G eo rg e S te e v e n s (1773) an d E d m o n d M alo n e (1790). In th e ca s e o f an ed ition
su ch a s Jo h n so n 's , th e p u b licatio n n o t o n ly co n stitu ted a fo rm id a b le resou rce
for th o se w h o w ere a b le to afford it: Jo h n so n su p p lem en ted th e ed ited p lay -
texts w ith his o w n ap p raisal o f each o f th e p la y s w h ic h h a v e co n tin u ed
to stim u la te critical d ebate in to the m o d e m p erio d - 'H e sa crifices v irtu e to
co n v e n ie n ce and is s o m u ch m o re carefu l to p lea se than to in stru ct th at he
see m s to w rite w ith o u t an y m o ral p u rp o se ' (Jo h n so n 1977: 30 7 ). In a d d itio n to
th e a p p e a ra n ce o f th ese g ran d to m es, there w ere o th ers lik e th o se by Z ach ary
G rey e n title d C ritical, h istorical an d ex p la n a to ry n otes on Shakespeare, w ith em en d
ation s o f the text a n d m etre (1754), a n d W illiam K en rick 's Introdu ction to the
sch o ol o f S hakespeare; h eld , on W ednesday ev en in g s, in th e A p ollo, a t th e D evil Tavern,
Tem ple B ar (1774) - all d esign ed to facilitate th e jo u rn ey o f th e w o u ld -b e stu d en t
th rou gh th e co rp u s o f the b a rd 's w orks.
T h e d eb ate su rro u n d in g S h ak esp e are's a ch iev e m en t co n tin u ed in a h o st o f
d iffere n t p laces a n d w as o ften fram ed by the in terv en tio n s o f lead in g literary
fig u res (m o stly o f ch an g eab le o p in io n s). D am n in g th e bard w ith fa in t praise
in a p iece for th e jo u rn al The C ham pion in 1740, H en ry F ield in g a sse rte d that
'S ir John F a lsta ff and h is w h o le G a n g m u st h a v e g iv en m u ch m o re E n terta in
m e n t to th e S p e cta to rs o f Q u een E lizabeth's D a y s, th an to a m o d e m A u d ien ce'
(F ield in g 1974: 395); a n d O liv er G o ld sm ith w rote in a sim ila r v e in for T he
C ritical R ev iew in 1759 th at Sh a k esp e a re w as a m an 'w h o se b ea u ties seem
ra th er the result o f ch an ce th an d esign ; w h o , w h ile h e lab ou red to satisfy his
a u d ien ce w ith m o n sters and m u m m ery , seem ed to throw in h is in im ita b le
b ea u ties a s trifles in to the b a rg a in '. T h e en o rm o u sly p o p u la r n o v e list Sam u el

6
 Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies

R ich ard so n w a s n o t a s w id e ly read a s eith e r F ie ld in g o r G o ld sm ith in the

literatu res o f th e p ast, b u t h e d id su b scrib e to T h e o b a ld 's 1733 ed itio n o f
S h a k e sp e a re 's w o rk s, an d m ain tain ed a rev eren ce fo r him d esp ite fin d in g him
'le s s u sefu l' th a n A d d iso n (C aves a n d K im p e l 1971: 5 7 2 -7 3 ). T h e celeb rity
sta tu s o f m ajo r acto rs, su ch a s T h o m a s B etterto n (c. 1 6 3 5 -1 7 1 0 ), D av id G a rrick
(1 7 1 7 -7 9 ) and S a ra h Sid d o n s (1 7 5 5 -1 8 3 1 ), clea rly en h an ced ev en fu rther
the a d u la tio n d ev o ted to w o rk s o f Sh ak esp eare: in d eed , in 1769, th e actor-
im p resario D av id G a rrick o rg anized a Ju b ile e e v e n t ce le b ra tin g Sh ak esp eare's
a ch iev em en t. T h e se fig u res w ere a b le to sh a p e for larg e th eatre-g o in g a u d i
e n c e s o f th e a g e the w a y s in w h ic h they en g aged writh th e texts, and th u s th eir
p erfo rm an ces b e c a m e critical a n d a ffe ctiv e en co u n ters in th em selv es, a s we
see from Fann y B u rn e y 's a cco u n t o f G a rric k 's R ich ard III in 1772:

G a rrick w as su b lim ely h o rrib le! - 'G o o d H e a v e n ' - how h e m a d e m e

sh u d d er w h en e v er h e ap p eared ! It is in co n ceiv ab le, h o w terrib ly g rea t he
is in this C haracter. I w ill n ev e r s e e h im so d isfig u red ag ain - h e seem ed
s o tru ly th e m o n ste r h e p erfo rm ed , th a t I felt m y se lf g lo w w ith in d ign ation
e v e ry tim e I saw him . T h e A p p lau se h e m e t w ith e x ceed s all b elie f [ . . . ]
I th o u g h t, at th e E n d , th e y w ou ld have to rn the H o u se d o w n : O u r sea ts
sh o o k u n d er u s. (B u rn ey 1988: 225)

M oreover, th e g ro w in g p o p u larity o f the bard w a s ack n o w led g ed in a su c

ce ssio n o f d etailed critical en g ag e m en ts w ith th e p lays, su ch a s E lizabeth
M o n ta g u 's A n E ssay on th e W ritings a n d G en iu s o f Shakespeare, com p ared w ith
the G reek a n d French D ram atic P oets (1769), E lizab eth G riffith 's The m orality o f
S h akespeares d ram a (1775), a n d W illiam W h ite r's A S p ecim en o f a C om m en tary
on S h akespeare (1794).

T h e N in e te e n th C e n tu ry

B y th e en d o f th e eig h tee n th ce n tu ry , a w ell-estab lish ed cu ltu ra l aw a ren ess

o f a n d v en eratio n for th e b a rd h ad b eco m e co m m o n cu rren cy in all k in d s o f
w ritin g su rv iv in g fro m the period : M ary W o llsto n ecraft w rote to h er lover
G ilb ert Im la y from P aris in 1794 th at 'T h e w o rld ap p ears a n "u n w e e d e d g a r
d e n " w h ere "th in g s ran k a n d v ile " flo u rish b e st' (W ollsto n ecraft 1979: 242);
S h e lley co n ten d ed in his D iscou rse on the M an n ers o f th e A n cien t G reeks R elative
to th e S u bject o f L ove (1818) th a t 'P erh a p s Sh ak esp eare, fro m the v ariety and
co m p reh en sio n o f h is g en iu s, is to b e co n sid ered o n th e w h o le a s th e g rea test
in d iv id u al m ind o f w h ich w e h a v e sp ecim en s rem ain in g ' (Sh elley 1954:
2 1 7 -1 8 ); a n d S ir W alter S c o tt co n fid ed in his jo u rn a l o f 1826, 'T h e b lockh ead s
talk o f m y b ein g lik e Sh ak esp eare - n o t fit to tie h is b ro g u e s' (Sco tt 1972: 252).
Su ch o n g o in g referen cin g o f Sh ak esp eare ex ists in a d d itio n to th e m ajo r

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The Shakespeare H andbook

co n trib u tio n s o f S h ak esp e arean criticism o f th e p e rio d to b e fou n d , for

ex a m p le, in C h arles L a m b 's Specim en s o f D ram atic P oets w h o liv ed a b o u t th e tim e
o f S h akespeare (1808) a n d O n th e trag ed ies o f S h a k esp e a re' (1 811); W illiam
H a z litt's C haracters o f Shakespeare's P lays (1817); and C o le rid g e 's v olu m in ou s
n o tes th ro u g h o u t h is ca reer a s a p ro se w riter o n th e d ra m a tist's ach ievem en ts.
In th e n in e te en th century', the w o rks o f Sh ak esp eare co n tin u ed to be
p rin ted for au d ien ces a n x io u s to o b ta in h is w o rd s o f w isd o m for th e ir lib rar
ie s and to in v e st in th e g ro w in g cu lt o f 'b ard o la try '. In O n H eroes, Hero-
W orship a n d the H eroic in H istory (1840), T h o m a s C a rly le h ailed Sh ak esp eare as
'th e g reatest in tellect w h o , in o u r recorded w o rld , h a s left reco rd o f h im se lf in
the w ay o f L iteratu re' (C arly le 1840: 96). H ow ev er, a s m ay b e w itn essed in
K ea ts's celeb rated p oem 'O n Sittin g D ow n to R ead K ing L ear O n ce A g ain ', as
the n in e te en th ce n tu ry w ore on, Sh a k esp e a re w a s m o re o ften th an n o t b ein g
a sso ciated w ith a read in g , rath er th an a th eatrical, ex p erien ce. In d eed , h e w as
now b eco m in g firm ly en sco n ced in th e read in g p ro g ram m e o f a n y o n e w ho
w ish ed to co n sid er h im o r h erself ed u cated . C h a rlo tte Bront w ro te to h er
frien d E llen N u ssey in 1834:

You a sk m e to reco m m en d so m e b o o k s for y ou r p eru sa l [ . . . ] If y o u like

poetry let it b e first rate, M ilto n , Sh a k esp e a re, T h o m so n , G o ld sm ith , Pope
(if y o u w ill th o u gh I d o n 't ad m ire h im ), S c o tt, B yron , C am p b ell,
W ord sw orth a n d S o u th ey [ . . . ] d o n 't be startled at the n a m es o f
S h ak esp e are a n d Byron. B oth th ese w ere g rea t M en a n d th e ir w o rks are like
th em selv es [ . . . ] O m it th e C o m ed ies o f S h ak esp e a re [ . . . ] (B ron t 1 9 9 5 :1 3 0 )

T h e n in e te en th cen tu ry w itn essed a n en o rm o u s g ro w th in S h a k esp e a re so ci

e tie s across E u rop e, N o rth A m erica a n d aroun d th e g lo b e. T h e Sh effield
Sh a k esp e a re C lu b , fo r ex am p le, w as estab lish ed a s early a s 1819, and
the Stratfo rd Sh a k esp e a re C lu b in 1824. In 1852, th e S h a k sp ere So ciety o f
P h ilad elp h ia b e g a n life w ith reg u lar m e etin g s, w h ereas F. J . F u m iv a ll
fou n d ed th e N ew S h ak sp ere S o cie ty in B rita in in 1873 w h o se m em b ersh ip
in clu d ed b o th sexes. In 1884, th e M elb o u rn e Sh ak esp eare So ciety w a s estab
lished a n d s o the sto ry w en t o n . F u rth erm o re, rea d ers w ere n o w a b le to access
critica l d eb ate and a p p reciatio n s o f S h a k e sp e a re 's w ritin g in p e rio d ica ls o f the
p eriod , su ch a s T h e E din bu rgh R eview , T h e A then aeu m , T h e W estm inster R eview
and T h e N in eteen th C entury. T h e learnin g p ro g ram m e w a s in ten se for so m e, as
m a y be w itn essed from G eo rg e E lio t's d iary en try for 1 4 D e ce m b er 1854: 'B ad
h ea d ach e. A reg u larly w et m o rn in g . R ead th e A th en a eu m and L ea d e r and
fin ished Iph igenia. In th e ev e n in g fin ished H erm an n a n d D oroth ea. Read
H en ry IV 2 nd part. Still h ead ach y ' (E lio t 1998: 38). H ow ev er, h er fello w n o v el
ist A n th on y Trollope a p p e a rs to h a v e ad o p ted a m o re relaxed en g ag em en t
w ith this read ing m atter, a s h e ex p lain ed in a letter o f 1875 to E lio t's partner,

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 Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies

G eo rg e H en ry L ew es: h ave alw a y s fan cied th at Sh ak esp eare intend ed

H am let to b e , n o t m a d , bu t erratic in the b rain , "o n & o ff " - first a little ajar, &
th e n right a g a in , & th en a g a in a stra y ' (Trollop e 1951: 343).
A cto rs su ch a s E d m u n d K ean and H en ry Irv in g co n tin u ed a d istin g u ish ed
trad ition in h erited from th e p revio u s cen tu ry, d ev o tin g m u ch tim e and
en erg y en h an cin g their ce le b rity statu s through th e in terp retation o f m ajo r
S h a k esp e arean ro le s; how ever, b y the final d ecad es o f th e ce n tu ry , critics su ch
a s G eo rg e B ernard Sh aw w o u ld p o u r rid icu le u pon the rem orseless ad u lation
o ffered u p by 'b a rd o la te rs' and u pon th e creak in g p ro d u ctio n s w h ich w ere
sta g ed b y co m p a n ies m o re a tten tiv e to co stu m in g and fin ely-p ain ted s e ts than
to m atters o f d ram atic narrativ e. It is in this secon d h a lf o f th e n in eteen th
ce n tu ry th a t a g en eratio n o f S h ak esp e are sch o la rs em erg ed a s th e stu d y o f
'E n g lish L itera tu re ' b e g a n to be p a rt o f th e b ill o f fayre offered at a w h o le
o f h o st o f le a rn in g estab lish m en ts, fro m the w o rk in g m e n 's in stitu tes to u n i
v ersities. Ed w ard D o w d e n 's S hokespere. A C ritical S tu d y o f H is M in d a n d A rt
(1876), E d m u n d G o s s e 's Front Shakespeare to P op e (1885) a n d S ir W alter
A lex an d er R a leig h 's Shakespeare (1907), all in d icate th e b eg in n in g s o f w'hat w e
m igh t n o w term th e p ractice o f 'S h a k e sp ea re S tu d ie s' resp o n d in g to a u d i
e n c e s w ith in acad e m e a n d bey o n d . R esp o n d in g to th e in crea sin g d em a n d s o f
a g ro w in g au d ien ce, a fa csim ile o f th e 1623 F irst F olio o f S h a k e sp e a re 's w orks
w as rep ro d u ced in p u b licatio n for read ers in th e 1860s, a n d at th e en d o f the
follo w in g d ecad e in 1879, the Sh ak esp eare M em orial T h e a tre w a s o p en ed in
Stratfo rd -u p o n -A von . Trollope had h is o w n v ie w s o n the m a tter o f fu n d rais
ing w h ic h had su p p o rte d th e v en tu re as h e exp lain ed to a friend in 1878:
d o n 't ca re tw o p en ce for th e Sh ak esp eare M em o ria l [ . . . ] If th e re b e any
o n e w h o d o es n o t w a n t m o re m em o rials th an h a v e b een a lrea d y g iv en , it is
S h a k esp e a re!' (Trollope 1951: 392).

T h e T w e n tie th C e n tu ry : th e G r o w th in P ro fessio n al C r it ic is m

T h e tw en tieth ce n tu ry w as th e first tim e in h isto ry th a t S h a k esp e a re Stud ies

b eca m e p red om in an tly the p reserv e o f p ro fessio n al, fu ll-tim e sch o la rs and
critics. T h at sta tem e n t d em an d s an im m ed iate cav eat: th at th e tw en tieth ce n
tu ry a ls o saw' th e m o st critically -in flu en tial sta g in g s o f Sh ak esp eare in h istory.
F or th e vast m ajo rity o f the tim e betw een the d eath s o f Sh ak esp eare (1616)
a n d H en ry Irv in g (1905), it w as im p o ssib le to see a Sh ak esp eare p la y o n the
E n glish sta g e w ith a tex t resem b lin g an early p rin tin g o f it. N o tw ith stan d in g
the in creasin g ly m o re fastid io u s w o rk o f S h ak esp e a rea n ed ito rs, w h a t w orked
o n stag e w as a L ear in w h ic h C o rd e lia su rv iv ed and m arried E d gar, w h ere
R ich ard III p u lled in R ich ard 's b est lines fro m the H en ry V I p la y s (a lo n g w ith
o th e rs sp e cia lly w ritten to e n h a n c e th e p art, in b e s t 'a cto r-m a n a g e r' sty le), o r
w h ere p e rfo rm a n ces o f A M id su m m er N ight's D ream had to fit in M en d elsso h n 's

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The Shakespeare H andbook

fa m o u s early -n in eteen th -cen tu ry m u sic, u su ally b y a d d in g d a n cin g a n d o th e r

form s o f sp cctaclc.
H ow ever, th e tw en tieth cen tu ry saw th e in creasin g in flu en ce o f th e d irector-
d ram atu rg , a th eatrical in tellectu al attem p tin g to ch a n g e th e w a y au d ien ces
sa w and resp o n d ed to Sh ak esp eare. Jo h n D o v e r W ilson, ed ito r o f T he
C a m b rid g e Shakespeare, knew h is Sh a k esp e a re b ack w ard s, and o ften claim ed
th at th e kind o f clo se read in g d em an d ed o f ed ito rs p ro d u ced so m e o f the b est
criticism . H is resp o n se to Tyrone G u th rie 's 1936 O ld V ic p ro d u ctio n o f
Love's L ab ou rs L ost m ak es it cle a r th a t so m e Sh ak esp eare p ro d u ctio n s are
'S h a k e sp eare criticism o f th e b e s t kin d ':

F o r M r. G u th rie n o t o n ly g av e m e a new p lay, the ex iste n ce o f w h ich I had

n e v e r su sp ecte d , w h ich in d eed h ad b een v eiled fro m m e n 's e y e s for three
cen tu rie s, b u t h e se t m e a t a fresh stan d p o in t o f u n d e rsta n d in g and
ap p reciatio n from w h ich the w h o le o f S h ak esp e a rea n co m e d y m igh t be
review ed in a new light. (W ilson 1962: 64)

O f co u rse, the tw en tieth ce n tu ry (or, to b e ex act, th e p erio d from 1899, w h en a

tw elv e-m in u te v e rsio n o f K ing John w as film ed ) a ls o g av e u s a n en tirely new
kind o f Sh ak esp eare - Sh ak esp eare o n film , w h ich w on its first O sca rs as
lo n g ag o as 1936, fo r th e W arn er B ro th e rs' v ersio n o f M id su m m er N ight's
D ream co -d irected by th e g rea t A u strian th eatrical d irecto r M a x R einhardt
a n d his p rotg, W illiam D ieterle. T h is v ersio n o f the play, th o u gh it features
H o lly w oo d stars su ch a s M ickey R oo n ey a n d Ja m es C agn ey , also h a s a great
d ea l o f n o n -S h ak esp earean m aterial in th e form o f M en d e lsso h n 's m u sic, and
sp ecial fairy d an ces p u t to g eth er by th e R u ssia n ch o reo g ra p h er B ron islaw a
N ijin sk a. F o r th eatrical g en iu ses lik e R ein h ard t o r L au ren ce O liv ie r (w hose
Sh a k esp e a re film s w o n h im tw o O scars), film co u ld b e in fo rm ed b y th eatrical
trad itio n s w h ile b rin g in g th e m e d iu m 's in co m p arab ly su p erio r visual
resou rces to th e feast. O liv ie r's o w n S h ak esp e a re film s are o ften seen as
'sta g e y ', b u t h is o p en in g o f H en ry V w ith a n im ag in ed p erfo rm a n ce o f th e first
scen es at th e G lo b e raises q u estio n s o f ju st w h a t 'tru th to th e o rig in a l' m igh t
b e in term s o f film ad ap tatio n s.

B ra d le y and C h a ra cte r C ritic ism

D esp ite th e fact th at S h ak esp e are S tu d ies w as still in its in fa n cy , th e first great
sch o larly w o rk in this field is g en erally regard ed a s a n im m en sely su ccessfu l
su m m in g -u p , a n d co n su m m atio n , o f m u ch o f th e p reced in g c e n tu ry 's w ork.
A . C . B rad le y 's S hakespearean T ragedy (1904) is p ro b ab ly the a ll-tim e b est
sellin g E n g lish -lan g u ag e w o rk o f Sh ak esp eare criticism , a n d is g en erally
regard ed as the 'c la ssic ' sta tem e n t o f th e 'c h a ra c te r' a p p ro a ch to Sh ak esp eare's
p lays. B ra d le y 's w o rk w as in flu enced b y the ch a ra cter-o rien ted w o rk o f

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 Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies

R o m an tic-era critics su ch a s Sch le g e l, C o le rid g e a n d H azlitt, th o u gh it is

n e v e r sim p ly ab o u t 'ch a ra cte r' in th e n arro w sen se . It w o u ld b e a m ista k e to
tak e Shakespearean T ragedy for B ra d le y 's la st w o rd o n th e p eaks o f S h a k esp ea r
e a n ch aracterizatio n : o f th e fou r ch aracters h e fin d s 'm o st w o n d e rfu l', o n ly
tw o - H am let and Iago, w h o g ets a ch a p te r to h im s e lf in th e tw o d ev o ted to
O thello - a re co v e red . T h e o th e r tw o - C leo p atra and F a lsta ff - a re in clu d ed in
h is la ter O xford L ectu res on P oetry (1909).
B ra d le y 's earlier w o rk sets h im se lf th e ta sk o f 'd ra m a tic a p p recia tio n ' o f the
traged ies: 'to learn to ap p reh en d th e actio n a n d so m e o f th e p erso n a g es o f
ea ch w ith a so m ew h at g rea ter tru th a n d inten sity , so th at they m a y assu m e
in o u r im agin atio n s a sh ap e a little le ss u n lik e the sh a p e they w ore in the
im ag in atio n o f th e ir cre a to r' (B rad ley 1904: xxv ). T h e co rrect w a y for 'lo v e rs o f
S h a k esp e a re' to ap p ro ach th e trag ed ies is to 'rea d a p la y m o re o r le ss a s if they
w ere acto rs w ho had to stu d y all th e p arts. T h e y d o n o t n e e d , o f co u rse, to
im agin e w h ere the p e rso n s a re to sta n d , o r w h a t g estu res th e y o u g h t to use;
b u t they w an t to realize fully and ex a ctly the in n e r m o v em en ts w h ich p ro
d u ced th ese w o rd s a n d n o other, th ese d e e d s and n o o th er, at ea ch p articu lar
m o m en t' (B rad ley 1904: xxv).
T ragedies, o f co u rse, a re p articu lar k in d s o f p la y s, a n d B ra d le y 's en g a g e
m e n t w ith th em to o k h im a w a y from th e m o re g en era l fo cu s o n th e relations
b etw ee n ch aracters w h ic h th e a b o v e su g g ests, and to w ard s a d eep er co n cern
w ith on e, o r at m o st tw o, h y p er-sig n ifican t (a n d h y p er-sig n ify in g ) in d i
v id u als, u su ally the figure(s) a fte r w h om th e trag ed y is n am ed . F u rth erm o re,
in B ra d le y 's o p in io n the p lo t o f a traged y can n o t b e full o f accid en ts o r
su p ern atu rally -cau sed ev en ts, fo r w e w o u ld th en h av e a sto ry o f b ad lu ck, o r
o f u n av o id ab le fate: 'th e ca la m itie s o f trag ed y d o n o t sim p ly h a p p en , n o r arc
they sen t; they p ro ceed m ain ly from actio n s, a n d th o se th e a ctio n s o f m en '
(B ra d ley 1904: 6). T h e se actio n s, in tu rn , a re 'a c ts o r o m issio n s th o ro u gh ly
ex p ressiv e o f th e d o e r - ch aracteristic d ee d s' so th at 'th e ce n tre o f th e tragedy,
th erefore, m a y b e said w ith eq u al truth to lie in a ctio n issu in g from character,
o r in ch a ra cte r issu in g in a ctio n ' (1904: 7). In o th e r w o rd s, trag ed ies d o n o t
w o rk sim p ly eith e r by v irtu e o f th e sad th in g s th a t h a p p en o r by v irtu e o f th e
in terestin g o r affectin g 'c h a ra cte r' they h ap p en to. T h e p o in t o f 'S h a k esp ea rea n
tra g e d y ' (and B ra d le y 's q u alificatio n s in d icate th at h e is seek in g to d efin e it as
d ifferen t in k in d to, for ex am p le, 'G re e k trag e d y ') is h o w p e o p le 's d eed s are
rooted in , and ex p ressiv e o f, th e ir ch aracters.
B rad ley p o in ts o u t th a t the p lo t o f H am let, if reco u n ted w ith n o referen ce to
th e m ain ch aracter, is b o th sen satio n alist a n d in ex p lica b le, fo r if th e g h o st's
co m m a n d had b een o b ey ed straig h t aw ay sev en o f the p la y 's e ig h t d eaths
w o u ld h a v e b een a v o id ed : 'T h e w h o le sto ry tu rn s u pon th e p e cu lia r ch aracter
o f th e h e ro ', h e claim s (1904: 70). H a m let's d ifficu lty in d isp a tch in g C lau d iu s
is n o t 'e x te rn a l' (it w ou ld b e easy to k ill h im ) b u t 'in te rn a l', and B ra d le y d uly

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The Shakespeare H andbook

co n sid ers three v iew s o f h is ch a ra cte r b e fo re d isp a tch in g them w ith u np rin cely
sp eed b ec a u se 'th e y iso late o n e e le m e n t in h is ch aracter a n d situ a tio n and treat
it a s a w h o le' (1904: 76). T h e se are th e 'co n scien ce ' v iew - th at H am let had
co n scie n tio u s o b jectio n s to v en g ean ce; th e 'se n tim e n ta l' v iew - th a t H am let
w a s to o o th erw o rld ly and sen sitiv e to resp o n d to the G h o st's d em a n d s; and
the 'reflectiv e' v iew - th at H am let d elay s b ecau se h e is u n a b le to m ak e u p his
m in d . B rad ley , o n the o th er h an d , p ro p o se s H am let a s a v ictim o f 'm e la n ch o ly '
w h o se trag ed y is sim p ly th a t at th e o n e tim e h is ch aracter is tested it is hardly
h is o w n . T h e liv elin e ss a n d p leasu re w ith w h ich H a m let so m etim e s speaks
a n d a cts a re h is 'tru e ' ch a ra cte r fo r B rad ley ; w h a t w e w o u ld n o w call h is m ood
sw in g s b etw ee n p assiv ity and actio n , h is 'b u rsts o f tran sitory , a lm o st h y ster
ical, and q u ite fru itless em o tio n ' a re sy m p to m s o f a co n d itio n ra th er th an the
m an h im se lf (1904: 99). S o too a re his leth arg y o r ap ath y , a n d h is in ab ility to
u n d erstan d w h y h e is su b je ct to th em . B rad ley th en te sts th is th eo ry to see
if it w ill p ro d u ce a m o re p ersu asiv e a cco u n t o f th e p la y th an th o se proposed
b y riv al theories. B rad ley is fairly su re th at the qu estio n o f H a m le t's and
O p h e lia 's 're a l' relatio n sh ip , for ex a m p le, h as an answ er, b ec a u se Sh ak esp eare
k new w h a t it w as. H o w ev e r h e co n ced es th at th e o n ly w a y su ch kn o w led ge
co u ld be tran sm itted is via a p ro d u ctio n w here th e a cto rs' in terp retation s
w ere in fo rm ed b y th e in ten tio n s o f th e w riter - th a t is to sa y , a p erfo rm a n ce
d u rin g S h a k e sp e a re 's o w n lifetim e: 'T h e actor, in stru cted b y th e au th o r, w ou ld
m ak e it cle a r to u s b y lo o k s, to n es, g estu res a n d b y p la y h o w far H am let's
feign ed h arsh n ess to O p h elia w as m ingled w ith real b itte rn e ss, a n d again
h o w far h is m e lan ch o ly had d ead ened his lo v e ' (1 9 0 4 : 128).
T h o u g h B ra d le y 's ch a p ters o n th e p lay are H am let-h ea v y (h e is o f the o p in
ion th at 'a ll th e p erso n s in H am let ex cep t th e h ero arc m in o r ch a ra cte rs, who
fail to rise to th e tra g ic le v e l'), his rem ark s o n o th e r trag ed ies a re n o t co n cen
trated so le ly o n th e trag ic hero. H is d iscu ssio n o f O thello b eg in s w ith th e blunt
sta tem e n t th at 'th e ch a ra cte r o f O th ello is co m p a ra tiv ely sim p le ' (1904: 151);
he is far m o re interested in O th e llo 's d eceiv er and d o w n fa ll, Iag o. T h e o v e r
w h elm in g q u estio n to b e ask ed o f this ch a ra cte r is sim p ly 'w h y ? ' B rad ley
d en ies Ia g o 's o w n ex p la n a tio n s - h atred fo r O th ello , a n d a m b itio n - a s sp rin g
ing fro m p assio n s n o w here e lse d isp lay ed b y h im in th e p lay. In stead , he
a tten d s to th ree e lem e n ts o f Ia g o 's p lo t w h ich ex p la in its attra ctio n for h im : it
co n firm s h is o w n p rid e in h is su p erio rity , it ex e rts h is o w n su p erio r abilities,
and in v o lv es d anger. H ere, B rad ley extrap o lates the o rig in s o f the plot:

O th e llo 's em in en ce, O th ello 's g o o d n ess, and h is o w n d ep e n d en ce on

O th ello , m u st h a v e b een a p erp etu al a n n o y an ce to h im . A t a n y tim e he
w o u ld h a v e en jo y ed b efo o lin g a n d to rm e n tin g O th ello . U n d er o rd in ary
circu m stan ces h e w as restrain ed , ch iefly b y self-in terest, in so m e slig h t
d eg ree p erh ap s b y th e fain te st p u lsatio n s o f co n scien ce o r h u m an ity . But

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 Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies

d isap p o in tm e n t a t th e lo ss o f th e lieu ten an cy su p p lied th e to u ch o f lively

resen tm en t th a t w as req u ired to o v erco m e th e se o b sta cles; and th e p ro sp ect
o f sa tisfy in g th e sen se o f p o w er b y m asterin g O th ello th ro u g h a n in tricate
and h azard o u s in trig u e n o w b ecam e irresistible. (B ra d ley 1 9 0 4 :1 8 7 )

H ere, n o tw ith stan d in g its v ery 'm o d e m ' focus o n th e p sy ch o p a th o lo g y o f

ev e ry d a y m u rd er, B ra d le y 's a b ility to p iece to g eth er a 'c h a ra cter' fro m so m e
tim e s slig h t sc ra p s to p p le s in to an exam p le o f th e v ery fau lt h e ch a stise s in
o th ers. F o r if B rad ley o b jects to b elie v in g Ia g o to b e m o tiv ated by h a tred o f
O th ello b ec a u se this is m en tio n ed o n ly in th e first a ct, h o w can h e th en base
h is final verdict o n Ia g o 's m o tiv atio n o n th in gs w h ic h are n o t part o f the play
a t a ll? T h is m isap p licatio n o f the B rad ley an m eth o d ap p ears in a m o re co n
ce n tra ted fo rm in so m e o f th e n o te s to th e b o o k , w h ich in v estig ate su ch q u es
tio n s a s 'D id Lad y M acb e th really fa in t?' (B rad ley d o e s n 't k now , and thinks
it's n o t lik ely to sh o w in p erfo rm an ce eith e r w a y ), 'D id E m ilia [Iagos w ife]
su sp ect Iag o ?' (B rad ley is in n o d o u b t th e an sw er is no) a n d 'W h e re w as
H am let at the tim e o f his fa th er's d e a th ?' (in a p ecu lia r in terp retation o f the
referen ces to re tu rn in g to W itten berg e a rly in the p lay, B ra d le y th in ks H am let
had b een liv in g at co u rt for so m e y ears b efo re h is fa th e r's d eath ).
N o tio n s o f w h at 'w e ' ap p rov e o f in a ch a ra cte r are n o to riou sly th e prod ucts
o f p a rticu lar tim es a n d places, and B rad le y 's are n o ex cep tio n . M u ch o f w h at
he finds m oving in D esd em o n a is lin k e d to his p ercep tio n o f h e r a s 'p assiv e
a n d d efen celess', p o sse ssin g a 'fra n k ch ild lik e b o ld n e ss a n d p e rsisten cy ', 'a
ch ild o f n atu re' w h o in h er m a rria g e 'ap p eared ag ain as the sw e e t and su b
m issiv e b ein g o f h er g irlh o o d ' (B rad ley 1904: 1 6 6 , 167). H e th in k s th a t h is
v isio n o f O thello's a rtistic p o w er en tails its u n sta g ca b ility , for 'p e rh a p s if w e
sa w O th ello co a l-b lack w ith th e b o d ily e y e (as o p p o sed to sim p ly im agin in g
h im ], the av ersio n o f o u r b loo d , an av ersio n w h ic h co m es a s n ea r to being
m erely p h y sical as an y th in g h u m an can , w o u ld o v erp o w e r o u r im agin ation
and s in k u s b e lo w n o t S h ak esp e are o n ly b u t th e au d ien ces o f the sev en teen th
a n d eig h teen th ce n tu rie s' (1 9 0 4 :1 6 5 ).
A fte r p u b lish in g S hakespearean T ragedy, B rad ley co n tin u ed to w o rk o n
Sh ak esp eare, a n d in h is O xford Lectu res on P oetry (1909) h e ta ck les a problem
th at 'ch a ra cte r' ap p ro ach es to traged y, b y th e ir v ery n atu re, a re u n ab le to
h an d le: th e ch a ra cte r d ev elo p ed acro ss m o re th an o n e p la y , a n d th e com ic
ch aracter, a t th at. In h is essay o n 'T h e R ejection o f F a lsta ff' (w h ich occurs
w h e n H a l b eco m es k in g a t th e e n d o f 2 H en ry IV ), h e d ev e lo p s a k in d o f
parallel to th e cath arsis h e traced o p eratin g in trag ed y , b y fo cu sin g o n how
w e resp o n d to th e rejectio n o f F alstaff, and w h a t th is feelin g im p lies a b o u t
the ch a ra cte rs o f b o th F alstaff and th e K ing. H ere, h e a d m its a d iv isio n in
resp o n ses to th is celeb rated sc e n e b etw ee n th ea tre-g o ers (w h o a re lik e ly to
a p p reciate Falstaff) and read ers (w h o h e th in ks are m o re ju d g em en tal).

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The Shakespeare H andbook

Sh ak esp eare, B rad ley th in k s, co u ld h a v e en g in eered F a lsta ff's rejectio n w ith

o u t in clin in g u s a g a in st kin g H en ry ; the im p riso n m e n t o f F alstaff, and H en ry 's
'se rm o n ' to h im , a re sig n s o f th e 'u n g e n ero u s' and 'in sin c e re ' in d iv id u al later
m em orab ly ch a ra cte riz ed b y W. H. A u d en , in 'U n d e r W h ich L yre' a s 'th e prig
P rin ce H al'. H e co n clu d es th at S h ak esp e are in clu d ed H e n ry 's rejectio n a s part
o f h is realistic p o rtray al o f an effectiv e king, b u t th at 'in the F a lsta ff sc e n e s he
o v ersh o t h is m ark . H e created s o ex trao rd in ary a b ein g , and fixed h im so
firm ly o n h is in tellectu al th rone, th a t w h en h e so u g h t to d eth ro n e h im he
co u ld n o t . . . T h e m o m en t co m es w h e n w e a re to look a t F a lsta ff in a seriou s
lig h t, and th e co m ic h ero is to figure a s th e baffled sch em er; b u t w e can n ot
m ak e th e required ch an g e, eith e r in o u r a ttitu d e o r in o u r sy m p a th ies' (Bradley
1909: 2 5 9 -6 0 ). F alstaff, B rad ley co n clu d e s, is 'im m o rta l' as 'a ch aracter a lm o st
p u rely h u m o ro u s, and th erefo re n o su b je ct for m o ral ju d g em e n ts' (1909: 260).
T h is m eans, in p ractice, a ch a ra cte r w h o se e ssen ce is a co n tag io u s en jo y m en t
o f life, o fferin g 'th e b liss o f freed o m g ain ed in h u m o u r' (1909: 26 2 ). N o n eth e
less, h e is en o u g h o f a ch aracter for B rad ley to feel b o u n d e n to fo llo w the
eig h teen th -cen tu ry critic M o rg an n in d efen d in g h im a g a in st accu satio n s o f
co w a rd ice, w h ich h e d o es b y h is u sual m ethod o f clo se textu al reading.
In d irect co m p ariso n w ith all h is ch a ra cte r stu d ies, B ra d le y 's a sse ssm en t o f
F alstaff is form u lated by a b stractin g h im fro m the d ram atic stru ctu re (a n d in
p articu lar th e d ra m a tic seq u e n ce) in w h ich h e is ty p ica lly en co u n tered by
read ers a n d au d ien ces. In o th e r w o rd s, for B rad ley , th e rejectio n o f F a lsta ff at
the en d o f the seco n d H en ri/ I V p lay w a s co u n terb a la n ced b y h is rep resen ta
tion elsew h ere, ju s t a s for M o rgan n , F a lsta ff's co w a rd ice a t G a d 's H ill w as
read in the lig h t o f the later, m o re v alian t, F alstaff. Jo h n D o v e r W ilso n , w ritin g
d u rin g th e S e co n d W orld War, rejected B ra d le y 's v ig o ro u s in terest in th e 'bliss
o f freed o m ' a s a late-V icto rian h isto rical cu riosity , m u ch as E. M . W. Tillyard,
w ritin g at th e sa m e tim e, w as to o p p o se ro m an tic re a d in g s o f th e 'd iso rd e r' o f
the h isto rical p la y s m o re g en erally . It is n o t m u ch o f an ex a g g e ra tio n to say
th at th e Sh a k esp e a re criticism in E n g lish p ro d u ced in the first h a lf o f the
tw en tieth ce n tu ry is a resp o n se to B rad le y an ch a ra cte r stu d y . O b jectio n s to
B rad ley ten d ed to co alesce aro u n d tw o o f h is g o v ern in g assu m p tio n s. T h e
first is th a t the ch a ra cte rs' th o u g h ts and m o tiv atio n s w ere fa r m o re in terestin g
th an th e w o rd s th e y u sed , an d the seco n d is th at th e 'h u m a n n a tu re ' on
d isp lay in S h ak esp e are's p la y s is accessib le to read ers w ith n o specialist
k n o w led g e a b o u t h is life, tim es, o r theatre.

S h a k e s p e a re a n d th e A n ti-B ra d le y a n R eactio n
T h e p e n d u lu m sta rte d to sw in g a g a in st B rad ley in th e 1920s. Sign ifican tly ,
th is d eca d e saw the first m a jo r stirrin g s o f the 'p ra ctica l criticism ' critical
m eth od w h ich focu sed in itially o n p o etry , a n d w h o se in v en to r a n d ch ief
p ro se ly tiser w a s th e C am b rid g e a cad e m ic I. A. R ich ard s. P ra ctica l criticism , as

14
 Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies

befitted R ich ard s's back g ro u n d in lin g u istics and p sy ch o lo g y , p resen ted itself
a s th e an tid o te to th e su b je ctiv e , feelin g s-v alid a ted if n o t feelin g s-d riv en,
m eth o d s o f th e R om an tics, a n d o f B rad ley , th e la s t g rea t R o m a n tic critic. O ne
o f th e m o st fam o u s an ti-B rad ley an resp o n ses fo cu sin g o n S h a k e sp e a re 's la n
g u a g e w as L. C . K n ig h ts's ch eek ily titled 'H o w m a n y ch ild ren h a d Lad y
M a cb eth ?', first p u blished in 1933. K n ig h ts claim ed th at a Sh a k esp e a re p lay,
far fro m b ein g e ssen tially ab o u t ch aracters and th eir in terrelatio n s, w as 'a
d ra m a tic p o e m ', a n d it is th e c ritic's b u sin e ss to ex a m in e 'th e w o rd s o n the
p a g e' (K n ig h ts 1946: 6). F o r K n ights, th e g ro w th o f ch a ra cte r stu d y in the
p o st-S h ak esp earean p e rio d w a s sy m p to m atic o f an in creasin g lack o f u n d er
sta n d in g o f S h a k e sp e a re 's E n g lish , and a co n co m ita n t in ab ility to ap p reciate
'S h a k e sp ea re 's p la y s as p o etry '. Ju s t a s B rad ley had criticized C o lerid g e's
d iscu ssio n o f H am let for te llin g u s m o re ab o u t C o le rid g e th a n a b o u t H am let,
K n ig h ts cla im e d th a t th e ch a ra cte r o f th e critic w a s a lw ay s p resen t in 'c h a r
a c te r stu d y '. A g a in st th is kind o f su b jectiv ism , K n ig h ts proposed a m eth od o f
read in g Sh ak esp eare w h ic h insisted on th e p riv a te read in g e x p e rie n ce (as
o p p o sed to B ra d le y 's reco m m en d atio n th at critics sh o u ld read a s i f they w ere
actors p lay in g parts), a n d w h ich it is u sefu l to e x cerp t at length:

W e sta rt w ith s o m an y lines o f v erse o n a p rin ted p a g e w h ich w e read a s w e

sh o u ld read an y o th e r po em . W e h a v e to elu cid a te th e m ean in g (using
D r R ich a rd s' fou rfold d efin itio n ) and to u nrav el a m b ig u ities; w e h a v e to
estim ate the k in d and q u a lity o f th e im agery a n d d eterm in e th e p recise
d eg ree o f ev o catio n o f p a rticu lar figures; w e h a v e to a llo w full w eig h t to
ea ch w ord , e x p lo rin g its 'ten tacu lar ro o ts', an d to d eterm in e h o w it co n tro ls
and is co n tro lled by th e rh y th m ic m o v em e n t o f th e p a ssa g e in w h ich it
o ccu rs. In sh o rt, w e h a v e to d e c id e ex a ctly w h y th e lin es 'a r e s o and n o t
oth erw ise'.
A s w e read o th e r factors co m e into p lay. T h e lin es h a v e a cu m u lativ e
effect. 'P lo t', asp e cts o f 'ch a ra cte r' and re cu rren t 'th e m e s' - a ll 'p recip itates
fro m th e m e m o ry ' - h elp to d eterm in e o u r reactio n at a g iv e n point. T h ere
is a co n stan t referen ce b ack w a rd s and forw ard s. B u t th e w o rk o f detailed
an aly sis co n tin u es to th e last lin e o f th e last act. If th e ra z o r-ed g e o f
sen sib ility is b lu n ted at an y p o in t w e ca n n o t cla im to h av e read w h at
S h ak esp e are w rote, h o w ev er often o u r ey es m a y h a v e trav elled o v e r the
page. A p lay o f S h a k e sp e a re 's is a p recise p a rticu la r e x p e rie n ce - and
p re cisio n and p articu larity are ex actly w h a t is lack in g in th e g reater part
o f Sh ak esp eare criticism , criticism th a t d ea ls w ith H am let o r O thello in term s
o f ab stra ctio n s th at h a v e n o th in g to d o w ith th e u n iq u e a rra n g em en t of
w o rd s th at co n stitu tes th ese p lays. (K n ig h ts 1 9 4 6 :1 6 -1 7 )

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The Shakespeare H andbook

To illu strate h is rem ark s, K n ig h ts self-co n scio u sly p ro p o sed a 'n o n -d ra m a tic'
read in g o f M acbeth a s 'a sta tem e n t o f e v il' w ith tw o m a in th em es: 'th e reversal
o f v a lu e s a n d o f u n n atu ral d iso rd e r' (1946: 18). U sin g a g rea t d ea l o f q u o ta
tion , and atten d in g in p a rticu lar to e lem e n ts su ch a s im ages, sy m b o ls, values,
th em es, an d seem in g ly 'irre le v a n t' scen es, K n ig h ts arg u e d for a coherent
w o rk o f a rt w h ich w as m u ch m o re th an an exp lo ratio n o f o u r rela tio n to one
o r tw o 'g reat te rrib le fig u res'. E ssen tially the sam e a p p ro a ch can b e fou n d in
G . W ilso n K n ig h t's T h e W heel o f F ire (1930). K n ig h t arg u ed fo r th e a rtistic unity
o f th e p lays, w h ich h e th o u g h t w as obscu red b y a fo c u s o n p lo t a n d character,
the ex p erien ce o f b o th o f w h ich b ecam e m o re in ten se to w ard s the en d o f the
play. K n igh t, o n the o th e r h an d , th in k s that

A S h ak esp e arian trag ed y is se t sp atially a s w ell a s tem p o rally in the m ind.

By th is I m e an th a t th e re a re th ro u g h o u t th e play a se t o f corresp o n d en ces
w h ich relate to ea ch o th e r in d e p en d e n tly o f th e tim e-seq u en ce w h ich is
th e sto ry : su ch a re th e in tu itio n -in tellig en ce o p p o sitio n a ctiv e w ith in and
across Troilus an d C ressida, th e d eath -th em e in H am let, the n ig h tm a re evil
o f M acbeth. T h is I h a v e so m etim e s called the p la y 's 'a tm o sp h ere '. (K n ig h t
1930: 3)

T h e re w ere o th e r w o rks w h ich a tten d ed to th e poetry o f S h a k esp e a re's plays

in term s o f p ractical criticism , su ch a s C aro lin e S p u rg eo n 's Shakespeare's
Im ag ery an d W hat it Tells Us (1935), W . H. C le m e n 's S hakespeares B ild er (1935;
tran slated in to E n g lish a s T h e D evelopm en t o f S hakespeare's Im ag ery , 1951), and
M . M . M a h o o d 's Shakespeare's W ordplay (1957). S p u rg eo n 's w o rk fo llo w ed the
id e a th a t p a rticu lar w o rk s had d istin ctiv e se ts, o r 'c lu s te rs ', o f verbal im agery
prom p ted by and h elp in g to co n stitu te its u n iq u e a tm osp h ere; C lem en w as
m o re interested in relatin g im ag ery to sp ecific ch a ra cters and situ ation s.
A co u p le o f ex am p les w ill h elp to cla rify h o w this w o rks. C lem en p ointed
o u t th at in S h a k e sp e a re 's early h isto ries, so m e o f h is e a rliest p la y s, p u b lic
sp eech es ten d ed to b e fu ll o f self-co n scio u sly 'o rn a m e n ta l' illu stra tiv e p ro
v erb ial im ages. S o lo sp eech es o r m o n o lo g u es in p la y s lik e R ich ard II o r H am let,
o n th e o th er h an d , w ere fu ll o f im ag ery d irectly sp rin g in g fro m R ich ard 's
o r H a m le t's character.
T h e g ro w in g in terest in clo se read in g w h ich a cco m p a n ied sch o la rsh ip on
S h a k e sp e a re 's p o etry at this tim e n atu rally en o u g h p ro d u ced so m e b reak
th rou g h s in th e u n d e rstan d in g o f his p o em s, p articu larly th e so n n ets. Even
b efo re th e early d ay s o f p ractical criticism , S ir Sid n ey L ee in h is 1898 b io
g ra p h y o f S h ak esp e are had d raw n a tten tio n to the w a y s in w h ich th e son n ets
a re co n v en tio n al, w o rk in g a n d rew o rk in g o th e rs' trop es and id eas, and th ere
fore d o n o t o ffer u s access to the 're a l' Sh ak esp eare. B ra d le y 's resp o n se to Lee
w a s to claim th at the 's to ry ' o f th e so n n ets, tak en togeth er, is 'v ery o d d and

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 Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies

u n a ttractiv e', and th at this m u st b e b ec a u se it is essen tially tru e, a s 'n o cap able
p o et, m u ch le ss a Sh ak esp eare, in ten d in g to p ro d u ce a m erely "d ra m a tic "
serie s o f p o em s, w o u ld d ream o f in v e n tin g a sto ry lik e th a t o f th ese so n n ets'
(B rad ley 1909: 331). T h e an tith esis to B ra d le y 's fo cu s o n th e so n n ets' 'sto ry '
w a s p ro v id ed b y th e p o ets R obert G ra v es and L au ra R id in g , w h o prod uced
in the 1920s a b ra v u ra readin g o f S o n n e t 12 9 , focu sin g o n its first prin tin g
in 1609. T h ey sh o w how th e co m m o n ly an th o lo g iz ed 'e d ite d ' v ersio n o f the
tw en tieth ce n tu ry altered th e n u m b er o f sy lla b les ('m u rd ro u s' b eco m es 'm u r
d e ro u s', for ex am p le), o b scu red so m e o rig in a l so u n d p a ttern s (b ecau se as
o u r p ro n u n ciatio n h a s ch an g ed , s o h as o u r sp ellin g , and w e regu larize
Sh a k esp e a re to fit th is), a n d re-p u n ctu ated th e po em , rem o v in g am b igu ities
and d ra stica lly slo w in g d o w n a n d o v er-clarify in g its a m b ig u ities (th e 1609
v e rsio n h a s tw enty co m m a s and tw o fu ll sto p s; the m o d ern iz ed v ersio n has
eig h tee n co m m a s, tw o full sto p s, on e co lo n a n d n in e sem i-co lo n s) (Jo n e s 1977:
6 3 -7 0 ). In ad d itio n , S h ak esp e are's p lays a s w ell as th e so n n ets form ed a m ajo r
p o in t o f reference in R ich ard s's stu d e n t W illiam E m p so n 's Seven T ypes o f
A m b ig u ity (1930), w h ich in sisted th at 'reso lv in g ' am b ig u ities (as B rad ley ty p
ically attem p ted to in h is d iscu ssio n s o f th e plays) ignored th e p re cise form o f
th eir ex p ressio n a s am bigu ities.

H is to ric is in g S h a k e sp e a re
T h e seco n d m ajo r d ev elo p m en t in Sh ak esp eare stu d ies in th e first h a lf o f the
tw en tieth ce n tu ry , and o ne m u ch m o re o b v io u sly en ab led b y th e grow ing
'p ro fe ssio n alizatio n ' o f it, esp ecially in the U n ited S ta te s, w a s h isto ricism . T h e
b ed ro ck o f an y a ttem p t to u n d erstan d a w o rk 'in its o w n tim e' is scholarsh ip ,
a n d th e first tw o -th ird s o f th e ce n tu ry , in p articu lar, sa w m a jo r ad v a n ces in
arch iv ally b a se d sch o larsh ip . T h e latte r in its d eta il a n d co m p reh en siv en ess
su rp assed an y th in g w h ic h had b e e n p ro d u ced b efo re: E. K. C h a m b e rs's fou r
v o lu m es o n T h e E lizabethan S tage (1923), a n d W. W. G re g 's fo u r-v o lu m e B iblio
g ra p h y o f P rin ted D ram a to the R estoration (1 9 3 9 -5 9 ) w ere co m p lem en ted by
m an y o th e r co n trib u tio n s to tex tu al an d ed ito rial stu d y: A . W. P o lla rd 's m a n y
w o rks o n S h ak esp e are's q u a rto and fo lio texts; G . E. B en tle y 's sev en volum es
o n T h e Jacobean a n d C arolin e S ta g e (1 9 4 1 -6 8 ); C h a m b e rs's tw o v o lu m es o n
W illiam Shakespeare: A S tu dy o f F a cls a n d P roblem s (1 930); T. W. B a ld w in 's T he
O rganization a n d P erson n el o f th e Shakespeare C om p an y (1927); B a ld w in 's tw o-
v o lu m e stu d y o f S h a k e sp e a re 's ed u catio n an d read in g in W illiam Shakspere's
S m all L atin e a n d L esse G reeke (1944); H a rb a g e 's S h akespeare's A u d ien ce (1941).
O n e o f th e e a rliest m ajo r critica l p ro jects to b e n e fit from th is in crea se in
k n o w led g e w as H a rle y G ra n v ille -B a rk er's se rie s o f P refaces to Shakespeare.
G ra n v ille -B ark er h ad w o rk ed w ith W illiam Poel, w h o from 1895 h a d p ro
d u ced in L o n d o n a range o f Sh ak esp eare p erfo rm a n ces u sin g a t lea st som e
'o rig in a l' stag e co n d itio n s - b a re stag e, m inim al o r n o scen ery , an en sem b le

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The Shakespeare H andbook

ra th er th a n 's ta r' sy stem , m in im al alteratio n s to th e tex t and ra p id scene

ch an g es. G ra n v ille -B a rk er p ro d u ced sev era l P o el-lik e 'o rig in a l' sta g in g s o f
Sh a k esp e a re p lays in the y e a rs p reced in g th e F irst W orld W ar. H is Prefaces
(1 9 2 7 -4 7 ) co m b in e B rad ley an ch a ra cte r an aly sis w ith a stron g arch itectu ral
sen se (B ark e r w as a su cce ssfu l a cto r and d ram atist as w ell a s p ro d u cer and
d irecto r), the latter in form ed b y an aw aren ess o f cu rren t textu al a n d staging
sch o larsh ip . H is lo n g P reface to H am let, for ex am p le, d ev o tes m o re sp a ce to
'th e n a tu re o f the p la y ', its 'a c tio n ', its 'm o v e m e n ts', its v erse a n d p rose and its
relatio n sh ip to th e first q u arto th an i t d o es to th e ch aracters. A s a m an o f the
th eatre, B a rk e r's a d v ice w as to 'g ain S h a k e sp e a re 's effects b y Sh ak esp eare's
m ean s w h en y o u can ; for, p lain ly , this w ill b e the b e tte r w ay. B u t gain
S h a k e sp e a re 's effects; and it is y o u r b u sin ess to d iscern th e m ' (G ranville-
B ark er 1930: 23). T h e R o m an tic sep aratio n o f th e tra n scen d e n t g en iu s o f
Sh a k esp e a re from th e th eatrical an d in tellectu al m ilieu o f h is tim e w as
d ecisiv ely ch allen g ed b y th e w o rk o f critics su ch a s M . C . B rad b ro o k . H er
T hem es a n d C on ven tion s o f E lizabethan T ragedy (1935) p ro v id ed p len ty o f
m aterial fo r sh o w in g the co n tin u ity b etw ee n S h a k esp e a re and o th e r w riters in
su ch m atters as sp e ech co n v en tio n s o r sto c k ch aracterizatio n . Jo h n D ov er
W ilson sim ilarly ch allen g ed th e B rad ley an v iew o f F a lsta ff in h is T h e Fortunes
o f F alsta f f (1943) by u sin g b o th sta g e h isto ry a n d in tellectu al h isto ry to in d ica te
th at, w h atev er h is a ttractio n s fo r a n au d ien ce, h e w ou ld o rig in a lly h a v e b een
seen a s so m eth in g to b e o v erco m e b y H a l o n h is w a y to th e crow n . T h e
E lizabeth an s, w ith lo n g m em o ries o f the civ il w ar o f the p reced in g centu ry,
w ere n o t as k een on F alstaff a s late-V icto rian critics in th e m id st o f a Pax
B ritann ica. F alstaff, in o th e r w o rd s, ca n n o t be ab stra cted fro m th e p lays in
w h ich h e a p p e a rs w ith H a l, w h o se d ev e lo p m e n t is th e ir stru ctu ral cen tre; the
fat k n ig h t's rejectio n m a y n o t be p leasan t, bu t it is just.
W riting at th e sam e tim e a s W ilson, E. M . W. Tillyard a g ree d th at B rad ley 's
v a lu e s w ere o f an ag e, n o t fo r all tim e:

T h e sch o o l o f criticism th a t fu rn ish ed h im w ith a te n d er h eart and

co n d em n e d th e P rin ce for b ru tality in tu rn in g him a w a y w as d elu d ed .
Its d elu sio n w ill p ro b ab ly be acco u n ted for, in la te r y ears, th ro u g h th e facts
o f h isto ry . T h e sen se o f secu rity created in n in e te en th -cen tu ry E n glan d by
th e p red o m in an ce o f the B ritish n av y in d u ced m en to ra te th a t very
se c u rity too ch e ap ly a n d to e x a lt the in stin ct o f reb ellio n a b o v e its
leg itim ate statio n . T h ey forgot th e th reat o f d iso rd e r w h ich w a s e v e r
p resen t w ith th e E lizabeth an s. S ch o o led b y re cen t ev e n ts w e sh o u ld have
n o d ifficu lty n o w in tak in g F alstaff a s th e E lizab eth an s to o k h im . (Tillyard
1944: 296)

18
 Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies

T illy a rd 's b o o k Shakespeare's H istory P lays, from w h ich th e a b o v e qu o tatio n

is tak en , can b e tak en a s the h ig h -w a ter m ark o f e a rly - to m id -cen tu ry h isto ri
cism . T illyard , like W ilso n a n d o th ers, so u g h t to situ a te Sh ak esp eare as
a co n v e n tio n al thinker, at o n e w ith the p o litica l and co sm o lo g ica l tru th s o f
his ag e, and seek in g to exem plify' in h is h isto rie s th e p o litical p rin ciples
em b od ied in the p re-h isto ry o f his ow n, E lizab eth an , state. T h e s e p rin ciples
w ere, b ro ad ly , th a t th e sto ry o f E n glish h isto ry fro m R ich ard II to th e Tudors
w a s o f a crim e a g a in st n atu re (R ich a rd 's d ep o sitio n ) d estro y in g th e political
eq u ilib riu m for sev era l g en eratio n s u n til E liz a b eth 's g ra n d fa th e r ca m e to the
th ron e. B u t Tillyard is not seek in g to cu t Sh ak esp eare d o w n to th e siz e o f
the co m m o n p la ce s o f h is ag e. In h is seq u en ce o f h isto ry p lays, Tillyard
finds Sh a k esp e a re creatin g th e first 'E n g lish e p ic ' w o rth y to stand n ex t to
th o se o f H o m e r o r V irg il; and in the H en ry I V p la y s h e finds - in a w a y B rad ley
co u ld n o t h a v e reco g n ized - the w h o le to be defin itely g rea ter th an th e su m o f
its parts:

I h a v e u sed the w ord ep ic to d escrib e H en ry I V b u t I d o n o t m e a n th at this

e p ith e t is m erited sim p ly th rou gh the E n g lish local colour. It is o n ly the
in ten se, th e tragic, the ag elo n g th at c a n g iv e th e tem p o ra ry and th e lo ca l the
n ecessary d ig n ity . W ith o u t the etern al ch a ra cte r o f A ch illes th e m ere life as
liv ed in th e Iliad w o u ld n o t b e raised to ep ic h eigh t. In H en ry IV , as I have
rem arked , there is n o th in g trag ic, n oth ing to co rresp o n d to the greatest
th in gs in the Iliad; b u t there are o th e r th in gs th at serv e. F irst, th ere are
th e ag elo n g ty p es, th e fo o l, th e adventurer, the 'u n o fficia l self', assem bled
in th e ch a ra cte r o f Falstaff. Seco n d ly , there is the g rea t c o n tr a s t. . .
b etw een th e th em e o f civ il w ar, th e te rrib le v icissitu d es o f h ig h p o litics,
and th e th e m e o f th e p eren n ial cy cles o f o rd in a ry life a n d th e ir p ersisten t
rh yth m s: th e cy cles o f b irth a n d d eath ; a n d o f the sea so n s w ith th eir
ap p rop riate tasks, w ith o u t w h ich m an sim p ly ca n n o t ex ist. T h u s it is
th at th e g rea t v a riety o f H en ry IV , u nequ alled in Sh ak esp eare, is g iv e n a
co h eren ce very d ifferent in d eed from th e co h eren ce o f Sh ak esp earean
trag ed y b u t in its o w n w ay n o t inferior. (T illyard 1944: 309)

T illy a rd 's v isio n o f S h ak esp e are's v isio n w as to b eco m e to th e seco n d h a lf o f

the ce n tu ry w h at B ra d le y 's had b een to the first: a lm o st co n tin u ally in print,
d o m in a n t for a g en eratio n , d erid ed , d efen d ed , resu rrected , b u t rarely
ignored . It w o u ld n o t b e u n til th e 1980s th a t a 'n e w ' h isto ricism em erg ed from
im d er h is shadow . E lsew here, p io n eerin g w o rk b y C . L. B arb er a n d N orthrop
F rye, in p articu lar, ch an g ed th e w ay in w h ic h critics th o u g h t a b o u t th e co m ed
ie s, a n d Ja n K o tt's S am u el B eckett-in sp ired read in gs o f S h a k e sp e a re 's plays,
co n ceiv ed u nd er E astern E u rop ean co m m u n ism , p ro vid ed a d istin ctiv ely
E u rop ean, p o st-ato m ic, p o st-H o lo ca u st p e rsp ectiv e for th e 1960s. W o rk in

19
The Shakespeare H andbook

d iscip lin es su ch a s p h ilo so p h y , an th ro p o lo g y , lin g u istics a n d th e a tre stu d ies

h elped p ro d u ce new ap p roach es. M o st o b v io u sly , a n ew in terest in so cia l and
p o litical ch an g e, p ro d u ced a rang e o f self-co n scio u sly po litically engaged
critics - w h o se in terest in e a rly m o d ern trag ed y w a s stirred n o t b ec a u se it w as
'S h a k e sp ea re a n ' b u t b eca u se , in Jo n ath an D o llim o re's reso u n d in g title o f one
o f the m o st influ ential critical b o o k s o f the 1980s, it w a s radical tragedy.

20
 Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies

Shakesp earean Tim eline

Peter Sillitoe

D ate H isto rical/Po litical L iterary/Cultural

1290 Edict expelling lew s from England issued by

Edward 1

1517 M arlin Luthers N inety-Five Theses o n the

Po w er o f Indulgences

1527 H o ly Rom an Emperor, Charles V, invades and

sacks Rome

1534 England breaks w ith C atholic Church: A ct of

Suprem acy; Subsidy Act

1534 Archbishop Cranm crs First Bo o k o i H o m ilies

being written

1536 A c t o f the Ten Articles

1536 Dissolution o f monasteries begins

1540 Monasticism at an end in England

1547 Death o f H en ry V III, accession o f Edward VI

1547 First Bo o k o i H o m ilie s issued

1547 Lord Protector Somerset invades Scotland

1549 Bo ok o f C om m on Prayer introduced

1551 C om pany of Merchant Adventurers founded

1553 Death o f Edward VI, nam es Lady Ja n e G re y as

successor

1553 A ccession o f M a ry Tudor

1555 M u sco vy Com pany founded

1558-1603 R eig n o f Elizab eth 1

Dales for com position o f Shakespeares works are approxim ate unless otherwise indicated.

1558 Charter o f the C om pany o f Stationers

confirm ed by Q u een Elizabeth

1559 Mary, Q u een of Scots, asserts her right to the

English throne

1560 Stationers' C om pany petitions successfully for

livery

1560 Elizabeth's visit to Ham pshire: the first o f her

recorded Progresses

1562 Elizabeth contracts smallpox

1564 Birth o f Shakespeare

1565 Elizabeth resumes marriage negotiations with

Charles, A rchduke o f Austria

1572 St Bartholom ew 's D ay M assacre in ftiris

21
The Shakespeare H andbook

a te H isto rical/Po litical L iterary/Cultura 1

1574 R oyal lic e n c e for theatre com pany granted to

Robert D udley, Earl o f Leicester

1576 lam es Burbage secures lease in Shoreditch for

construction o f The Theatre

1578 Elizabeth's Progress through East Anglia

1579 Elizabeth com m ences marriage arrangements

w ith the D u k e o f Alenon

1581 l aw s an d fines directed at those refusing to

conform to the modes o f worship o f the
Elizabethan Church, esp ecially recusant
Catholics
Ralegh returns from Ireland
Levant C om pany chartered

1582 Shakespeare marries A nn e H ath aw ay on

28 N ovem ber

1583 V e n ice Com pany chartered Birth o f Susanna Shakespeare, daughter to

W illia m and Anne

1585 Elizabeth allow s volunteers to fight in the Birth o f H am n et and Judith Shakespeare, twins
Netherlands against the im perial forces of to W illia m and Anne
C ath olic Spain

1585-92 The lost years' in the Shakespearean biography:

little surviving archival eviden ce available

1587 Execution o f M a ry Q u e e n o f Scots Leicester's theatre com pany tours England with
Francis D rake raids Spanish port o f Cadiz a stop in Stratford-upon-Avon

1588 Spanish A rm ada defeated Thomas H a r io f s True R epo rt o f the N e w Found

la n d o f Virg inia published

1589 Elizabeth continues to incur huge m ilitary H e n ry V I, Part 1 Richard H ak lu yt's P rin cip a l!
expenses in th e conflict w ith Spain N avig atio n s. . . o f the English N atio n published

1590 H e n ry V I, Parts 2 a n d 3, Ed w ard III

(Shakespeare's involvem ent in this play
debated; m ay date from as late as 1595)
The Two G entlem an o f Verona (possibly 1591 )
lohn W h ite s engravings to H ariot's True Report
published by Theodore d e Bry

1591 The Tam ing o f the Sh re w (possibly 1592), The

C om edy o f Errors, R ich ard III, Titus And ronicus
(with G eorge Peele)

1592 Plague in London, intermittent outbreaks for Closure o f the London playhouses, o w in g to
the next tw o years severe outbreak o f plague (until 1594)
Shakespeare almost certainly w orking on Venus
an d A d o n is and The R ap e o f L u cre ce in this
period
Playwright Robert G re e n e attacks Shakespeare
in C roatsw orth o f W it as an 'upstart crow '
Shakespeare m entioned in ledgers o f a London
theatre com pany

22
 Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies

D ate H istorien I/Po litical L iterary/Cultura 1

1593 Richard Hooker's ta w s o f E ccle sia stical P o litic Printing o f Q 1 o f Venus a n d A donis
in four books (Book V in 1597)

1594 Rodrigo l opes executed lor Irving to poison lo v e 's Lab ou r's lo s l (possibly 1595)
Q u e e n Elizabeth Q1 of H en ry V I, Part 2 printed as 7he First Part
o f the Contention o f the Two Fam ous Houses o f
York a n d Lancaster
Printing o f Q l for Titus A ndronicus
Printing o f The R ap e o fL u c re ce in Q u arto form

1595 1000 apprentices m arch toward Tower Hill
M artial law enforced
Hu gh O 'N e ill, Earl o f Tyrone, in o pen rebellion
against English rule in Ireland
R ich ard II, Rom eo an d lu liet, A M idsum m er
N ig h t's Dream
Printing o f H en ry' V I, Prt i as the octavo The
True Tragedy o f R ich ard D u k e o f York an d the
Cood K ing H e n ry the Sixth
Ph ilip Sidney's The D e fe n ce o f Poesie
published

1596 K ing Jo h n , The M erch an t o f V en ice

Printing o f Q l o f Ed w ard III
D eath o f H am net Shakespeare

1597 H e n ry IV, Parts 1 an d 2 , The M e rry W ive s o f

W in d so r (possibly 1598)
Printing o f Q l o f Ric hard II, Q l o f R ich ard III
and Q 1 o f Rom eo an d lu lie t
Shakespeare purchases N e w P la c e in Stratford

1598 M u ch A d o ab o u t N oth in g (possibly 1599)

Possible date for first perform ance o f the now
lost L o ve 's Lab ou r's W o n Printing o f Q 2 of
L o ve 's Labour's to s t ( Q l n o w lost) Printing of
Q l and Q 2 o f H en ry IV, /irf J Shakespeare
performs in Jonson's Eve ry M a n in H is H um our

1599 Robert Devereux, Second Earl o f Essex, lands H e n ry V, lu liu s Caesar, A s You L ik e It (possibly
in Ireland w ith 16,000 men as early as 1598, or as late as 1600)
Printing o f Q 2 o f Rom eo an d lu lie t (a more
reliable text t h a n Q I)
Building o f the G lo b e Theatre

1600 East India C om pany chartered H am le t (possibly later, c. 1601)

Printing o f Q l o f A M idsum m er N ig h t's
D ream , Q l o f The M erch an t o f Venice, Q1 of
H enryr IV, Part 2, Q l o f M u ch A d o About
N oth in g and Q l for H e n ry V

1601 M e n knighted in the field by Essex account for Tw elfth N ight

half o f all English knights D eath o f lohn Shakespeare, father to W illia m
Failed uprising by th e Earl of Essex. Conspirators
witness a perform ance o f R ich ard II, almost
certainly the p lay b y Shakespeare
Execution of Essex
Elizabeth addresses her last Parliament

23
The Shakespeare H andbook

D ate H isto rical/Po litical Literary/C ultural

1602 Troilus an d C ressida (possibly 1601 )

Printing o f Q l o f The M e rry W ive s o f W in d sor
Shakespeare buys land in Stratford (107 acres)

/603-25 R eign o f fam es 1

1603 Death o f Elizabeth 1and end o f the Tudor M easure lo r M easure

dynasty
A ccession o f Jam es V I o f Scotland to the
English throne and the beginning o f the Stuart
dynasty in England
Shakespeare's p laying com pany {the
Cham berlain s M e n ) becom es the King's M en
Printing ot Q 1 o f H am let
Shakespeare probably at w o rk on the
collaborative S ir Thomas M o re (possibly in
1604)
Shakespeare performs in Jonsons Sejanus

1604 Ham pton Court Conference in January O th e llo (possibly as e arly as 1603), A ll's W e ll
that Ends W e ll
Printing o f Q 2 o f H am let

1604 England at peace w ith Spain

1604-07 O ng oing talks o ver the union o f England and

Scotland

1605 The G u n p o w d e r Treason / Plot K ing Lear; /mon o f Athens (with Thomas
Middleton)
Francis Bacon s The A dvancem ent o f le arn in g

1606 M acb eth . A nto ny an d Cleopatra (possibly

1607)

1607 Pe ricle s (possibly 1608)

Susanna Shakespeare marries lohn H all

1608 C oriolanus
Printing o f First Q u arto of K ing Lear
Shakespeare sues Jo h n Addenbrookc for 6.00
Death o f Shakespeare's mother, M a ry
Shakespeare

1609 V irginia C om pany chartered Robert Cecil The W in te r's Tale, publication o f The Sonnets,
gamers 7000 for the fiscal year including Lover's Com plaint'
Printing o f Q 1 o f Troilus a n d C ressida and
Q l o f Pericles

1610 C ym belm e

1611 Publication o f the King James Bible The Tempest

1612 Death o f Prin ce Henry Shakespeare involved in a legal dispute (Belott

v M ountjoy)

1613 Princess Elizabeth m arries Frederick, Elector K ing H e n ry V III/ A ll is W e ll, V ie Two N o b le
Palatine Kinsm en (both w ith lohn Fletcher; Kinsm en
possibly as late as 16 1 4)
The G lo b e burns dow n
Shakespeare purchases property in Blackfriars,
London

1614 W a lte r Ralegh's H isto ry o f the W o rld

24
 Introduction: From Shakespeare to Shakespeare Studies

D a te H isto rical/Po litical Literary/C ultural

1615-16 Betw een Januar) 1615 and January 1616

Shakespeare completes his w ill

1616 Death o f Shakespeare

Publication o f the W orkes o f both B en |onson
and King James
Judith Shakes|M-are marries Thom as Q u in ey

1619 Death o f Q u een A nn a o f Denm ark

D u lw ic h College founded b y Edward A lleyn

1620 M a yflo w e r leaves England for the N e w W o rld

1622 Printing o f Q l o f O th ello

1623 D eath o f Anne Shakespeare <Anne Hathaw ay!

Publication o f the First Folio (the first attempt at
a collected works o f Shakespeare)

1625 Death o f lam es 1; accession o f King C harles 1

1625-49 R eig n o f Charles 1

1634 Printing o f Q l o f The Two N o b le Kinsm en

25
 Historical Contexts for the
Age of Shakespeare

W illiam E. Engel

C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w

Telling History, Then and Now 26

Religious Change 27
C om m ercial and M ilitary Exchanges 34
R elations with the C ontinent: M artial and Marital 38
U rban Growth in th e Capital 41
C ourt Culture and Centres o f Power 42
C onclusion 43

T e llin g H isto ry , T h e n and N o w

Ten 'H isto rie s' are listed in th e 'C a ta lo g u e' o f p la y s a ttrib u ted to Sh ak esp eare
in th e F irst F olio o f 1623 (see G lo ssary ). L ik e m an y o f the so u rces h e co n su lted ,
the T u d o r royal line is sh o w n in a fav ou rab le ligh t. T h is is n o t su rp risin g
w h e n w e co n sid er th a t th e first o f th ese p la y s, K in g Jo h n , w a s first p erform ed
a t a tim e o f h eig h ten ed n atio n al p rid e, a few y ears after th e d e fe a t o f th e
S p a n ish A rm ad a. E ach p resen ts cau tio n ary lesso n s a b o u t th e p o litica l ev ils
o f factio n al d isse n sio n an d th e v irtu es o f c iv ic peace.
H isto ry a n d th eatre w ere clo sely lin ked in th e m in d s o f Sh ak esp eare's
a u d ien ce. C o n tem p o rary w riters a n d statesm en , su ch a s W alter R aleg h in his
H istory o f th e W orld (1614), referred to p eop le as 'tra g ica ll a cto rs' in a 'G re a t
T h e a tre ' o v erse en by G o d 's P ro vid en ce. T h is alleg o rical view o f h isto ry bu ild s
o n th e earlier m ed iev al n o tio n o f th e re b ein g th ree d o m a in s o f kno w led ge:
P h iloso p h y , w ith th e co rresp o n d in g h u m an fa cu lty o f R easo n ; P o etry , w hose
facu lty is Im ag in atio n ; and H isto ry , co rresp o n d in g to M em ory . P h ilip Sid ney
d iscu ssed th ese b ran ch es o f kno w led ge in p recisely th ese term s in T h e D efen ce

26
 H istorical Contexts for the A g e o f Shakespeare

o f P oesie (1595), a s d id F ra n cis B aco n in T h e A d van cem en t o f L earn in g (1605).

P h iloso p h y co n c c m c d th e w ise w o rd s o f th e an cien ts ex p ressed as sen ten tiae
(see G lo ssa ry ); p o etry b ro u g h t fo rth p recep ts o f eth ic a l co n d u ct u sin g sim iles
a n d a lleg o rie s; an d h isto ry co n cern ed ex em pta (see G lo ssa ry ), o r the exem
plary d eed s o f em in en t m en and w o m en - th e g o o d to b e im itated a n d th e b ad
to b e sh u n n ed . T h is m o ral d im en sio n o f h isto ry w a s n o t lo st o n Sh ak esp eare.
For ex a m p le, P rin ce H al w restle s to break free from th e ro g u ish ch a rm o f
F alstaff, g o e s o n to p ro m ise h is fath er 'fo r th e tim e w ill co m e / T h a t I
sh a ll m a k e th is n o rth ern y ou th [H o tsp u r) ex ch a n g e / H is g lo rio u s d e e d s for
m y in d ig n ities', and e n d s up sav in g th e C ro w n and red eem in g h is ow n
rep u tation (1 H en ry IV , 3. 2 .1 4 4 - 4 6 , p. 1198).
U n lik e the ex p ectatio n s, S h ak esp e are's au d ien ce had a b o u t the v a lu e o f
h isto ry a s a m o ral m irror, th e aim o f th is su rv ey is to id en tify th e p ressu res
o f th e d ay - m ainly relig io u s, p o litical, eco n o m ic and so cia l - th a t p ro v id e
in sig h t in to th e increasin gly u rban w o rld in w h ich Sh ak esp eare fou n d h im
self. T h is ap p roach can be co m p ared to u sing b a ro m e tric re a d in g s to explain
ch a n g es in w eath er p attern s. A n d y e t, a s E rn st C assirer cau tio n ed , it is 'th e
ru les o f sem an tics, n o t th e la w s o f n atu re, th at a re the g en eral p rin cip le s o f
h isto rical th o u gh t. H isto ry is in clu d ed in the field o f h erm en eu tics, n o t th at
o f n a tu ra l scie n c e ' fo r 'fa cts th e m selv es are n o t im m ed iately g iv en to the
h isto rian . T h e y a re n o t o b serv ab le lik e p h y sical o r ch em ica l facts; th e y m u st
b e reco n stru cted ' (C assirer 1992: 195). In d eed , su ch facts are im pregnated
w ith in terp retation , a n d so w e m u st co n stan tly b e alert to w h a t k in d s o f facts
tend to co m e forw ard in an y h isto rical account.
B ehind e v e ry 'fa c t' resid es a serie s o f d ecisio n s th a t th e h is to ria n has
a ssu m ed w ill b est te ll th e story h e o r sh e w ou ld relate. W h at in fo rm s su ch
d ecisio n s? In th e ca s e o f Sh a k esp e a re, rath er th an tell th e sto ry o f 'th e life and
tim es o f a great m a n ', I h a v e elected to presen t a su rv ey o f w h a t cu rren t
h isto rian s h a v e found to b e at o n ce ty p ical a n d re m a rk a b le a b o u t th e cu ltu ral
co n d itio n s co n trib u tin g to th e rh y th m o f life in the sta te and co m m u n ities
w ith in w h ic h S h ak esp e are liv ed an d ab o u t w h ich h e w rote. 'R elig io u s C h an g e'
is d iscu ssed first b ec a u se th e se ch an g es h ad co n seq u en ces for econ om ics,
foreign p o licy , d o m estic and co u rt p o litics, and ev en m arriag e n eg o tiation s.
T h is is n o t to sa y d efin itiv ely th at th e o n e ca u sed the o th er, b u t rath er to
in v ite re ad ers to co n sid er th e ex ten t to w h ich each o f th ese co n sid era tio n s can
b e seen a s m u tu a lly in flu en cin g o r rein forcin g the effects o f the o th e r in a
d y n a m ic m an n er th at h a s le ft retriev ab le traces for u s to fo llo w a n d use.

R e lig io u s C h a n g e

R eligio n exerted a d ecisiv e and p o w erfu l p ressu re o n d a ily life throu ghou t
the sixteen th cen tu ry. T h e ce n tu ry in to w h ich Sh ak esp eare w a s b o rn sa w a

27
The Shakespeare H andbook

d ecisiv e sp lit w ith in W estern E u ro p ean C h ristian ity in to o p p o sin g 'ch u rch es',
w ith 'P ro te sta n t' C h ristian s, m ainly from n o rth e rn E u ro p e, b rea k in g from
the m o stly m o re so u th ern 'C a th o lic ' C h ristian co m m u n ities w h o accep ted
the sp iritu al au th o rity o f th e P op e. A t tim es th e riv a lry b etw ee n C ath olics
a n d P ro testan ts reach ed v io len t p ro p o rtio n s: h o w ev er, m o re o ften th an not
in C o n tin e n tal E u ro p e, th ese co n flicts o w ed m o re to p o litical m o tiv es, a n ce s
tral riv a lries a n d d y n astic fa ctio n s th a n to d ee p ly felt relig iou s co n v ictio n s.
D octrin al d isp u tes b ecam e m o re a p a rt o f th e so cial eq u a tio n in England
a n d S cotlan d as rad ical P ro te sta n t id eas gain ed stren g th a m o n g th o se w ho
b eliev ed th at the R efo rm atio n h ad n o t g o n e far en o u g h to elim in a te d octrin al
a n d cerem o n ial asp ects o f C ath o licism ('th e O ld F a ith ') - su ch a s the ven er
a tio n o f sain ts, th e ad o ratio n o f M ary, and sin g in g m a sse s for the d ea d to
ea se th e ir w ay fro m P u rg ato ry (see G lo ssary ) to H eaven.
M a n y o f S h a k e sp e a re 's p la y s a re im p licated in th ese co n flicts and n eg o
tiation s. In 15 1 7 o n e o f th e le a d in g refo rm ers o n th e co n tin en t, M artin
L uther, had p u blished h is N in ety-F ive T heses on th e P ow er o f Indu lgen ces w hich
a ttack ed , a m o n g o th er a b u se s o f the C hu rch , the sellin g o f pard o n s fo r the
rem ission o f sin s and for the release o f so u ls from p u n ish m en t in P urgatory.
T h is d o cu m en t w a s p o ste d o n th e d o o rs o f th e C astle C h u rch in W itten b erg
o n 31 O cto b er 1517 w h ere th e S a x o n ru ler F red erick III had accu m u lated
E u ro p e's larg est co llectio n s o f h o ly relics o f th e sain ts, w h ich w ere believed
to h a v e m iracu lo u s p o w ers. T h a t H am let is retu rn in g fro m h is stu d ie s in
W itten berg for h is fa th er's fu n eral su b tly lin k s him to P ro testan t v ie w s on
P urgatory. If th ere is n o P u rg ato ry , H a m let righ tly m u st q u estio n , from w here
d id his fa th er's g h o st co m e to w a rn h im ab o u t th e treach ery and treaso n o f
h is u su rp in g u ncle?: 'W h a t m ay th is m ean , / T h a t th o u , d ead co rp se, ag ain
in co m p lete steel, / R ev isits th u s the g lim p ses o f th e m o o n , / M ak in g n ig h t
h id eou s, and w e fo o ls o f n a tu re / S o h o rrid ly to sh a k e o u r d isp o sitio n / With
th o u g h ts b ey o n d the re a ch es o f o u r so u ls?' (H am let, 1. 4. 3 2 -3 7 , p. 1683). This
crisis o f k n o w led g e h a s d eep p o litical im p licatio n s in th e p lay, and d ra m a tic
a lly refracts th e w id e r n eg o tia tio n s o f fa ith a t th e tim e.

R o o ts o f th e R e fo rm a tio n in E n g lan d
L o n g b efo re S h a k e sp e a re 's tim e there had b een relig iou s co n tro v ersies su r
ro u n d in g th o se w h o u rged C h ristian s to retu rn to th e B ib le as a so u rce for
b e lie fs and p ractices. For in stan ce o f th ese w e m a y retu rn to C h a u c e r's d ay
w ith Jo h n W y cliffe 's E n g lish v ersio n o f th e B ib le, a n d the b ib lica l fo cu s o f
th e te a ch in g s o f th e Lollard s, w h o se stro n g est su p p o rt w a s in L o n d o n and
E ast A n g lia, Bristol a n d th e M id lan d s. W ith th is cu ltu ra l co n tex t o f rep eated
a p p e als for relig iou s reform , and w ith the g ro w th o f C h ristia n h u m anism
(see G lo ssary ), in sp ired b y E rasm u s an d o th ers, E n g la n d w a s b e in g exp o sed
to ca lls for relig iou s ch an g e from a h o st o f d ifferen ce d ire ctio n s (see Streete,

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 H istorical Contexts for the A g e o f Shakespeare

th is v o lu m e, C h a p te r 7). It is n o tew o rth y th a t o n ly o n e b ish o p , Jo h n F ish e r o f

R och ester, o p p o sed H en ry V III's break w ith the C a th o lic C h u rch . T h e progress
o f relig io u s ch an g e a cro ss th e co u n try w as n ev e rth e le ss slo w and h esitant,
d esp ite ex p ressio n s o f official su p p o rt a n d in ju n ctio n s. T h e b eliefs and piety
a sso ciated w ith R om an C ath o licism rem ained a p o w erfu l cu ltu ral influen ce
a m o n g o rd in ary p eop le, the g en try and aristo cracy (D u ffy 2005: 4 0 1 -7 ).

H en ry V I I I a n d th e C h u rch o f E n g lan d
E n g la n d 's b re a k w ith th e C a th o lic C hu rch to o k p la ce in 1534. H en ry VIII
had p etitio n ed the p o p e for an 'a n n u lm e n t' o f h is m arriag e to C a th erin e o f
A ragon (w h o o rig in ally had b een m arried to h is o ld e r brother, A rth u r - see
G en ealo g y ). N o tw ith stan d in g d etailed relig iou s a rg u m en ts and b ib lica l p re
ce d e n ts ju stify in g th is actio n , P o p e C lem en t V II co u ld h ard ly sa n ctio n the
d iv o rce (as C ath erin e w as th e m atern al a u n t o f C h arles V, th e p o w erfu l head
o f th e H oly R o m an E m p ire, w h o in 1 5 2 7 had sa ck ed R om e and m ad e the
P op e h is priso n er). W ith the h elp o f T h o m a s C ro m w ell, w h o to o k o v e r the
ca u se after th e fall o f h is fo rm er m a ster C ard in al W o lsey, H e n ry had h im self
d eclared H ead o f th e C hu rch o f E n gland b y the E n glish P arliam en t.
H en ry asse rte d his co n tro l o v e r the ch u rch a s w ell a s th e co u n try by
h av in g P arliam en t p ass th e A ct o f S u p rem acy in D ecem b er 1534. W h en he
en co u n tered resistan ce, th e ag ein g and in creasin g ly ira scib le k in g d id not
h esitate to ex e cu te d issen ters, su ch a s B ishop F ish e r a n d th e ren ow n ed
h u m an ist and statesm an T h o m a s M o re; a n d , in 1536, to issu e the A ct o f the
Ten A rticles. T h is w as th e first s e t o f d o ctrin al m an d ates o f the n ew ch u rch in
w h ich , o f th e sev en sacram en ts, o n ly b ap tism , p e n a n ce and co m m u n io n w ere
retained . C rom w ell w as m ad e 'v ice -re g e n t', em p o w ered to issu e in ju n ction s
to th e bishop s. H e req u ired th a t clerg y m en in th e ir serm o n s d efen d th e royal
su p rem a cy a n d co n d em n p ilg rim a g es to h o ly sites, a C ath o lic p ra ctice a sso ci
ated w ith the g a in in g o f 'm e rit' in the search fo r salv atio n . H is secon d set
o f in ju n ctio n s tw o y ears la te r w e n t fu rth er b y p ro h ib itin g ritu a ls a n d beliefs
n o t ju stified b y Scrip tu re a n d b y p lacin g a B ib le in E n g lish in ev ery ch u rch.
T h e m o st n o tab le o f th ese ch an g es called for the strip p in g o f im ages o f v en e r
a tio n fro m th e ch u rch e s and fo rb ad e th e b u rn in g o f ca n d les fo r sa in ts and the
d ea d . N o t ev er)' p arish w as q u ick to co m p ly , b u t p e rio d ic v isits b y chu rch
o fficials so u g h t to estab lish a w id esp read co n fo rm ity . Still, w e m u st reflect
th at 'co n fo rm ity in itself im p lies n o th in g a b o u t the b eliefs o f clerg y , w ard en s,
o r laity in th e p a rish e s' (D u ffy 2005: 481).

R e lig io u s C h a n g e in Stratfo rd -u p o n-A vo n

A t least b y 1564, th e y e a r o f S h ak esp e are's b irth , th e w all p a in tin g in the

G u ild C h ap el a t Stratfo rd -u p o n -A von d ep ictin g the sto ry o f S t H elen a

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The Shakespeare H andbook

a n d the Tru e C ro ss h ad b een p lastered over. S h a k esp e a re's father, Joh n ,

a g lo v er a n d d ea ler in related co m m o d itie s w ho had b e e n p ro m in en t in
local affairs, e v e n tu a lly b eco m in g bailiff a n d ju stice o f th e p e a ce, served
a s th e ch am b erlain a ctin g o n b eh a lf o f the tow n co rp o ra tio n 's d ecision
to co v e r up th is im age.

W h en th e D isso lu tio n o f th e M o n a sterie s b eg an in 1 5 3 6 , la n d s a n d reven u es

form erly belo n g in g to th e C h u rch w en t to th e C row n . E stim a te s p u t this
tran sfer a s h ig h a s o n e-fifth to o n e-th ird o f all th e lan d in E n glan d . It w a s only
in th e N o rth th at th ese p o licies m e t w ith arm ed resistan ce, m o st n o ta b ly in
L in co ln sh ire, a n d la ter in Y orkshire w ith the so -ca lled 'P ilg rim a g e o f G race'.
H ow ever, th e se re b ellio n s w ere n o t sim p ly a m a tter o f relig io n , fo r they
ca m e a fte r tw o y ears o f d earth , bad w e a th e r a n d p o o r h a rv e sts, a s w e ll a s in
the w a k e o f the ad d ed tax b u rd en asso ciated w ith th e S u b sid y A ct o f 1534
(F letch er & M acC u llo ch 1997: 3 5 -3 6 ). A t all ev e n ts b y 1540 m on asticism
w a s o v er in E n g lan d , and the C ro w n realized a p ro fit o f a b o u t 1.3 m illion
(E lto n 1 9 9 1 :1 4 3 ). N o n eth eless, it sh o u ld b e stressed th at a t th e tim e o f H en ry 's
d ea th in 15 4 7 th e C hu rch d id n o t y e t lo o k P ro testan t, a n d few 'w o u ld h a v e
n oticed m an y ch an g es in th e d ay -to -d ay p ractice o f th e ir re lig io n ' (N ew co m b e
1995: 2).

T h e P ro tecto rate: Edw ard V I

It w a s n o t u n til th e reig n o f H e n ry 's o n ly so n , E d w ard V I, ju st n in e y e a rs old on
h is a ccessio n , th at th e C h u rch o f E n g lan d b ecam e n o ticeab ly P ro testan t w ith
the in tro d u ction o f T h o m as C ra n m er's B o o k o f C o m m o n P ray er in 1549. T h e
latter su b stitu ted E n g lish fo r th e Latin o f the M ass and ex p ressed a th eo lo g y
b a se d o n ju stifica tio n b y faith , th e ce n tra l te n et o f P ro testan tism . T h e first B ook
o f H om ilies w as issu ed in 1547, so m e o f its co n ten ts h a v in g b een co m p osed as
e a rly a s 1534 b y A rch b ish o p C ran m er, o n e o f E d w a rd 's g o d fath ers. E d w ard 's
p o litical affairs w ere in la rg e m easu re d irected by E d w ard S e y m o u r (broth er
o f H en ry V III's third w ife), th e E arl o f H ertford a n d la ter D u k e o f Som erset.
A t H e n ry 's d ea th , S e y m o u r h ad b e e n n am ed th e 'P ro te cto r a n d G o v ern o r'
o f E d w a rd 's p erson . W h en th e b o y -k in g d ied in 1553 h is 'D e v ic e for the
S u cc e ssio n ' n am ed a s h eir his P ro testan t co u sin L ad y Ja n e G rey ra th er than
his C ath o lic h a lf-sister M ary . T h is h ad b een p ro m p ted b y th e th en actin g
Protector, Jo h n D u d ley , E arl o f W arw ick and la ter D uke o f N orth u m b erlan d ,
w h o ru led the co u n try in the la s t y ears o f E d w ard V i's reig n . H is son,
G u ild fo rd D u d ley , w as m arried to Ja n e G rey . T h e d isso lu tio n a n d sa le o f
ch a n try ch a p els (ch ap e ls s e t up a s a p lace to p ray fo r th e so u ls o f th e founders)
en rich ed m an y o f the lan d ed class, in clu d in g th o se clo sest to th e king.

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 H istorical Contexts for the A g e o f Shakespeare

M a ry T u d or: 'B lo o d y M a ry '

W h en M ary , th e d a u g h te r o f C ath erin e o f A rag o n , ca m e to th e th ro n e in 1553,
it w a s ex p ected she w o u ld m ain tain th e relig io n o f E d w ard V I (G u y 1 9 8 8 :2 2 6 ).
H er su ccessio n w as th e result o f alleg ian ce to th e C ro w n a n d its h ered ita ry
h eirs o n the p a rt o f b o th the E n g lish p eop le and th e prin cip al sta te p o licy
m akers.
M ary 's resto ratio n o f C ath o licism and the rep eal o f a n ti-p a p a l law s w ere
g u id ed in p art by h e r m arriag e to P h ilip II o f S p a in - a u n io n n o t accep ted
b y P arliam en t. T h e bu rn in g o f b ish o p s C ran m er, R id ley a n d L a tim er at
O xfo rd a fte r their co n d em n atio n a s h eretics u n d ersta n d a b ly w o n m an y o v er
to th e P ro testan t cau se w h o o th erw ise m ig h t h a v e to lerated the retu rn to the
'O ld R e lig io n '. T h o u g h later P ro testan t ch ro n iclers w ou ld lab el h e r 'B lo o d y
M ary ' for h e r p e rsecu tio n o f P ro testan ts, few er th an th ree h u n d red peop le
w ere b u rn ed at th e sta k e for relig iou s n o n -co n fo rm ity d u rin g h er reig n . T h is
n u m b er p ales in co m p ariso n to th e d ea th to ll o f P ro testa n ts a n d C ath olics
d u rin g th e French W ars o f R eligio n (1 5 6 2 -9 8 ). R elig io u s p ersecu tio n co n
tin u ed u n d er E lizab eth 1. O v e r tw o h u n d red C a th o lics w ere ex ecu ted by
E liz a b eth 's g o v e rn m en t, o sten sib ly for treaso n a s they w ere m o stly priests
ch arged w ith b ein g lo y al to a foreig n ruler, th e Pope, ra th er th an to th e queen.

E liz a b e th 's M id d le Way

S o o n after h e r accessio n in 1558, E lizab eth , b y actio n o f P arliam en t, restored
the R oy al Su p rem acy o v e r th e E n g lish C hu rch , ap p o in ted P ro testa n ts as
b ish o p s, and rein trod u ced th e E n g lish P ray er B ook . E v en tu a lly , sh e a u th o r
ized P ro testan t teach in g s w ith th e T h irty -N in e A rticles. T h is p erio d also saw
a m o re p ro n o u n ced s p lit a m o n g P ro testan ts w ith th e rise o f a m o v em en t
see k in g to pu rify th e E n g lish C hu rch . T h e P u rita n s, a s they w ere know n,
m ain tain ed th at th e b re a k w ith R o m e w a s not en o u g h : they w a n te d to get
rid o f the bish o p s a n d to sim p lify the litu rg y. M a in ta in in g th at w o rld ly g litter
d etra cted from p ro p e r w o rsh ip , they w an ted to rem ov e the o utw ard trap
p in gs o f w o rsh ip n o t m en tio n ed in the B ib le, su ch a s v estm en ts a n d religiou s
d eco ra tio n s o f all kinds.
G ra d u a lly , a fte r th e p ap al ex co m m u n icatio n o f E liz a b eth in 1570 a n d the
in tro d u ction o f u n d erco v er C a th o lic m issio n ary p riests in to E n g la n d , fines
a n d o th e r p en alties w ere im p o sed o n th o se w h o co n tin u ed to p ra ctise R om an
C a th o licism . H ow ever, C ath o lics, e sp ecia lly fam ilies lo n g co n firm ed in th eir
faith, still risked h earin g th e m a ss su n g in secret, w h eth er in ch a p els in rem ote
p arts o f th e ir estates o r h id d en at th e h e a rt o f th e ir an cestral h o m es. Som e,
su ch a s th e A ru n d els a n d T resh am s, reg u larly p aid th e h eav y fin e s lev ied for
n o t sh o w in g up at th e p arish w h ere th e y h ad b een a ssig n ed to h e a r sta te-
sa n ctio n ed serv ices o f relig iou s w orship . T h o se w h o th u s a b se n ted them selves
ca m e to b e k n o w n a s 'recu san t C a th o lics'. P o rta b le co m m u n io n se ts still

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The Shakespeare H andbook

su rv iv e w h ich w ere carried b y itin e ran t p riests, m a n y o f th e Je su it o rd er

w h o had b een s e n t to E n g lan d ex p ressly for th e p u rp o se o f n u rtu rin g the
faithfu l. M an y E n g lish C a th o lics w illingly risk e d d eath to em b ra ce m arty r
d o m for th e ir faith.
T h e relativ ely b en ig n treatm en t o f the C a th o lics in the o p en in g y ears o f
E liz a b eth 's reign ch an g ed in resp on se to th e R ev o lt o f the N o rth ern Earls
(1569) led b y C h a rle s N ev ille, 6 th E arl o f W estm o rlan d , a n d T h o m a s P ercy,
7 th E arl o f N o rth u m b erlan d . T h is u p risin g so u g h t th e d e p o sitio n o f E lizab eth
a n d th e ca u se w as fu rth er assisted in 1570 w ith P iu s V 's bu ll, o r official
p ro n o u n cem en t, callin g for E liz a b e th 's ex co m m u n icatio n a n d d ep o sitio n . An
A ct o f P arliam en t o f 1581 'e q u a ted th e activ ities o f p riests w ith treaso n and
im posed the m o n th ly fine o f 2 0 , d irected a g a in st th e lead in g C ath olic
laity, o n th o se refu sin g to atten d th e ir p arish ch u rch (Sh eils 2004: 255). Still,
E lizab eth , w ho preferred n o t to m ak e w in d o w s in to a n o th e r's so u l, and who
had b o th cru cifix a n d can d les in h e r o w n p riv a te ch a p el, so u g h t a m id d le
w a y b etw een the extrem es.
R ich ard H o o k er's L aw s o f E cclesiastical P olitie (1 5 9 3 , 1597) clarified ju st such
a p ath . N o t o n ly d id h e se t th e term s o f future d iscu ssio n s o f A nglican the
o lo g y b u t h e also articu la ted h o w it sh o u ld p ro ceed . H is rh y th m ic prose
m ov es g racefu lly fro m arg u m en ts g ro u n d ed in G reek p h ilo so p h y to th e sim p le
faith o f the p rim itiv e C h ristian s, all in th e h o p e o f u n itin g E n glish C h ristian s
in a sta te C h u rch th at d id n o t reject C a th o lic form s sim p ly b eca u se they had
b een u sed in the m ed iev al C hu rch and th at h eld to a reform ed faith th at all
P ro testan ts, in clu d in g P u ritan s, co u ld em brace.
Still th e re w ere so m e factio n s a t co u rt w h o feared C a th o lic plots. M ary,
Q u e en o f S co ts, u n d er E n g lish h o u se a rrest fo r n early tw en ty y ears, w a s exe
cu ted o n 8 F eb ru ary 1587 fo r h er in v o lv em e n t in a p lo t to d ep o se E lizabeth
a n d p la ce h e rse lf on th e throne. M u ch o f the cred it fo r p re sen tin g E lizabeth
w ith th e e v id en ce she required to sig n th e d eath w a rra n t o f h e r cou sin
and a q u ee n g o e s to F ra n cis W alsin g h am 's w ell-d ev elo p ed in tellig e n ce and
co u n te r-e sp io n ag e o p eratio n s, w h ic h in clu d ed cra ck in g th e co d e o f M ary's
cla n d estin e co rresp o n d en ce (H ay es 1992: 70). A n d y e t, fo r a ll th e 'm y th s
a b o u t its in tellig en ce serv ice, th e g re a te st w ea k n ess o f th e E lizab eth an
g o v e rn m en t in fo rm u latin g foreig n p o licy w as its failu re to ap p recia te the
d iv isio n s w ith in th e C a th o lic w o rld ' (A d am s 2002: 201). T h o u g h English
P ro testan t p aran oia a b o u t C a th o lic p lo ts w as o ften in ten se, th e C ath olic
w o rld w as also d iv id ed am o n g st itself, so m eth in g ap p reciated m o re fully
b y E liz a b eth 's su ccessor, Jam es.
A lth o u g h Je w s o fficially w ere ex p e lled fro m E n glan d in 1 2 9 0 - ex cep t for
th o se allo w ed b y th e C row n to resid e in th e D om us C on v ersoru m (H o u se o f
C o n v ersio n ) in L o n don - b y th e m id -sixteen th cen tu ry th ere w ere, b y m ost
estim a tes, sev era l h u n d red , w h o had settled aroun d th e c o u n try in v ariou s

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trades. So m e Je w s e v e n fou n d em p lo y m en t w ith in the h o u seh old s o f the

n o b ility , th o u g h n e v e r a ttain in g h ig h ran k o r statu s. O n e su ch m an w as
R o d rig o L o p es, a 'm o rra n o ' (see G lo ssary ). L opes w a s a forced co n v e rt und er
the P o rtu g u ese In q u isitio n w h o ca m e to L o n d o n b eca u se o f its osten sible
to leratio n . H e serv ed a s p h y sician to R o b ert D u d ley (first E arl o f L eicester
a n d E liz a b e th 's lo n g -tim e fav o u rite at co u rt), F ran cis W alsin gh am (h ead o f
E liz a b eth 's In tellig en ce serv ice a n d m a ster o f co u n ter-esp io n a g e), and ev en
tu a lly Q u e en E liz a b eth herself. D esp ite, o r p erh ap s b ec a u se o f, h is h ig h
co n n ectio n s a t co u rt, in 1594 h e w as tried a n d ex ecu ted for try in g to p o ison
the Q u een , a v ictim o f an ti-S p an ish sen tim en t a s m u ch a s o f th e a n ti-Sem itism
o f the day.

Je w s a t th e E liz a b e th a n C o u r t a n d T h e a tre s

R o d rig o L o p es, a Jew ish co n v ert to C h ristia n ity w h o had fled the
In q u isitio n and settled in E n g lan d , ev en tu a lly b e c a m e th e English
co u rt p h y sician . H e w as tried a n d ex e cu ted in 1594 a lleg ed ly for tryin g
to p o ison th e Q u een . C a p ita liz in g o n th e n atio n a list p u b lic sen tim e n t in
a n d aro u n d L o n d o n , T h e L ord A d m ira l's M en rev iv ed C h risto p h er
M a rlo w e's p lay T h e Jew o f M alta writh the p re-em in en t tragedian
Edw ard A lleyn in the lead role. S o m e tim e a fte r 1596 S h a k esp e a re's
co m p an y had a n ew p lay w ith a Je w a s th e an tag o n ist, T h e M erch an t o f
Venice.

K in g Ja m e s a n d th e B ib le
E liz a b eth 's su ccessor, Ja m es Stu art, the so n o f M a ry , Q u e en o f S c o ts, w as
raised as a P ro testan t in P resb y terian Sco tla n d and to o k m a tters o f religion
serio u sly (P atterso n 2000: 3 8 - 3 9 ).1 A s an in d irect co n se q u e n ce o f Ja m es h av
ing called a co n feren ce a t H am p to n C o u rt in 1604 to s e e w h at n eed ed to be
d o n e to en su re th e sm o o th o p era tio n s o f th e C h u rch , a co u n cil o f d ivin es
a n d sch o lars w as co n v en ed to o v ersee an 'A u th o rise d ' tran slatio n o f the
E n glish Bible. T h is en o rm o u sly in flu en tial w o rk o w ed a larg e d e b t to W illiam
T y n d a le's 1524 translation o f the N ew T estam en t, the first tim e an y p a rt o f
the B ib le had b e e n p rin ted in E n glish . 'I f an y in d iv id u al is to be cred ited
w ith th e p erfectio n o f th e E n glish u sed b y Sh ak esp eare, th en h e w a s T y n d a le'
(C o llin so n 2002: 223). A lth o u g h T y n d ale rep eated ly p etitio n ed th e k in g to
lice n se a v ersio n o f the Bible in the v ern a cu la r a n d w a s clo se to reaching
an a g reem en t b ro k ered b y C ro m w ell, h is effo rts ca m e to a halt w h en he
w a s b u rn ed a s a h eretic in A n tw erp (L o ck y er 2005: 65).

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The Shakespeare H andbook

D e fe n d e rs o f Ih e Faith

W illiam T y n d ale co m p leted h is translation o f th e N ew T esta m en t in

v o lu n ta ry ex ile in G erm an y . A lo n g w ith o th e r L u th era n b o o k s, it w as
b u rn ed in p u b lic b o n fires sh o rtly a fte r H enry V III had b een acclaim ed
'F id e i D efen so r' (D e fe n d e r o f th e F aith ) b y P o p e L eo X . T h is title is
still claim ed b y th e reig n in g E n g lish m onarch , th o u gh it now re fe rs, o f
co u rse, to A nglican ism .

T h e resu ltin g 'K in g Ja m es B ib le' o f 1611 w as free o f the p o le m ica l m arg in al

n o te s o f th e G en ev a B ib le, a n d thu s w as d ecid ed ly le ss m ilita n t (see L o n gstaffe,
th is v o lu m e, C h ap ter 3). T h e G en ev a Bible, tran slated in th e sa fety o f
C o n tin e n tal E u ro p e b y refu g ees from M a ry 's regim e, reflected the rigorous
th eo lo gical v iew s o f a u stere refo rm ers, m o st n o tab ly th e G en ev a-b ased Joh n
C alv in. T h e G en ev a v ersio n w as favou red b y E n g lish m en w ith P u ritan lean
in g s, esp ecially the se p a ra tist 'P ilg rim s' w h o fled to L ey d en a n d th en m ad e
th e ir w ay to th e A m erican co lo n ie s o n th e M ay flow er in 1620.

C o m m e r c ia l an d M ilita ry E x ch a n g es

M o nopolies
T h e co lo n ies w ere estab lish ed w ith co m m ercial rath er than relig io u s am b i
tio n s in m ind . T h e y w ere p a rt o f a larger, th o u gh b y n o m e a n s sy stem atic,
p ro g ram m e o f eco n o m ic d ev e lo p m e n t. F o r E liz a b e th 's ad m in istra tio n , this
p ro g ram m e also in v o lv ed reap ing th e b en efits o f sellin g m o n o p o lies, o r
ex clu siv e trad in g righ ts an d th e fixin g o f prices, b o th a s a w a y o f e n rich in g h er
co ffe rs and o f k eep in g h er co u rtiers in line. F ollo w in g h is retu rn fro m Ireland
in 1581, S ir W alter R aleg h , an a d v o ca te o f the a n ti-S p a n ish foreign policies
o f L eicester a n d W alsin g h am , w as g reatly en rich ed b y b e in g n am ed 'L o rd
W ard en o f th e S ta n n e rie s' w h ich placed h im in re ceip t o f rev en u e from all o f
th e m in in g to w n s o f D artm oor. T h is g a v e h im ab so lu te co n tro l o v e r th e trade
in tin a n d related m etals and o res. S h o rtly th ereafter h e w a s en tru sted to g o to
D artm o u th to d iv id e th e sp o ils o f th e sev en -d eck ed S p a n ish sh ip , M a d r de
D eos, cap tu red b y S ir Jo h n B o ro u g h w ith an estim ated h au l o f 500,000. There
w a s a n o th er sid e to m o n o p o ly rig h ts a s w ell. A fte r E sse x 's n eg o tia tio n s w ith
the Irish rebel lead er Tyron e b ecam e k n o w n , h is fall from g ra ce w a s assu red ;
a n d w h e n in 1600 his 'sh o rt-term d eb ts alo n e exceed ed 5 ,0 0 0 , th e final
b lo w ca m e writh E liz a b eth 's p o in ted refu sal to ren ew th e ea rl's m o n o p o ly o f
sw e e t w in es, [w hich had been ] o v e r the p ast d eca d e the k ey to h is so lv en cy '
(N ich o lls 1999: 300).

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 H istorical Contexts for the A g e o f Shakespeare

T h ere w ere rep eated calLs fo r a b o lish in g this p ractice, for, in effect, it
a m o u n ted to taxatio n w ith ou t th e co n se n t o f P arliam en t. T ow ard s th e end
o f E liz a b eth 's re ig n a d o zen m o n o p o lies w ere n o t ren ew ed , bu t th ese co n ces
sio n a ry refo rm s w ere su p erficial. B u t m o n o p o ly p a te n ts w ere n o t ju s t granted
to p eers. F o r e x a m p le, T h o m a s S m ith and W illiam C ecil, in see k in g to p ro
m o te n ew p ro jects th at w o u ld m ak e sm all b u t essen tia l item s, su ch a s pins
a n d n ails, accessib le to all b u t th e v ery poor, also g av e p ro ject en trep ren eu rs
so le rig h ts o f m an u factu re fo r a g iv e n p erio d (L o ck y er 2005: 4 9 -5 0 ).

C o m p a n ie s a n d C om p acts
T h e log ic and la w s o f su ch co m p a n ies ap p lie d to th e w o rld o f en tertain m en t
a s w ell. T h eatres required a ro y al licen ce. T h e first w a s g ran ted to R obert
D u d ley , E arl o f L eicester in 1574. A m o n g th e lead ers o f L eice ste r's co m p a n y
o f actors w as Ja m es B u rbage, a n acto r a n d en trep ren eu r w h o in 1576 secured
the le a se o f lan d at Sh o re d itch for th e co n stru ctio n o f th e first playh ou se,
called sim p ly T h e T h eatre. A b o u t a d eca d e later, in 1587, L eicester's co m p a n y
a cted , a m o n g o th e r p la ce s, at Stratfo rd -u p o n -A v on , w h ere Sh ak esp eare, m e n
tion ed in co n n ectio n w ith a law su it a t th e tim e, is p resu m ed to h a v e been
resid in g . S in ce w e h a v e n o su rv iv in g record o f w h a t Sh ak esp eare w a s d o in g
a fte r 1587 until h e sh o w s u p in led g ers a s an a cto r a n d d ra m a tist in L o n d o n in
1592, so m e h a v e co n jectu red th at he to o k p a rt in th e p lays o f th e th eatrical
co m p a n ies k n o w n to have visited Stratfo rd -u p o n -A v on in 1 5 8 6 -8 7 o r at least
th at h e saw th e p o ssib ilities o f m ak in g a liv in g in th is trad e. A fte r h e had
retired to Stratfo rd -u p o n -A von , h is w ill sh o w s th at b y th e tim e Sh ak esp eare
d ie d in 1616 h e had accu m u lated a co n sid erab le esta te (S ch o en b a u m 1975:
2 4 6 ). By th e sa m e to k en , th e g rea t tra g e d ia n E d w ard A lle y n , w ho w en t o n
to m a rry th e step -d au g h ter o f the p re-em in en t th eatre m an ag er a n d en tre
p ren eu r P hilip H e n slo w e, w as a b le to p ay 5 0 0 0 fo r a m a n o r a n d , in 1619,
o b ta in ed a ro y al ch a rter to fou n d D u lw ich C ollege.
T h e ch a rterin g o f th e C o m p a n y o f S tatio n e rs o f th e C ity o f L on d on ,
e sta b lish ed o rig in a lly b y Q u e en M ary to serv e a s a 'su ita b le rem ed y ' a g ain st
th e rise o f P ro testan t p u b licatio n s, w as co n firm ed b y E lizab eth in 1558.
H ow ever, h er in ten tio n w as to co n fer o n its m e m b ers 'p riv ile g e s a n d practices
co m m o n to th e o ld e r g u ild s (see G lo ssary ): rights o f p ro p e rty o w n ersh ip , self
reg u latio n , k eep in g ap p ren tices and e n g a g in g in sea rch es to p ro tect th e trade
from "fo re ig n e r s " (n on -m em b ers) an d p o o r w o rk m a n sh ip ' (C leg g 2001: 24).
T h e S tation ers w ere su cce ssfu l in th e ir p etitio n in 1560 for liv ery (a co stu m e
to b e w o rn b y its m em bers). T h is n o w m e an t th a t they had v o tin g righ ts in
b o th L on don an d p arliam en tary electio n s, p articip a tio n in th e c ity 's g o v e rn
a n ce , a n d statu s a m o n g the le a d in g liv ery com p an ies.
S im ila r in k in d , there w ere also ag ree m en ts fo r th e sp ecu la tiv e trad in g o f
p ro d u cts from abroad . M o st w ere m od elled in p a rt o n th e C o m p a n y o f

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The Shakespeare H andbook

M erchan t A dventurers, d atin g b a ck to the b eg in n in g o f th e fifteen th century,

w hich had b een form ed to co m p ete w ith th e H an seatic L eague, an a llian ce o f
trading g u ild s op eratin g o u t o f N orthern G erm any. T h e Elizabethan 'M y stery
a n d C om p any o f M erchant A d ventu rers for the D iscovery o f R egion s, D om in
io n s, Island s, and P laces u nk n o w n ', a s it w as form ally recognized , w a s founded
in London in 1551 initially to search for a N o rth w est Passage (a W estern trade
ro u te to C h in a and th e E ast). A lthough n o t su cceed in g in this ob jectiv e, it did
g iv e rise to the M u sco v y C om p any in 1555, w hich en abled th e intrep id d iplo
m at A n th on y Jen k in so n to o p en trad e rou tes as fa r a w a y a s P ersia. Because the
C o m p an y o f M erchant A d ven tu rers m aintained p erm an en t ag en ts - know n as
'facto rs' - abroad , they could w ait for th e right m arket co n d itio n s to sell their
stock , m o st prom inently unfinished w oollen g oo d s (Load es 1997: 234).
In effect they acted a s b an k ers fo r th e C row n , a n d so th e ir com m ercial
p rio rities h ad to b e ta k en serio u sly . For ex am p le, R o b ert C e cil receiv ed nearly
7 0 0 0 a lo n e in th e fiscal y ea r 1 6 0 8 -0 9 (L o ad es 1987: 146). T h e m onarchy
en co u rag ed bu t d id n o t actu a lly fund the crea tio n o f th e L ev an t C o m p an y
(1581), T h e V enice C o m p a n y (1583), th e E a st In d ia C o m p an y (1600) and
R a leg h 's V irginia C o m p a n y (1609).

C o lo n ia l V en tu re s A bro ad
R a leg h 's ex p ed itio n to the o u te r b a n k s o f the A tla n tic seab oard a n d estab lish
m ent o f an E n g lish co lo n y o n R o a n o k e Islan d le d d ire ctly to T h o m a s H a rio t's
eth n o g ra p h ic and eco n o m ic su rv ey o f the A lg o n q u in p e o p le , B riefe an d True
R ep ort o f the Nezu Fou n d Lan d o f V irginia, first p u b lish ed in 1588 (see G reen b latt
d iscu ssio n s in R o bso n , C h a p te r 5 ; H o p k in s, C h a p te r 8 , th is v o lu m e). It w as
rep rin ted th e fo llo w in g y e a r in R ich ard H a k lu y t's co m p en d io u s Pr'mcipaU
N av igation s, V oiages, a n d D iscoveries o f th e E n glish N ation , a n d co n tin u ed to
ca p tu re th e p u b lic im agination . T h is co llectio n m a y w ell h a v e in flu en ced
S h a k e sp e a re 's T h e Tem pest, in p a rt b ec a u se o f th e en g ra v in g s m ad e from
d ra w in g s b y Jo h n W h ite and p u blished b y T h e o d o re d e B ry in 1590. A ll the
sam e, 'E n g lish m aritim e exp an sio n d u rin g the ce n tu ry w a s ch a ra cteriz ed less
b y m ercan tile co n sid era tio n s th an by th e co m p lex g ro w th o f p iracy and
p riv a te erin g ' (A d am s 2002: 210). W h ilst th e sta te p ap ers from E lizab eth 's
reign co n tain h u n d red s o f co m p la in ts ab o u t a cts o f p iracy , little w a s done
u n less a sig n ifican t E n glish m erch an t su ffered lo sses o r th e re w as risk o f a
m ajo r in cid en t w ith foreign p o w ers. Ind eed , the q u ee n h e rse lf loaned sh ip s
a n d resou rces for so m e o f th ese v en tu res, a n d in v a ria b ly ex p ected a su b sta n
tia l retu rn fo r h er 'in v estm en ts'.

R e la tio n s w ith O th e r N a tio n s in th e B ritis h Isle s

E n gland w as ab o u t a ce n tu ry b eh in d th e S p a n ish and P o rtu g u ese in the
scra m b le fo r trad in g p o sts and co lo nies. M ary T u d o r's h u sb a n d , P h ilip II o f

36
 H istorical Contexts for the A g e o f Shakespeare

S p a in , ch erish ed th e d ream o f a p an -C a th o lic w o rld order, w ith h im self as

th e h e a d , b u t a t E liz a b eth 's co u rt th e re w as n o u n ify in g v isio n o r policy
m o tiv atin g E n glish ex p an sio n . T h e m ain co lo n ial p u sh d u rin g E lizab eth 's
reign co n cern ed su b d u in g th e Irish and rep lacin g th e ex istin g ten an ts and
lo rd s w ith th o se o f E n glish stock o r w ith lo cals w h o w ere w illin g to accep t
E n glish rule. By Ja n u a ry 1595 H u gh O 'N e ill, the Earl o f T yron e, w a s in open
reb ellio n a g a in st the estab lish m en t o f E n g lish g o v e rn m en t in Irelan d . H e
w as a b le to u n ite m an y ch icfs o f previo u sly d iv isiv e 'septs' (an cestral Irish
cla n s) w h o w an ted to retain p o w er in th e ir o w n d istricts o r w h o o b jected to
P ro testan tism su p p lan tin g C ath o licism . T h e co n flict reach ed its m o st fevered
pitch in 1599 w h en E liz a b eth 's o n e-tim e fav o u rite, R o b ert D ev ereu x, 2 n d Earl
o f E ssex , in an e ffo rt to co n so lid a te h is p o w e r at co u rt a n d a cco m p lish on ce
a n d for all w h at h ad b e e n s o sev ere ly d ep letin g th e c o u n try 's reven u es,
lan d ed in Irelan d w ith 16,000 E n g lish troop s.
E ssex d id little to en d ear h im se lf to his so v ereig n d u rin g this cam p aig n .
T h e d ecisio n to kn ig ht m en in th e field (an h o n o u r w h ich E lizab eth w as
ex cep tio n ally carefu l to b e sto w o n ly sp arin gly) m eant th at it h a s b een esti
m ated th a t h alf o f th e total o f all E n g lish k n ig h ts w ere n o w en g aged in this
Irish v en tu re. M isg u id ed m ilitary ta ctics, th e d ecim a tio n o f h is forces by
d ise a se, an d h is d ecisio n finally to strik e a tru ce w ith Tyron e co u ld only
lead to fu rth er co n d em natio n . B efore he co u ld b e recalled a n d ch a stise d by
E lizab eth , h e left h is p o st w ith o u t ro y al p erm issio n a n d le d w h a t am oun ted
to a failed p o litical rebellio n in London.
T h ere w as alread y m u ch a n x ie ty o v er E liz a b e th 's refu sal to n a m e an heir,
a n d th e d a y b efo re 'E sse x 's R e b e llio n ', h is fo llo w ers p a id for a p ro d u ctio n o f
S h a k e sp e a re 's R ich ard II a t th e G lo be. E lizab eth is rep o rted to h a v e sn a p p ed at
a co u n cillo r: am R ichard II, k n o w ye n o t th a t?' acco rd in g to th e an tiqu arian
W illiam L am bard e. A fte r a trial, E ssex w as b eh ea d ed o n 25 F eb ru a ry 1601
o n T o w er G reen , and S h a k e sp e a re 's a ctin g co m p a n y , th e Lord C h am b erlain 's
M en , w h ile su b je ct to an en q u iry , w as found n o t cu lp a b le o f an y th in g related
to th e w o u ld -b e co u p d 'etat.
E n glan d had also b een en cro ach in g o n W ales for cen tu rie s b e fo re th e W ars
o f th e R o ses. T h e m ain figure asso ciated w ith W elsh n atio n alism , O w ain
G ly n d w r, ro se a g a in st the E n g lish o ccu p y in g forces at the b eg in n in g o f the
fifteen th ce n tu ry . E v en now , th e re rem ain s a great d eal o f critical sp ecu lation
a b o u t th is p o p u lar le a d er w h o , in S h ak esp e are's h isto ry , d escrib es h im self
as: 'e x tra o rd in a ry , / A n d all th e co u rses o f m y life d o sh o w / I a m n o t in the
roll o f co m m o n m en ' (7 H enri/ IV , 3 . 1 .3 9 - 4 1 , p. 1190).
C o n flict w ith S cotlan d w as m u ch m o re pro n o u n ced in the six tee n th centu ry.
T h e d ism a l re latio n s w ith S co tla n d th at E liz a b eth in h erited stem m e d from
P ro tecto r S o m e rse t's n ear-o b sessiv e o b jectiv e o f co n q u erin g S co tla n d , w hich
h e saw' a s the prin cip al m eans o f co n so lid atin g h is fam ily 's p o w er o v e r the

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The Shakespeare H andbook

C row n . In itially, h e so u g h t a m arriag e betw een h is w ard , E d w ard V I, and the

in fa n t q u ee n M ary S tu a rt (later to b eco m e M ary , Q u e en o f Scots). H e b u ilt up
g a rriso n s in th e n o rth a lo n g th e b o rd er an d , in 1 5 4 7 , invad ed Scotlan d .
U n fo rtu n ately , h e g ro ssly u nd erestim ated F ran co -S co ttish a m ity a n d failed
to secu re a b lo c k a d e o n th e stra te g ic F irth o f F orth. F ra n ce sen t six th ou san d
troop s w ith artillery to L eith . M ilitary ex p e n d itu re s a g a in st S cotlan d totalled
n ea rly 6 0 0 ,0 0 0 a s 7 4 3 4 m e rcen aries w ere h ired fro m Ita ly , Sp ain , G erm an y ,
H u n gary and e v e n Irelan d (G u y 1988: 202). M u ch o f th e w ar e ffo rt w as paid
for fro m fu n d s o b tain ed fro m th e d isso lu tio n o f ch a n trie s a n d co lleges, as
w ell a s th e sale o f C ro w n lands.
N o n eth eless, w h en h er tu rn ca m e, E lizab eth did n o t u n d erestim a te the age-
o ld a llia n ce o f F ran ce and Sco tla n d - e sp ecia lly w h en h e r co u sin , M ary,
Q u e en o f S co ts, m arried K in g F ra n cis II and in 1559 d eclared h e rse lf the
rig h tfu l Q u e en o f E nglan d . M a ry 's m oth er, M arie d e G u ise, m ain tain ed
a rm ed g arriso n s to k eep E n gland in its p lace, b u t E lizab eth fou n d allies in a
g ro u p o f S co ttish lord s w h o forced th e accep tan ce o f th e T reaty o f E d in bu rgh
ca llin g for all Fren ch tro o p s to w ithdraw . T h is w a s co n sisten t w ith E lizab eth 's
o v era ll p o licy to lim it h e r co sts, a s sh e had high ex p e n d itu re s on the co n tin
en t. T h e resolu tio n to th e o n g o in g co n flict in v o lv in g E n g la n d , Sco tla n d and
F ran ce o n ly ca m e to a n en d w ith E liz a b e th 's d ea th , as th e m o st p o w erfu l
faction a t co u rt led by R o b ert C ecil m an o eu v red to secu re h e r co u sin , Jam es
V I o f Scotlan d , as h er su ccesso r. W h en Ja m es ca m e to th e E n g lish th ron e in
1603, h is p erso n al u n io n o f the E n g lish an d S co ttish cro w n s m e a n t th at the
n ew G reat B ritain 'w o u ld o ccu p y a p o ten tially far stro n g er p o sitio n in E urope
th an E n g lan d alo n e had e v e r d o n e' (A d am s 2002: 214).

R e la tio n s w ith th e C o n tin e n t: M a rtia l an d M a rita l

E liz a b eth 's foreig n p o licy in v o lv ed m ain tain in g a d elica te b a la n ce betw een
the C ath o lic p o w ers o f F ran ce and S p a in , eith e r o f w h ich co u ld intervene
in E n g lan d , w h ile su p p o rtin g th e P ro testan t D u tch in th e ir stru g g le to w in
in d ep en d en ce from S p a in . A fte r 1585 th is led to a lo n g stru g g le w ith S p a in
a t sea w h ich , m o st fam ou sly , in v o lv ed th e d e fe a t o f th e A rm a d a , th e v a st
S p a n ish fleet o f in v ad in g w a rsh ip s sen t by P h ilip II. B etw een 1589 a n d 1591,
E lizab eth sp en t 14 4 ,7 8 6 on m ilitary o p eratio n s in F ra n ce, 100,000 p e r y ear
for troop s in the N eth erlan d s, 1 0 0 0 p e r m onth for C h a n n el g u a rd s o f sev en
frig ates, a n d a n o th e r 5 0 0 0 p er m o n th fo r ad d itio n a l su m m e r g a rriso n s in
Ireland (G u y 1988: 347). B u t th e d em o ra liz in g co st in h u m a n lives w a s ev en
m o re d isastro u s to E liz a b e th 's reig n : o w in g to d ise a se and in su fficien t su p
p lies, elev e n th o u san d E n g lish so ld iers d ied in F ra n ce , o f th ese o n ly about
elev e n hu nd red h av in g fallen in b attle. T h e n atu re o f so m e o f th e responses
a t th e tim e to su ch co stly w ars m ay b e w itn essed in S h a k esp e a re's scen es

38
 H istorical Contexts for the A g e o f Shakespeare

d ep ictin g the h ard sh ip s en d u red b y so ld iers: see F a lsta ff's p o ig n a n t soliloqu y

a b o u t the ra g -ta g b u n ch o f m en h e h a s pressed in to m ilita ry serv ice in the
k in g 's n a m e (2 H en ry IV , 4. 2 .1 1 - 4 2 , pp. 1 2 0 6 -7 ).

T h e N e th e rla n d s, F ran ce and S p a in

If E lizab eth w ou ld n o t allo w h e rse lf to b e m an ip u lated b y h er co u n cillors
in m atters o f relig io n , sh e rem ain ed eq u ally re lu cta n t to co m m it troop s in
the field to assist the D u tch R evolt. H ow ever, sh e d id v alu e th e a d v ice o f
W illiam C e cil, Lord B u rg h ley , w h o im p ressed u pon h er th e im p o rtan ce for
E n g lan d th at th e L o w C o u n tries 'sh o u ld co n tin u e in th e ir a n cien t g o v e rn
m ent, w ith o u t eith e r su b d u in g it to th e Sp an ish n ation o r jo in in g it to the
C row n o f F ran ce' (G u y 1988: 282). T h is w as a fin e line to w a lk in d eed . W h ile
E lizab eth tried to av o id in terv e n in g d ire ctly in the N eth erla n d s, from 1585 o n
s h e d id allow 'v o lu n te e rs', m o st fa m o u sly the co u rtie r and p o et P h ilip Sid n ey ,
to a s sist th e P ro testan t D u tch in th e ir stru g g le for in d ep en d en ce from C ath o lic
Spain.
O n h is part, P h ilip II had b e e n en co u rag in g th e Irish reb ellio n again st
E n glish co n tro l, and for y ears had b een co n tem p latin g h o w to ad d E n glan d to
h is em p ire. In itially , u p o n the d ea th o f h is w ife M ary, P h ilip ask ed P rin cess
E lizab eth fo r h e r hand in m arriag e ra th er th an th at o f h e r p o ten tial riv al M ary,
Q u e en o f S co ts, w h o h ad m arried F ran cis, the h eir to th e Fren ch th ron e, a
few m o n th s b efo re M a ry T u d or had d ied . B u t F ra n ce's fortu n es h a d w aned
o w in g to its o w n in tern al co n flicts b etw een C a th o lics and Fren ch C alv in ist
P ro testan ts (kn ow n as H u g u en o ts), cu lm in atin g in th e S t B a rth o lo m ew 's D ay
M a ssacre o f 1572. T h e latte r saw th e slau g h ter o f th o u san d s o f P ro testa n ts
w h o had g ath ered in P aris to ce le b ra te th e m a rria g e o f M a rg u erite d e V alois to
th e P ro testan t p rince, H en ry o f N avarre (th e fu tu re Fren ch K in g H en ry IV ).
P hilip step p ed up p lan s for an in v asio n , d ep lo y in g h is 'In v in cib le A rm ad a'
o f o v e r 130 o versized sh ip s. S ailin g from S p a in , it w a s to m eet u p w ith a huge
a rm y raised b y th e D u k e o f P arm a, then G o v e rn o r o f th e S p a n ish N eth erlan d s,
a n d sail u p th e E n g lish C h an n el. S p a in 's h o p es fou n d ered , how ever, o w in g to
sto rm s, sh iftin g w in d s, and th e sm aller, m o re m o b ile a ssa u lt sh ip s co m
m an d ed b y a b le seam an su ch a s S ir F ra n cis D rake. D ra k e 's bold raid o n the
p ort o f C a d iz in 1587 had alread y d elayed the m o b iliz a tio n o f the A rm ad a
for a year. D esp ite the re m ark ab le v icto ry o v e r th e A rm a d a , in the last d ecad e
o f E liz a b e th 's reig n 'E n g la n d w a s involved in fig h tin g o n th e high s e a s , in
the L ow C o u n tries, in F ran ce a n d , m o st co stly o f a ll, in Irelan d . T o g eth er th ese
ca m p aig n s co st 3 ,5 0 0 ,0 0 0 ' (Sh arp e 1 9 9 7 :1 3 -1 4 ).

M a rria g e N e g o tia tio n s

N o n eth eless, lu lls in su ch fig h tin g a n d tem p o rary trea ties w ere frequ en t,
e sp ecia lly w h e n E lizabeth allow ed p rin ces to co m p ete for h er h an d in

39
The Shakespeare H andbook

m arriag e. T h is h as b e e n co n sid ered o ne o f h er m o st su cce ssfu l m eth o d s o f

d ip lo m acy . T h e d isa d v a n ta g e to th is p o licy , o f co u rse, w a s th a t n o m arriag e
m eant n o u n co n tested heir, and th e qu estio n o f su ccessio n d o g g ed E lizabeth
th rou gh o u t h e r fo rty -fiv e-y ear reig n . A s h as alrea d y b een n o ted , M a ry T u d or
d ied w ith ou t issu e a n d th is led to the v o icin g o f a n u m b er o f riv al cla im s to
the E n g lish th rone. F rom the v ery b eg in n in g o f h e r reig n , E lizab eth p ru d en tly
feared th a t on ce sh e n a m ed a n h eir sh e w o u ld find h e rse lf b a ck in th e Tow er
a n d th a t co u rt fa ctio n s w ou ld ta k e co n tro l o f th e g o v e rn m en t a s th e y had
d u rin g h e r b ro th er E d w ard 's reign.
T h is issu e w as b ro u g h t to a crisis in O cto b er 1562 wTh en E lizab eth co n
tracted sm allp o x and n ea rly d ied . S h e co n sen ted to reop en p rev io u s m arriage
n eg o tia tio n s in 1565 w ith A rch d u k e C h arles o f A u stria (b ro th er o f th e H o ly
R o m an E m p eror, M ax im ilian II), a m atch favou red by C ecil and N o rfo lk as
a w a y to end E n g la n d 's iso latio n a n d to k eep F ran ce a n d Scotlan d at b ay.
T h e m o st p ro tracted o f su ch n eg o tiatio n s, a n d th e o n ly su ito r to c o u rt h er
in p erso n rath er th an b y am b assad o rial proxy, w a s the D u k e o f A len on ,
the y o u n g e st son o f H enry II o f Fran ce. A rra n g em en ts fo r th e m arriage
b eg an in 1579, th o u gh the P riv y C o u n cil d ebated it for m o re than a m on th ,
'w ith B u rg h ley a n d S u ssex a ctin g a s th e m ain sp o k esm en o n o n e sid e and
W alsingh am a n d M ild m ay o n th e o th e r (D o ran 1 9 9 6 :1 5 7 ). H im b e in g tw en ty
y e a rs E liz a b e th 's jun ior, sh e seem ed to en jo y his p resen ce d esp ite h is h av in g
b een scarred b y sm allp o x. Sh e ev en g av e h im a jewrelled v elv et cap w ith a
sm a ll cro w n to w ear at co u rt. A lth o u g h th e m atch w a s su p p o rte d b y E liz a
b e th 's m o st trusted a n d lo n g -stan d in g ad viso r, W illiam C e cil, then Lord
B u rghley, th e m atch w as u n th in k ab le to m o st o f h e r P riv y C o u n cil g iv en th at
A len o n w as C a th o lic, F ren ch a n d th e so n o f C a th e rin e d e M ed ici w h o had
o rch estrated th e M assacre o f 1572. N o n eth eless, if n o th in g e lse cam e o f th ese
n eg o tiation s, it d id sen d a m essag e to P hilip II o f Sp ain th at sh e w a s prepared
to ally h e rse lf in a w ay th at w ou ld th w art h is im p erial d esig n s. M oreover, the
im age o f E lizab eth th at em erg es from these m atrim o n ial n eg o tia tio n s is that
o f a h ig h ly in tellig e n t actress and an ex p e rt stra teg ist: 'L ik e a ll su ccessfu l
h ea d s o f s ta te sh e h ad a h ig h ly d ev elo p ed in stin ct fo r su rv iv al: a sen sitiv ity to
p u blic o p in io n and an aw aren ess o f w h a t w as p o litica lly accep ta b le. [ . . . )
A w are o f h e r o w n lim itatio n s, th erefore, sh e listen ed to co u n sel, rejected co n
trov ersial m atch es an d in th e e v e n t rem ained sin g le ' (D o ran 1996: 2 1 7 -1 8 ).
H er ev e n tu a l heir, K ing Ja m es V I o f S cotlan d and later Ja m e s I o f E n glan d ,
the so n o f M ary, Q u e en o f S co ts, w as ca u tio u sly allied b y m arriag e to
th e L u th era n P rin cess A n n e o f D en m ark . H ow ever, A n n e h a d co n v erted to
C a th o licism in th e d eca d e b efo re Ja m e s 's a ccessio n to th e E n g lish th ron e and
cau sed so m e em b arrassm en t b y refu sing to tak e co m m u n io n a t Ja m e s 's co r
o n ation . Sh e w as a p atron o f the arts, esp ecia lly th e co u rt en tertain m en t
k now n as th e m asq u e, in w h ich o n o cca sio n s she w o u ld tak e a n on -sp eak in g

40
 H istorical Contexts for the A g e o f Shakespeare

ro le. P erh ap s th e m o st celeb rated o f h er in v o lv em en ts in this a rt fo rm w a s

th e o ccasio n o f th e co u rt p erfo rm an ce o f B en Jo n s o n 's T h e M asq u e o f B lackness.

C e le b ra tio n s fo r a W in te r B rid e

O n S t V alen tin e's D ay 1613, ju s t three m onth s a fte r th e d ea th o f the

acco m p lish ed a n d p ro m isin g h eir to the th ron e P rin ce H en ry , K ing
Ja m e s's d au g hter, P rin c e ss E lizab eth , w as m arried to th e P ro testan t
F red erick V, E lecto r P a la tin e o f th e H o ly R o m an E m p ire and briefly
K in g o f B o h em ia (see g en ealo g y ). S h ak esp e a re's T h e Tem pest, w ith the
m asq u e in serted in 4.1, w a s a m o n g th e m an y w in ter en tertain m en ts
s tag ed in celeb ratio n o f th e forth co m in g m arriag e. H is co m p a n y alon e,
T h e K in g 's M en , p erfo rm ed tw en ty d ifferen t p la y s, m a n y o f them at
co u rt. T h is p ro v id ed stead y in co m e at a tim e w h en th e city theatre
seaso n w as slu g g ish o w in g to ad v erse w eath er co n d itio n s.

U r b a n G r o w th in th e C a p ita l

B y the tim e H am let and T w elfth N ight w ere in rep ertoire, Ix m d o n had
b eco m e o n e o f th e m o st p o p u lo u s u rban ce n tre s in E u rop e, ju s t b eh in d Paris
a n d N a p les (deV ries 1984: 140). A t th e b eg in n in g o f th e reig n o f H en ry V III,
L on d on w as still w ith in its a n cien t w alls o n th e n o rth b a n k o f th e T h am es;
W estm inster, th e se a t o f th e em erg in g n atio n al g o v ern m en t, w a s w est o f the
city , a n d S o u th w ark , th e so u th ern ap p ro ach to L o n d o n B rid g e, w a s bey o n d
the C ity 's ju risd ictio n o n the so u th b an k . C ro ssin g th e b rid g e in to the city , you
w o u ld h a v e b een w ith in ea rsh o t o f the b e lls o f m o re th an o n e hundred
ch u rch e s fro m b o th sid e s o f th e river, a n d y o u w o u ld in all likelih o od h ave
s e e n h ead s o f tra ito rs and crim in als o n sp ik es, rem in iscen t o f P ericle s's
en tra n ce in to A n tio ch w here 'd e a d c h e e k s a d v ise th e e to d e s is t' (P ericles, 1 .8 2 ,
p. 2 7 20). B y th e end o f E liz a b e th 's reig n there w a s ex ten siv e d ev elo p m en t
o u tsid e the w alls: g rea ter L o n d o n had ab o u t 50 ,0 0 0 p eop le at th e b eg in n in g o f
th e six tee n th ce n tu ry and 200 ,0 0 0 b y th e end (W ard 2004: 347). T h is con trasted
sh a rp ly to S h a k e sp e a re 's m a rk et to w n o f Stratfo rd -u p o n -A v on , w ith only
e ig h t o r nin e streets, tw o h u nd red a n d fifty h o u se h o ld s a n d fifte en h u n d red
in h abitants. H is to w n w as still g u id ed by sea so n a l rh y th m s, m a rk et d ays,
sh ee p festiv als and lam b ale s - m u ch lik e P e rd ita 's g ree n w o rld id ealized
in T h e W inter's Tale.
T h e in crease in th e n u m b er o f p eop le (lik e Sh a k esp e a re h im self) seek in g
jo b s in th e city w as p aralleled by a larg e n u m b er o f g en tlem e n see k in g legal
train in g at the Inns o f C o u rt. T h is resu lted in a n eed for m o re ta v e rn s, sh op s

41
The Shakespeare H andbook

a n d theatres, a n d led to ex p an d ed co m m ercial n etw o rk s o f all k in d s. H ow ever,

w ith th e ad d ed co n g estio n cam e perio d ic ep id em ics - m o st d ev a sta tin g ly the
b u b o n ic p lag u e o f 1 5 9 2 -9 4 , w h ich led to th e clo sin g o f th e th eatres a n d places
o f p u blic g ath erin g . A s m ig h t be ex p ected , all form s o f u rb an life, in clu d in g
'th e o ld th eatrical co m p an ies and alig n m en ts', w ere rad ically d isru p ted at
su ch tim es (Fry e 1967: 28). It w a s d u rin g this ex ten d ed p erio d o f th eatrical
in activity th at Sh ak esp eare w rote h is tw o n a rra tiv e p o em s V en u s a n d A don is
a n d T h e R ap e o fL u c r e c e in a n e ffo rt to secu re p atro n a g e a n d p referm ent.
In ad d itio n to p eop le fro m th e co u n try sid e co m in g to L o n d on , in th e last
q u a rte r o f th e sixteen th ce n tu ry ab o u t six th o u san d foreig n ers arriv ed p er
y e a r and thu s fu elled T u d or L o n d o n 's g ro w th (W ard 2 0 0 4 : 35 3 ). Fren ch and
D utch P ro testan ts found relig iou s asy lu m in the city , and b ro u g h t w ith them
th eir co n n e ctio n s to tra d in g , a rtistic and h u m a n ist n e tw o rk s fro m th e co n tin
en t. B etw een 40 ,0 0 0 and 50,0 0 0 'stra n g ers' (th e E liz a b eth a n term for p eop le
co m in g fro m abroad ) m igrated to L o n d o n betw een 1 5 5 0 a n d 1585, so m e w ith
sp ecial talen ts and letters o f introd uction.
L ond on h ad b eco m e a th riv in g cu ltu ral ce n tre o w in g to the in flu x o f b ro a d er
E u rop ean influ en ces in th e v isu a l and p erfo rm in g arts (W ard 2004: 357).
'A lie n ' ch u rches and in stitu tio n s assisted in h elp in g im m ig ra n ts to find places
to liv e a n d w ork, y e t fo r th e m o st p a rt th e se co m m u n ities w ere 'se p a ra te from
the rest o f L o n d o n ' (W ard 2004: 353). T h e 1590s w ere an e sp ecia lly ten se tim e
in L on don, n o t b ec a u se o f the re sid en t 'a lie n s' o r the relig iou s ch a n g es o f the
d ay, b u t o w in g to riots o v e r the h ig h p rice s o f fish a n d bu tter. In 1595, for
ex am p le, th e city w as p laced u nd er m artial la w after o n e th o u san d a p p ren
tices m arch ed to w ard s T o w er H ill. T h e p rice o f flo u r h a d trip led b etw ee n 1593
a n d 1597, o w in g to p o o r h a rv e sts and d em an d s o f th e m ilita ry ; real w ages
d eclin ed b y 2 9 p er cen t d u rin g th is in flatio n ary su rg e (W ard 2004: 354).

C o u r t C u ltu r e a n d C e n tre s o f Pow er

A lth o u g h E liz a b eth 's co u rt w a s based in p a la ce s aro u n d L o n d o n , m o st n otably

W h iteh all, R ich m o n d a n d G reen w ich , sh e em b ark ed o n su m m er 'p ro g resses'
w ith h er h o u seh old - fo llo w ed by am b itio u s co u rtiers. T h is w a s an id eal w ay
for h er to b e seen in resp len d en t g lo ry b y h er su b jects, to k eep an ey e on
n o b les w h o h ad estate s o u tsid e o f L o nd on, a n d to p a ss o n th e co st o f m ain
tain in g h e r royal retinu e. L ead in g n o b ility and g en try w ere co u n ted am ong
h er train ; and it is ev id en t fro m d o cu m en ts p reserv ed from the p erio d th at
th e se visits w ere rich in p o litical sy m b o lism : 'O n th ese o cca sio n s th e h o st's
h o u se and g ro u n d s b ecam e alleg o rical terrain ab o u n d in g in g o d s, n ym ph s,
a n d w ild -m en , w h o eu lo g ized the q u ee n in p rose o r v erse ' (G u y 1988: 427).
W riters frequ en tly d ed icated th e ir p ro d u ctio n s to h ig h and m igh ty w ith in
so ciety in th e h o p e o f g ain in g p ro tectio n , so cial a d v a n cem en t and rev en u e

42
 H istorical Contexts for the A g e o f Shakespeare

from su ch p atro n s. M o re g en era lly in th e six tee n th cen tu ry, it is cle a r th at

th e p o te n tia l ben efits o f ro y al fav ou r, if n o t p erm issio n to p ro ceed w ith an
eco n o m ic sch em e o r m artial en terp rise , w ere su fficien t to 'c o n so lid a te the
p osition o f th e co u rt a s the h eart and fo c u s o f th e p atro n age n e tw o rk ' (Load es
1987: 146). R oyal serv ice w as th e m o st v iab le ca reer o p tio n for an am b itiou s
g en tlem an irresp ectiv e o f h is fam ily ties. N o n eth eless, th ere w ere so m e fam
ilies w h o co n tin u ed to p ro sp er u n d er ea ch su cce ssiv e m on arch , m o st n otably
th e C ecil fam ily.

T h e C e c ils a n d R o ya l S e rv ic e

T h e g ra n d fa th e r o f W illiam C ecil, Lord B urgh ley - E liz a b eth 's ch ief

co n fid an t, secretary o f sta te and la ter lord treasu rer - had secured the
fa v o u r o f H en ry V II, m o st p ro b ab ly b y serv in g in th e y eo m an o f the
g u ard , and la ter a s serg ean t-at-arm s to H enry V III. H is fath er w a s y eo
m a n o f the w ard robe. W illiam a n d h is so n , R o b ert, 1 st E arl o f Salisbu ry,
h eld th e tw o h ig h est c iv ic offices in the lan d d u rin g the reigns o f
E liz a b eth a n d Ja m es. B itter riv alry e x iste d b etw ee n R o b ert C ecil and
R obert D ev ereu x, E arl o f E ssex , for th e fav ou r o f th e Q u e en , m o st
n o ta b ly o v e r w h o w o u ld b eco m e M a ste r o f the C o u rt o f W ards. This
w as an extrem ely lu crativ e p o st w h ich C ecil ev en tu a lly w on.

C o n c lu sio n

W hat em erg es from this su rv e y is a sk etch o f a d ev elo p in g , m u ltilateral notion

o f 'th e s ta te ' in S h a k e sp e a re 's lifetim e (1 5 6 4 -1 6 1 6 ), w h ere 's ta te ' and 'c o m
m u n ity ' a re n o t treated a s o p p o sites, b u t as 'p o in ts o n a co n tin u u m o f in terest
a n d id en tity '. T h e e a rly m o d e m sta te 'd id n o t b eco m e m o re a ctiv e a t the
ex p e n se o f so ciety; rather, it d id s o a s a co n seq u en ce o f so cia l n e e d ' (H ind le
2002: 16). T h e em erg in g state w as ch aracterized b y a co m p lex , fu n ction in g
sy stem o f law and g o v ern m en t, in clu d in g a p ro m in en t rep resen tativ e in stitu
tion , an aw aren ess o f its d istin ctiv e relig io n and cu ltu re, a n d an ex p a n d in g
a n d in creasin g ly in tern atio n alized eco n om y. T h e fo llo w in g h isto rica l tableau
p ro vid es a w ay to u n d erstan d S h a k e sp e a re 's L o n d on and E n glan d , w h ich , it
is h o p ed , w ill in fo rm a n d en rich y o u r read in g o f h is p o em s a n d plays.

43
oh.' o f Ga jn t,
Duke o Lancaster,
>Oli o i ED W ARD 111
Katv a*ine Swynfc'd,
dau. d ' Sir Roet of O vvp iTU d c - Katherine, ivioiv
Guiepe (a'l ter issue fit H lJR Y V
legitim ated fcy charter
o f R iC H A S : II, U S / )

r. 5*aere t ie au fo rt - E d T iu ic "udoi; Jatp er -doi;

( ' d in c'esoent} Earl o f Richm ord Ear. o f Pembroke

HENRY v il = tliz a b e th o f r c r t,
O'-i-l O d a j. c f ED W ARD IV

Arthur. = C ith e ri- e o f II) = HENRY VII; = !2) A n r e Boleyn, = i j ) Jar>e, aau = A n n a c b l . o i Duke o f C.eves
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of Wales 3 f FERDINAND V. o f W ltsnlre Seymou:
= | 5 ) C a tn e T in e , J o u . o f L o r a E d in - r t d
id 1502) :ir.v. King o f Suflin (e*. 15361 {d .i 537
M o v;- d !e x 1 W !
(Civ. 1533, d.'53)
* i6> Catherine, dsu. crf Sir I Bornas
sarr (H fN RV v'.l w a s h e rth irc
H U P II, M ARY I ELIZA3ETH I ED W ARD VI nusband! <.'
T < if y u l S[:.il
(1353-'558> c;w- so?: (1547-1533/

THE STUARTS 1603-1714

H<;fi*y MPcfnick, :lizabrth Frcdcrirk V.

3r n c e o l W ales (d. 16 G2) Elector Pala:ine
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I I
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(!714-:727J
 THE TUDORS
1485-1603

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CH A R LES II
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W .LLIA M .1
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(d.l/Oi) = A ld e h y d e .
d a u .o f E a rlo t
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<16?9-1702) !l6 8 *-1 '3 9 d ! ;1 7 0 2 -1 7 '4 ) !>'rriJf/s iTH e Old (VHfr'Wl&r) S tiu ie .k i. g rar:ti< ;Ss.ghr of
;d /.7 6 6 ', JO HN II, K ir.g o Poland
i o i m S o v e r e ig n s

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Y o u n g P-p lend er) S to b trg s i t th e io y o l Hcv-*? o< $tus'~)
<d.178fi!
 Shakespeare's Literary and
Cultural Contexts

Stephen Longstaffe

C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w

A cting 47
Authorship 48
Blackfriars Playhouse 48
Blazon 49
Boy Players 50
C ensorship 50
C lassical Heritage 52
C om edy 52
C ostum es 53
Court 54
Education 55
G lo b e Theatre 56
History Play 56
King Jam es B ib le 57
London 57
M asqu e 58
Earl o f O xford 59
Pastoral 59
Patronage 60
Plague 60
Playing Com pany 61
Props 62
Publishing 62
Repertoire 63

46
 Shakespeare's Literary and Cultural Contexts

Rhetoric 64
R om ance 64
Scenery 65
Stage D irections 65
Stages 66
Sumptuary Laws 66
Tragedy 66

T h is re fc rcn c c ch a p tcr fo c u sc s o n th e k ey elem en ts o f S h a k e sp e a re 's cu ltu ral

co n tex ts. It is in ten d ed to h elp y o u p lace S h a k e sp e a re 's w o rk in its broad er
co n tex t, a n d , alo n g w ith th e G lo ssary , to su p p o rt y o u r rea d in g o f o th e r
ch ap ters.

A ctin g

T h e p ro fessio n al fram ew o rk w ith in w h ich E lizab eth an and Ja co b ea n actors

w orked w as very d iffere n t to th at u su ally o p era tin g tod ay. U n d er the rep er
to ry sy stem , w hen th e th e a tre s w ere o p en a d ifferen t play w ou ld u su a lly be
p u t o n ea ch d ay. T h is m e an t th at reh earsal tim e w a s o f n ecessity lim ited ;
a cto rs w o rk ed o n th e ir 'p a rt' alo n e, so m etim es tak in g in stru ctio n from the
w riter. 'P a rt' h ere really d o es m e an th e a c to r's p a rt; as co m p a n ies b ough t
a sin g le m a n u scrip t from th e ir w riters, acto rs w ere n o t g iv en th e w h o le p lay.
R ather, th e y w ere g iv en th e ir lines, a n d p art o f th e p reced in g cu e lin e (see
A M id su m m er N ight's D ream w h ic h h a s so m e co m ic b u sin ess a b o u t c u e s b ein g
m ixed up).
G iv e n th e d em an d s o f th e rep erto ry sy stem , it is lik ely th at a cto rs sp ecia l
ized in p layin g p a rticu lar typ es o f ch aracter. T h e b e s t ex a m p le o f th is is the
clo w n - in S h a k e sp e a re 's tim e a clo w n wra s a co m ica l ch aracter, o ften w ith
a 'c o u n try ' o rigin. T h e e a rliest p rin ted v ersio n s o f S h a k esp e a re's p lays
so m etim es h a v e th e 'ty p e ' n a m e rath er th a n th e ch a ra cte r n a m e for sp eech
h ead in gs; in d eed , so m e 'ch a ra cte rs' h a v e n o n a m es a t a ll ('F o o l' in K in g Lear,
fo r exam p le). B ecau se tim e for 'b lo ck in g ' (w o rk in g o u t w h ere a cto rs w ou ld
sta n d a n d h o w they w o u ld m o v e o n stag e) w as lim ited , it is lik ely th at actors
w o rk ed b y co n v en tio n , so th a t a k in g w o u ld stand in a ce rta in w a y , and in a
ce rta in relatio n to o th e r o n sta g e ch aracters.
In ad d itio n , th e aco u stics o f o p en -air th e atre s, a n d th e d ista n ce o f so m e
a u d ien ce m e m b ers fro m the stag e, w o u ld h a v e d em an d ed a 'la rg e ' sty le o f
a ctin g , m a k in g u se o f stock g estu res a n d p o sitio n s to co m m u n ica te (so that,
for e x a m p le, th e re m ight b e a 's to c k ' w ay to in d ica te g rief, su rp rise, a n g e r
a n d so o n ). T h is in turn m e a n s th at th e a ctin g o f S h a k e sp e a re 's tim e w as

47
The Shakespeare H andbook

n o t striv in g for 're a lism ' in th e m o d ern sen se s o m u ch a s 'co m m u n ica tio n ',
p articu larly o f em o tio n s. A cto rs, p articu larly co m ic a cto rs, are likely to
h a v e a d d ressed au d ien ces d irectly in p laces, p articu larly in so lo s e t sp eech es
o r so lilo q u ies. A range o f sta n d a rd d ev ices co u ld d ra w th e a u d ien ce ou tsid e
the fram e o f th e story , am o n g st them a sid e s (w h ere actors sp e a k b u t are
n o t heard b y so m e o r all o f th o se o n stage), p ro lo g u e s and ep ilo g u e s (sp eech es
in tro d u cin g o r w rap p in g u p p lay s), ch o ru ses (lin k in g sp eech es d u rin g
p lays), d u m b sh o w s (w h ere acto rs m im e ev en ts), so lilo q u ie s a n d so n g s and
d an ces.

A u th o rsh ip

T h e ty p ical p lay o f S h a k e sp e a re 's tim e w a s w ritte n n o t b y a sin g le au th o r, b u t

b y a team , m u ch a s su cce ssfu l co n tem p o rary T V sh o w s a re , and for m u ch the
s a m e reason . W e h a v e record s o f as m an y a s fou r o r fiv e w rite rs w o rkin g o n a
sin g le p lay. C o m p an ies, e sp ecia lly e a rly in S h ak esp e a re's career, n eed ed a lot
o f p la y s in o rd er to o ffer so m eth in g d iffere n t to th e ir a u d ien ces e v e ry d ay, and
n eed ed to u p d ate and revise o ld o n es for revival. S in ce ed ito rs b e g a n looking
clo sely at S h a k e sp e a re 's p la y s, they h a v e o ften su p p o sed th a t p la y s p u b lish ed
u n d er S h a k e sp e a re 's n a m e are co llab o ratio n s. In e a rlie r ce n tu rie s, th is tends
to h a v e b een m o tiv ated b y th e b elie f th a t th o se elem en ts o f th e p lays n o t
m eeting cu rren t critica l stan d ard s w ere w ritten b y so m eo n e e lse ; recently,
co m p u te rs h a v e p ro vid ed m u ch m o re sy ste m atic k n o w led g e o f th e lin gu istic
stru ctu res o f S h a k e sp e a re 's p la y s, and h a v e led to a ra n g e o f theories
a b o u t S h a k e sp e a re 's w o rk w ith o th e rs o n , for ex am p le, H en ry V III, P ericles o r
1 H en ry VI.

B la c k fria rs Playho u se

A n in d o o r th eatre w h ich b e c a m e the reg u lar p la y in g p la ce for Sh ak esp eare's

co m p an y , a lo n g w ith th e G lo b e, fro m 1608. T h is w a s o n the site o f a D o m in ican
m o n astery d isso lv ed d u rin g th e R eform ation . In 1576, b o y co m p a n ies b eg an
to p erfo rm p lays in a ro o m w ith in th e co m p lex . In 1596, Ja m es B u rb age, w ho
h a d b u ilt the first p e rm a n en t th e atre in L o n d o n in 1 5 7 6 called 'th e T h e a tre ',
a n d w h o se so n R ichard w as the s ta r tragic a cto r w ith S h a k e sp e a re 's co m p any ,
b o u g h t th e p ro p erty for u se b y th e Lord C h a m b erla in 's M en , a s the groun d
lease a t th e T h e a tre w as d ue to ex p ire in 15 9 7 and leav e th em w ith o u t a p er
m a n en t base. H ow ever, th e p lan w as b lo ck ed b y lo ca l re sid en ts' ob jectio n s,
a n d th e Lord C h a m b e rla in 's M en u sed th e w o o d fro m th e T h e a tre to b u ild the
G lo b e o n th e o th e r sid e o f th e T h am es. T he B lackfriars T h e a tre w a s leased
b a ck to a bo y co m p any . In 1608 th e resid en t b o y co m p a n y o ffen d ed th e king
w ith o n e o f its p lays, and w as d isb an d ed . B y n o w the L ord C h am b erlain 's

48
 Shakespeare's Literary and Cultural Contexts

M en h ad b eco m e th e K in g 's M en , and th is m a y h a v e h e lp e d th em tak e o v er

th e th eatre w h ich they had so u g h t ten y ears earlier. T h e au d ien ce cap acity
w as ro u g h ly o n e-q u a rte r o f th e G lo b e 's. T h o u g h a d m issio n w as m o re ex p en
siv e at th e B lack friars, th e K in g 's M en p resen ted the sam e p la y s h ere a s at the
G lo b e. T h e B lackfriars, lik e all theatres, w as clo sed at the start o f the civil w ar
in 1642.
T h e stag e a t the B lack friars w as a d ifferent sh a p e to th a t a t th e G lo b e,
o ccu p y in g o n e o f the sh o rt w alls o f th e re cta n g u la r b u ild in g. W h erea s w ith
the G lo b e th e c h e a p e st p la ce to b e w as sta n d in g n e x t to th e sta g e , in the
B lackfriars th e ch e ap est se a ts w ere fu rth est aw ay fro m the sta g e. T h e d ifferent
sp atial arran g em en ts in this in d o o r th eatre a re lik ely to h av e a ffected actin g
sty le. A s the th eatre w a s sm alle r th an th e G lo b e, a q u ie te r and (p erh ap s) less
p h y sical a ctin g co u ld b e d ev elo p ed and , a s the sig h t lin es w ere b ette r than
th o se at the G lo b e, there w as p e rh ap s le ss need fo r m o v em en t in o rd er to
en su re ev ery b o d y g o t a good view . A t th e en d o f ea ch a c t th ere w a s an in ter
val in w h ic h th e can d les, w h ic h w ere th e o n ly so u rce o f ligh t, w ere trim m ed to
en su re sa fety , a n d m u sic w as p layed. O n e o f th e a d v a n ta g es o f the sm a lle r
sp a ce w as th at d ifferent, qu ieter, m u sical in stru m en ts co u ld b e u sed , and this
m a y a g a in have im p acted u p o n the c o m p a n y 's p ro d u ctio n values.

B la z o n

T h is w ord co m es from the French for 'c o a t o f a rm s', and refers to a literary
co n v en tio n u ltim ately d erived from G reek a n d L atin p o ets. A b la z o n ch a ra c
teristically d w ells o n o r lists p a rts o f th e b o d y . It w a s o ften u sed in love
p oetry, ty p ically co m p arin g p arts o f a w o m a n 's b o d y to n a tu ra lly b eau tifu l
th in g s (lips to ch e rries, fo r exam p le). S h ak esp e a re's S o n n et 130 b o th w ittily
p la y s o n th e co n v en tio n a n d u se s it to attack th e in sin cerity o f w ritin g o f love
u sin g tired co n v en tion s:

M y m istre ss' e y es a re n o th in g like th e sun;

C oral is fa r m o re red th an h e r lip s ' red.
If sn o w b e w h ite, w h y th en h er b reasts a re dun;
If h a irs b e w ires, b la ck w ire s g ro w o n h er head.
I h a v e seen ro ses d am ask ed , red and w hite,
B u t no su ch roses see I in h e r cheek s;
A n d in so m e p erfu m es is th ere m o re d elig h t
T h an in th e b reath th at fro m m y m istre ss reeks.
I love to h ear h er sp eak, y e t w e ll I know
T h at m u sic hath a fa r m o re p leasin g sou n d .
I g ra n t I n ev e r saw a g o d d ess go:
M y m istress w h en sh e w alk s tread s o n th e ground.

49
The Shakespeare H andbook

A nd yet, b y h eav en , I th in k m y lo v e a s rare

A s any sh e b elie d w ith false com p are.

B o y Players

U p until th e reo p en in g o f th e th eatres in 1660, w o m e n 's p a rts o n the p u b lic

s ta g e w ere p la y e d b y b o y s. T h e reaso n s for th is a re co m p lex . P atriarch al m o r
ality p referred w o m en to be ch a ste, sile n t a n d o b ed ien t, a n d an ti-th eatrical
w riters su g g ested th at p u b lic th e a trica l p erfo rm a n ce p osed esp ecia l m oral
d a n g e rs to p erfo rm ers and a u d ien ce alike. H ow ever, th is o b jectio n n a tu ra lly
w as v ery d an g ero u s to raise in relatio n to co u rt th ea trica ls o r m asq u in g : the
S tu a rt royal fam ily w as p articu larly fond o f su ch en terta in m en ts. D ressing
b o y s a s w o m en w as also th o u gh t b y so m e to b e d an g ero u s, b u t m o st o f
th e ev id en ce w e h a v e su g g ests th a t b o y s w ere co n v in cin g ly a b le to p resen t
w o m en a n d fem in in ity. F o r ex a m p le, w e h a v e an a p p rov in g referen ce to
the m o v in g n atu re o f a b o y 's p erfo rm an ce o f D esd em o n a in O lh ello . H en ry
Ja ck so n w rote o f a p erfo rm an ce in O xfo rd in 1610 th at 'a lth o u g h sh e alw ays
a cted h e r w h o le p a rt su p rem e ly w ell, y e t w h en sh e w as killed sh e w a s even
m o re m o v in g , for w h en sh e fell b a ck u p o n th e bed sh e im p lo red th e p ity o f
th e sp e ctato rs by h e r very face'.
O f co u rse, b o y s a ls o played b o y s (in p lays lik e T h e W inter's Tale o r M acbeth),
a n d a d u lts (in th e b o y co m p an ies in w h ich b o y s to o k a ll the parts). T h e songs
g iv en to w o m en in p lays lik e 2 H en ri/ I V (w h ere th e a ctio n sto p s w h ile the
la d y sin g s a W elsh so n g '), H am let an d O th ello sh o w th at b o y s co u ld brin g
p a rticu lar m u sical s k ills to the co m p an y , p e rh ap s b eca u se th e y h a d atten d ed
o n e o f L o n d o n 's ch o ir sch o o ls. S o m e bo y p la y e rs w en t o n to m a k e a liv in g as
a d u lt p erform ers.
C ritics h a v e recen tly b e g u n to ex p lo re m o re fu lly the th eatrical exp erien ce
o f w atch in g bo y p la y e rs, p rom p ted b y the d ev e lo p m e n t o f fem in ist and
p sy ch o a n a ly tic th eo ry, and have b e e n p a rticu la rly in terested in the w a y
y o u n g w o m en d isg u isin g th em selv es a s b o y s see m to 'p la y ' w ith gender. For
ex a m p le, in Tw elfth N ight a bo y p la y in g a w o m an (O liv ia) falls in lo v e w ith a
b o y p layin g a w o m an (V iola) p layin g a bo y (C esario).

C e n s o rs h ip

S h a k e sp e a re 's p la y s w ere p rin ted a n d p e rfo rm ed u n d er a sy stem o f ce n so r

sh ip w h ich licen sed p e rfo rm a n ce a n d p rin tin g o f a sc rip t sep arately . P erfo rm
a n ce in L on d on w as co n tro lled b y a c o u rt o fficia l k n o w n as the 'M a ste r o f
the R ev els' w h o se fu n ctio n in itially w as to m ak e su re th at p la y s offered for
p erfo rm an ce at co u rt w ere su itab le. H ow ever, b y S h a k e sp e a re 's tim e the
M aster ju d g ed all p la y s p u t o n in L o nd on, w h eth er th e y w ere to b e p erfo rm ed

50
 Shakespeare's Literary and Cultural Contexts

a t c o u rt o r n o t. T h e M aster saw a m an u scrip t o f th e p la y a n d eith e r 'licen se d '

it o r retu rn ed it to th e th eatrical co m p an y w ith su g g ested a ltera tio n s (usually
cu ts). In th e m o st e x trem e case o n record, after S h a k e sp e a re 's tim e, th e M aster
o f the R ev els bu rn t th e scrip t 'fo r th e rib ald ry (o b scen ity , ru d en ess o r
d eb a u ch e ry ) th at w as in it', a n d fined th e w riter. T h e re a re still a few o f th ese
o rig in a l m an u scrip ts in ex iste n ce w ith the M a ste r's co m m en ts o n them .
R ev iv als o f o ld p la y s w ere sim ilarly scru tin ized , th o u g h so m etim e s the
M a ste r w atch ed a p riv ate p e rfo rm a n ce ra th er th a n read a scrip t. F rom ex ist
in g ev id en ce, w e know th at a t d ifferent tim es th e M a ste r w a s likely to
o b ject to p erso n al satire o f in flu en tial p eop le, m o ck ery o r criticism o f frien d ly
foreig n p o w ers, a n d critical co m m en t o n th e g o v e rn m en t o r religious
co n tro versy .
B o o k s h ad a sep a ra te sy stem o f licen sin g , w h ich ch a n g ed th rou gh o u t
S h a k e sp e a re 's lifetim e. T h ey w ere licen sed b y th e C h u rch (tech n ica lly , b y the
A rch bish o p o f C an terb u ry ); in p ractice this w o rk w a s d o n e b y in d ep en d en t
a g en ts w o rk in g o n b e h a lf o f the au th o rities. T h is w o rk w a s n o t n ecessa rily
d o n e in a sy ste m atic o r co n scien tio u s w ay. W e o n ly h ave e v id en ce th a t one
o f S h a k e sp e a re 's three p u b lish ed v o lu m es o f p o etry ( V enus a n d A d on is) w as
scru tin ized b y censors.
S h a k e sp e a re 's w o rk w as p ro d u ced u nd er a v ariety o f oth er, le ss d irect
cu ltu ral co n strain ts. In 1606, an A c t to R estrain A b u ses o f P lay ers w a s passed
w h ic h fo rb ad e acto rs fro m 'je stin g ly o r p ro fan ely sp e a k o r use th e h o ly N am e
o f G od o r o f C h rist Je su s, o r o f the H oly G h o st o r o f th e T rin ity'. T h is is one
o f the reaso n s w h y S h ak esp e are's ch aracters s o o ften refer to, o r sw ea r by,
n o n -C h ristia n g o d s. R ev iv als o f p la y s first p u b lish ed b efo re 1606 had to be
a ltered to co n fo rm to th e n ew la w (th e la tte r d id n o t ap p ly to p rin t). It w as
also risk y to refer to p o w erfu l p eop le, w h eth er b y d ire ct referen ce o r in sin u
atio n . Sev eral L ond on th e atre co m p an ies w ere sim p ly clo sed d o w n becau se
they h ad o ffen d ed a p erso n w ith so m e p o litical in flu en ce; o ffen d in g w riters
m igh t b e im p riso n ed , o r called in fo r q u estio n in g at the h ig h e st level. T h e
ch a ra cte r 'F a lsta ff' in 1 H en ry I V w as o rig in ally ca lle d 'O ld c a stle ', th e n am e
o f a real p erso n w h o w as ex e cu ted for h eresy u n d er H en ry V (th e 'H a l' o f
1 H en ry IV ). S ir Jo h n O ld castle had b een h ailed a s a re lig io u s m arty r (rath er
th an a h eretic) in Jo h n F o x e 's g rea t refo rm ist w o rk , the ,4c/s an d M onu m en ts.
H ow ever, th e ch an g e o f n am e from O ld castle to F a lsta ff in Sh ak esp eare's
p la y for the p resen tatio n o f a fat, o ld , lech ero u s crim in al w a s p ro b ab ly linked
to p ressu re b ein g b ro u g h t to b e a r b y so m e o f h is d escen d an ts. In th e secon d
p a rt o f H en ry IV , Sh ak esp eare ev en h as F alstaff co m e o n a t th e en d o f th e play
to s a y th a t h e is n o t O ld ca stle , 'fo r O ld ca stle d ied a m artyr, a n d th is is n o t
the m an '.

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The Shakespeare H andbook

C la s s ic a l H erita g e

'C la ssica l' m e a n s p ro d u ced b y the civ ilizatio n s o f G reece and R om e o v e r a

th o u san d y e a rs b e fo re S h ak esp e are w as b o rn . T h e W estern d isco v ery o f print
in th e fifteenth ce n tu ry co n trib u ted to a 're n a issa n c e ' (reb irth ) o f in terest in
th ese g rea t p re-C h ristian cu ltu res a s p rin t m ad e them m o re g en era lly av a il
a b le. In literary te rm s, th e classics su p p lied co n v en tio n s a n d m o d els in a
ran g e o f g en res - ep ic, co m e d y , trag ed y , ly ric, satire, ep ig ra m , ele g y and
rom ance. S h ak esp e are's ed u catio n (see b elo w ) eq u ip p ed h im to read the Latin
cla ssics; h e read G reek wro rk s - su ch a s P lu ta rch 's L ives, a m a jo r so u rce fo r his
R om an p lays - in tran slation.

Com edy

A play w ith a p red o m in an tly ligh t-h earted ton e, rep resen tin g ch aracters
b elo w a ce rtain so cia l rank, w ith a h ap p y en d in g . E lizab eth an th eo rists o f
co m e d y tend ed to em p h asize its fu n ctio n s; ty p ica lly , to in stru ct a n d delight.
M o st R en aissan ce th in kers accep ted the idea th at tru e a rt h a d to h a v e a m oral
p u rp o se. F o r u s, co m e d y m eans lau g h ter; b u t for so m e R en a issa n ce thinkers,
la u g h ter in itse lf w as d ee p ly su sp ect. L au g h ter can , a fte r a ll, b e p ro v o k ed by
n oth ing m o re th an tick lin g , a n d y e t in o th er circu m sta n ce it m ay sig n ify a
d ism issiv e resp on se. T h a t said , in h is A pology f o r P oetry (1 595), S ir P hilip
Sid n ey d o es allo w lau g hter, s o lo n g a s it is su b o rd in a ted to a m o ral, co rrectiv e
p u rp o se: the d isp lay in g o f v ices to rid icu le, th e ro le s 'w h ich w e p la y n a tu r
a lly ' (th a t is, easily , b u t also fo o lish ly , a s a 'n a tu ra l' w a s so m eb o d y born
foo lish , lik e S ir A n d rew A g u ech eek in Tw elfth N ight).
'C o rrectio n ' is the te rrito ry o f satire, a n d Ben Jo n so n , in th e p refa ce to E very
M an In H is H u m ou r (1599), ex p la in s th at in th is sa tirica l co m e d y h e offers
'd e ed s, an d lan g u ag e, su ch as m e n d o u se / A nd p erso n s, su ch a s C om ed y
w o u ld ch o o se, / W h en sh e w o u ld sh o w an Im ag e o f th e tim es, / A n d sp o rt
w ith h u m an fo llies, n o t w ith crim e s'. T h e p u rp o se is co rrectiv e; b y la u g h in g at
follies o n stag e, a n au d ien ce is d ra w n to co n sid er th e rid icu lo u sn ess o f its o w n
g ree d , e n v y o r lust. Jo n so n b eliev es th a t th e m o st effectiv e w a y o f d o in g this
a s b y m a in ta in in g th e d ram atic illu sion. In the p ro log u e to E v ery M an In, he
criticiz es th e u se o f ch o ru ses (in the sam e y e a r th at Sh a k esp e a re u sed one,
v ery self-co n scio u sly , in H en ry V ), p e o p le g ro w in g o ld d u rin g the p la y , a
co u p le o f paid h and s rep resen tin g w h o le arm ies, co n v en tion al so u n d effects
o r d escen ts o f g o d s from th e sky.
A ll o f th ese d ev ices, a n d m o re, w ere ad o p ted a t o n e tim e o r an oth er, by
Sh ak esp eare, w h o w as m u ch less co n cern ed w ith su ch q u estio n s o f rep resen
tation al d eco ru m . S h ak esp e are's co m ed ies frequ ently d o h a v e a sa tiric point,
b u t sa tire is n o t their d o m in an t m od e. B ro ad ly sp ea k in g , they are co n cern ed

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 Shakespeare's Literary and Cultural Contexts

w ith p erio d s o f tim e, o r w ith p la ce s, in w h ich th e n o rm a l ru le s o f b eh av io u r

d o n o t ap p ly , w here n o rm a l cu ltu ra l p ressu res are forgo tten , o r w eak en and,
a s a resu lt, h u m an a p p etites a re exp ressed w ith o u t restraint. If Jo n s o n 's satiric
co m e d y sh o w s the n e g a tiv e sid e o f b reak in g so cie ty 's ru les, Sh ak esp eare's
ro m an tic co m e d y d em o n strates the p o sitiv e n ecessity o f d o in g so, o n b o th an
in d iv id u al and a so cial lev el. E n erg y is lib erated ; la u g h ter is created , b roken
fam ilies a re p u t b a ck togeth er, lo v e rs m eet. C hara cters 'lo s e ' th e ir id en tity , b u t
th e m o v em en t is from w in ter to sp rin g ; from d ea th to reb irth . G o n z a lo 's
w o rd s a t th e e n d o f T h e Tem pest su m it up nicely:

O , rejoice
B ey o n d a co m m o n jo y ! a n d se t it d ow n
W ith gold o n lastin g p illars: in o n e v o yag e
D id C la rib el h er h u sb an d find a t Tunis,
A n d F erd in an d h er b ro th er found a w ife
W h ere h e h im se lf w as lo st; P rosp ero h is d u k ed o m
In a p o o r isle ; and all o f u s o u rselves,
W h en n o m an w a s h is o w n . ( 5 .1 . 2 0 9 -1 6 , p. 3103)

C o stu m es

In S h ak esp e are's d ay clo th es in g en eral w ere ex p en siv e item s, a n d it w a s qu ite

u su al for th e co stu m es for a p ro d u ctio n to b e th e m o st ex p en siv e o f the
c o m p a n y 's p ro p erties (m u ch m o re v alu ab le than the scrip t). It h a s e v e n been
su g g ested th at th e G lo b e w as d esign ed s o a s to k eep th e ex p en siv e clo th in g o f
b o th p erfo rm ers and au d ien ce o u t o f d irect su n lig h t, th u s a v o id in g d a m a g e
b y u ltrav io let ligh t. C o stu m e s th em selv es g av e a ra n g e o f in fo rm atio n a b o u t a
ch aracter, th en as n o w - w h a t th e y did for a liv in g , w h a t th e ir so cial lev el w as.
S o in H am let, fo r ex am p le, co stu m e w o u ld d ifferen tiate a rela tiv ely m in o r (but
h ig h -statu s) role like an a m b assad o r from a lo w er-sta tu s serv an t. In fact, as
m o st o f S h a k e sp e a re 's p la y s in clu d e far m o re sp e a k in g roles th an a cto rs, the
a m b a ssad o r a n d th e se rv a n t m ig h t be p lay ed b y th e s a m e p erso n , w h o w ould
'd o u b le' th e ro le (d o u b lin g , strictly sp eak in g , is p layin g m o re th an o n e ro le -
o n e a cto r co u ld tak e five o r six very sm all parts). T h e ch a n g e o f ro le w o u ld be
sig n a lled b y an o ffstag e ch an g e o f co stu m e , and so m etim es p lays are stru c
tured so a s to m ak e these p o ssib le. S u b -p lo ts a re v ery u seful in th is resp ect, as
a re clo w n scen es. O n e o f the co n seq u en ces o f d o u b lin g is th at ch aracters
rela tiv ely in freq u en tly ch an g e co stu m e in character, to m in im ize p oten tial
co n fu sio n a b o u t w h ic h ch a ra cte r is w h ich . T h e m a in ex cep tio n to this w as
d isg u ise; b y co n v en tio n , a sim p le ch an g e o f clo th in g w a s a co m p letely
im p en etrab le cam ou flage. O ften w h en ch a ra cte rs d isg u ise th em selv es, they
eith e r p rep are the a u d ien ce b efo reh an d (lik e V iola in Tivelfth N ight), o r id en tify

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The Shakespeare H andbook

th em selv es in so m e o th e r w ay (as K e n t d o es in K in g L ear). O cca sio n a lly , m u ch

m o re ela b o ra te co stu m e s w ere co m m issio n ed . F o r ex am p le, th e p ro log u e to
th e seco n d p a rt o f H enri\IV , R um our, h a s a co stu m e 'p a in ted fu ll o f to n g u es'.

C o u rt

T h e E n g lish c o u rt w as th e n etw o rk o f p e o p le in p h y sical p ro x im ity to the

m o n arch rath er than an actu al p la ce (see E n g e l, this v o lu m e, C h a p ter 2).
T h e re w ere sev era l ro y al re sid e n c e s/p a la c e s aro u n d L o n d o n - S t Ja m es's,
G ree n w ich , H am p to n C o u rt, R ich m o n d - a n d the m on arch w o u ld also go on
'p ro g re ss', o ften to v isit p a rticu lar n o bles. W h erev er th e m o n a rch w a s, the
co u rt w as. P erso n al a d v ise rs and serv an ts had d ire ct a ccess to the m on arch ,
b u t th e co u rt w as fu ll o f o th e rs see k in g to g a in in o th e r w a y s - h on ou rs,
m ilitary a p p o in tm e n ts, p ro tectio n , fact-fin d in g m issio n s, lo b b y in g for a p a r
ticu la r cau se, th e rig h t to co lle c t cu sto m s d u ties o n an item , o r a m o n o p o ly
o n m an u factu rin g and so o n . It w as the m o st in flu en tial (and p o ten tially
fin an cially rew ard ing) in stitu tio n in the co u n try , and m u ch d ep en d ed on the
m o n arch 's o p in io n . F o r th at reason, the stak es w ere h ig h , and it w a s com m on
to th in k o f th e co u rt itself a s v o latile, fu ll o f flattery a n d corruption .
H ow ever, th e E n glish co u rt w as n o t m erely a se a t o f p o litical p o w er; as
th e g ath erin g p la ce for th e m o st in flu en tial a n d p o w erfu l p e o p le in th e nation,
it w a s also a so u rce o f cu ltu ral p atro n age fo r crea tiv e a rtists o f a ll kin d s.
F estivals a n d h o lid a y s o f a ll k in d s in v o lv ed the L o n d o n -b ased p la y e rs taking
th eir p lays o u t o f their o w n th eatres and in to th e co u rt, w h ere tem p o rary
sta g es w ou ld be p u t u p in a v ariety o f ro o m s, from th e v ery larg e to th e quite
sm a ll. T h a t they m ig h t b e called u pon to p lay 'b y ro y a l a p p o in tm e n t' w a s at
tim es an im p o rtan t p art o f th e p lay e rs' d efen ce o f th e ir p ro fessio n a g ain st
a ttem p ts b y th e city o f L o n d o n a u th o ritie s to reg u late, o r e v e n su p p ress, th eir
activ ities. A s o n e o f the 'K in g 's M e n ', Sh a k esp e a re w a s tech n ically a royal
serv a n t, and thu s en titled to w ear th e royal liv ery (u n ifo rm ). T h ou gh
S h a k e sp e a re 's co m p a n y b y n o m e a n s w as th e o n ly co m p a n y to p erfo rm at
co u rt, w e d o know th a t Ja m e s's co u rt saw a t least T h e M erry W ives o f W indsor,
T he Coinedy o f Errors, H en ry V , T h e M erchan t o f Venice, K ing L ear, T h e Tempest,
a n d T h e W inter's Tale. A t th e celeb ratio n s to m a rk th e w ed d in g o f Ja m es's
d a u g h te r P rin cess E lizab eth in th e w in ter o f 1612 w e know th at Sh ak esp eare's
co m p a n y p e rfo rm ed , am o n g st o th e rs, M u ch A d o A bou t N oth in g , 1 H en ry IV,
T he W inter's Tale, O thello, Ju liu s C aesar, and T h e Tem pest. C o u rt p erfo rm an ces
w ere ex trem e ly h elp fu l to th e p la y e rs, b o th fin an cially a n d p o litica lly . H o w
ev er, th e co m p a n ie s' m ain fo cu s, in b o th a rtistic a n d b u sin ess term s, rem ained
the v aried a u d ien ces a t th e L ond on p la y h o u ses (and, to a le sse r ex ten t, to the
a u d ien ces they m ig h t find o n tou r aro u n d the co u n try ). T h is relative
in d ep en d en ce from th e co u rt h a s often b e e n seen a s en a b lin g Sh ak esp eare's

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 Shakespeare's Literary and Cultural Contexts

p la y s (an d , in d eed , th e E lizab eth an a n d Ja co b e a n th eatre m o re g en erally ) to

a d o p t a w id e r ran g e o f sty les, attitu d e s, su b je cts, a n d sto ries th an m igh t
o th erw ise h a v e b een th e case.

E d u ca tio n

Sh a k esp e a re d id n o t g o to u n iv ersity . H e d id , how ever, re ceiv e an ed u catio n

a t S tra tfo rd 's school. In S h ak esp e are's tim e ed u ca tio n w a s a lm o st entirely
b a se d aroun d L atin , th e u n iv ersal lan g u ag e o f le arn in g in E u ro p e at th is tim e,
a n d rh eto ric, w h ich is th e use o f lan g u ag e for p a rtic u la r effects, esp ecia lly to
p ersu ad e. Sh ak esp eare is lik e ly to h a v e sp en t ten o r elev e n y e a rs rea d in g and
w ritin g L atin texts o f all kind s, in clu d in g p h ilo so p h y , literatu re and h istory,
a n d co m p o sin g p o em s and o th er w ritin g ex ercises. B y th e tim e h e le ft school,
Sh a k esp e a re w o u ld h a v e b een fam iliar w ith anoth er, n o n -C h ristian , E u rop ean
cu ltu re, a n d w o u ld h a v e read a t le a st a s m u ch L atin a s an u n d ergrad u ate
stu d y in g classics w ou ld tod ay. L atin w as n o t at th is tim e a 'd e a d ' language;
it w as th e m ain E u ro p ean lan g u ag e o f sch o larsh ip and scien ce (o r natu ral
p h ilo so p h y , as it w as called a t the tim e).
In th e sch o o l a n d u n iv ersity classro o m , th e p u p ils m ig h t freq u en tly be
ca lle d u p o n to disp u tatio in u tram qu e p artem . T h is L atin p h rase m ean s 'a rg u in g
o n b o th sid e s o f th e q u estio n '. In o rd er to im p ro v e th eir p ersu asiv e skills,
p u p ils w o u ld be req u ired to, fo r ex a m p le, w rite for and a g a in st a p articu lar
position , o r for a n d ag ain st a h isto rical perso n age. M an y p e o p le see this as
good train in g fo r d ra m a tic w riters a n d au d ien ces a lik e , as it en ab led them
im ag in ativ ely to create ch aracters w ith w h o m th e y are n o t n ecessa rily p er
so n a lly in sy m p ath y . T h e arg u m en ts o f th e d isp u ta tio n w o u ld u se a s b u ild in g
b lo ck s literally h u n d red s o f 'fig u res o f sp e e c h '. Today, w e reco gn ize o n ly a
few o f th ese - m etaphor, o n o m ato p o eia, m eto n y m y , h y p erb o le (all G reek
w o rd s, a s th e a n cien t G reek s inven ted rh eto ric), b u t th ere a re m a n y m o re to
b e found in S h a k e sp e a re 's w ritin g s. T h o u g h Sh ak esp eare w a s a p articu larly
crea tiv e ex p o n e n t o f it, a n y o n e receiv in g a rh eto rical ed u catio n w o u ld have
b e e n faced w ith th e ch a lle n g e o f co m in g u p w ith th e ir o w n ex a m p les o f
rh etorical 'fig u res' - for ex am p le, th e p a rticu lar k in d o f w o rd p lay to b e found
in F a lstaff's w o rd s 'w e re it n o t h ere ap p aren t th at th ou art h eir a p p aren t'.
A s p ap e r and in k w ere very ex p en siv e, ch ild ren also w ere req u ired to
m em orize h u n d red s o f lin es o f q u o tatio n s, and also in d iv id u al P salm s from
the B ible. It w o u ld have b e e n a v ery co m m o n e x p e rie n ce in th is so ciety to
listen to so m eo n e read in g aloud . In d eed , at a tim e w h en o n ly a fra ctio n o f
the p o p u latio n w as literate, this w as n ecessarily th e case. T h e B ib le had
b eco m e leg ally av ailab le in E n g lish in the 1530s, th ree d ecad es before
Sh a k esp e a re w as b o rn ; its e a rliest tran slators in to E n glish w ere co n cern ed
th at it sh o u ld b e m em orable. A p h ra se su ch a s 'A sk , and it sh a ll be g iv en you;

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The Shakespeare H andbook

see k , and ye sh all fin d ; k n o ck , a n d it sh all b e o p en ed u n to y o u ' (M atth ew 7:7)

is sk ilfu lly co n stru cted so a s to stick in th e m em o ry . S h a k e sp e a re 's ed u catio n
a s a ch ild a n d y o u n g m an also la y in h is g ain in g an u n d erstan d in g o f th e m ain
p rin cip les o f C h ristian ity : h e w o u ld h a v e listened to p reach in g, p ra y ers and
scrip tu ra l read in gs d u rin g h is ch u rch atten d an ce o n S u n d a y s and h o ly d ays.
H ow ever, stu d y o f S h ak esp e are's b ib lical referen ces sh o w s th at h e w a s w ell
a cq u ain ted w ith scrip tu re th ro u g h h is p riv ate rea d in g - for ex am p le, he
clea rly k no w s th e last b o o k o f th e Bible, R ev ela tio n , ev en th o u gh m o st o f it
w a s n ev e r read in chu rch.

G lo b e T h e a tre

A n o u td o o r th eatre b u ilt for a n d o w n ed b y m em b ers o f S h a k esp e a re's co m

p a n y , and th e ir regu lar b a se from 1599. T h is th e a tre w a s th e first th eatre
o w n ed b y S h a k e sp e a re 's co m p a n y ; th e co m p a n y had p rev io u sly played
in th eatres a n d lo ca tio n s belo n g in g to o th e r p eop le. It w a s Sh ak esp eare's
fin an cial sh are in th e G lo b e and o th er asse ts o f h is th eatrical co m p a n y w hich
m a d e h im his fortu n e (alth o u g h h is p lays co n trib u ted to the co m p a n y 's su c
cess, h e w ou ld h a v e b een p aid v ery little for d eliv erin g the sc rip t itself). T h e
G lo b e w as b u ilt in 1599 o n th e so u th b a n k o f th e T h a m es, and w as th e m ain
b a se for th e K in g 's M en u n til 1608, w h e n th e y acq u ired th e B lackfriars
P layhou se. A fte r th at year, it w as used in the su m m ertim e. T h e G lo b e bu rn ed
d o w n in 1613, d u rin g a p e rfo rm a n ce o f S h ak esp e a re's H en ry V III, w h en a
sp a rk from a can n o n se t th e th atch ed ro o f alig h t. It w a s reb u ilt, this tim e w ith
a tiled roof. W h en it w as fu ll, the G lo b e co u ld h o ld up to th ree th ou san d
sp e ctato rs at o n ce (a p ro p o rtio n o f th e p o p u latio n w h ich n o w a d a y s w o u ld be
a t le a st e q u iv a le n t to th e cap acity o f th e m o d ern W em b ley foo tb all stad iu m ).
T h e G lo b e w as a cy lin d rical stru ctu re w ith tw en ty sid es a n d th ree lev els o f
sea tin g . It did n o t h ave a roof, and so p la y s to o k p lace d u rin g the d ay in
n atu ral light. T h e stag e w as th ru st o u t in to a yard so th at the au d ien ce w a s on
th ree sid es. T h e re w ere tw o d o o rs a t th e b a ck o f the sta g e in to the b u ild in g
th ro u g h w h ich a cto rs' e x its a n d en tran ce s w ere m ad e. T h e sta g e had a tra p
d o o r (th is is u sed in H am let fo r the g ra v ed ig g er scen e; H a m let's referen ce to
the g ho st o f h is fa th e r as 'o ld m o le ' in the sam e play in d icates th at this sc e n e is
lik ely to h a v e featu red an a cto r b en e a th th e stag e). A b o v e th e stag e w as a
g a lle ry , w h ich w as u sed b y m u sician s, an d so m etim e s b y a cto rs (th e m o st
fam ou s u sage is p ro b ab ly th e 'b a lco n y sc e n e ' in R om eo a n d Juliet).

H isto ry Play

T h e 'F irst F o lio ' (see G lo ssary ) w as d ivid ed in to co m ed ies, trag ed ies and
h isto ries. T h o u g h S h ak esp e are w ro te m an y o th e r p la y s s e t in th e p ast, the

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 Shakespeare's Literary and Cultural Contexts

'h is to rie s' fo cu s sp ecifically u p o n m ed iev al E n g lish h isto ry , b e g in n in g w ith

K ing John a n d en d in g w ith H en ry V III. T h ere a re m an y n o n -S h ak esp earean
trag ed ies an d co m ed ies, b u t relatively few n o n -S h ak esp earean h isto ries. T h e
'g e n re ' o f th e E n glish h isto ry play (d efin ed a s p lays o n p o st-N o rm an co n q u est
E n g lish h isto ry u sin g sim ilar d ram atu rg y to Sh ak esp eare) in clu d es o n ly about
fo rty exam p les. It is thu s n o t a s e stab lish ed a g en re a s co m e d y and traged y
in th is p erio d . T h o u g h h isto ry p la y s b y S h ak esp e a re a n d o th ers rem ained
v ery popular, th e re w ere few n ew o n es w ritten after th e m id d le o f th e first
d eca d e o f th e sev en te en th cen tu ry.

K in g Jam es B ib le

T h is E n g lish tran slatio n , p u b lish ed in 1611, b eca m e th e 'a u th o riz ed v ersio n '
o f th e B ib le for ce n tu rie s to co m e, b u t it w as n o t read o r u sed b y Sh ak esp eare
h im self (see E n gel, this v o lu m e, C h ap ter 2). In d eed , clo se stu d y o f S h a k e
s p e a re 's b ib lical lan g u ag e h a s estab lish ed th at h e see m s to h a v e b e e n v ery
fam iliar w ith o ne tran slatio n , the 'G e n e v a ' Bible. Sh a k esp e a re also clearly
k new o th e r tran slatio n s, su ch as the 'B ish o p s' B ib le' (1568). T h e G en ev a Bible
w a s ex trem e ly p op u lar, in p a rt b ecau se o f the q u a lity o f th e tran slatio n , bu t
also b ec a u se o f its size (m an y B ib les w ere p u b lish ed in th e larg e F olio form at,
b u t th e G en e v a B ib le w as p u blish ed in q u arto ) (see G lo ssary ). T h e G eneva
B ib le w as first p u blished in fu ll in E n g lan d in 1560. S h a k esp e a re w a s also very
fam iliar w ith the sep a ra te p u b licatio n o f the b ib lica l b o o k o f th e P salm s
(kn ow n a s th e P salter) w h ich d iffers from th e G en ev a B ib le 's tran slatio n o f
th em . S h a k e sp e a re 's p la y s re fer m o st frequ en tly to M a tth ew 's G o sp el, and
th e n to th e P salm s.
H ow ever, a s th e K in g Ja m es B ib le w as b u ilt o n ea rlier tra n sla tio n s (see
E n gel, this v o lu m e, C h a p te r 2), and o ften th erefo re 'q u o te d ' th em , reading
it w ill g iv e y o u a g o o d id ea o f th e k in d o f scrip tu ra l la n g u a g e to w hich
Sh a k esp e a re a n d h is co n tem p o raries w ere accu sto m ed .

Lo n d o n

L on d on w as a ce n tre o f co m m erce, tra d e a n d m a n u fa ctu re a s w ell a s the

p o litical h u b o f the natio n , and co n tin u ally a ttra cted m ig ra n ts from a ll o v er
the co u n try a s w ell as P ro testan t refu g ees from p ersecu tio n s abroad (see
E n gel, this v o lu m e, C h ap ter 2). N o n eth eless, it sh o u ld b e stressed th at the
d ea th rate in th e city w as high, in p a rt b ec a u se o f plagu e. R ecen t stu d ies
estim ate th a t n o m o re th an th irty p er c e n t o f th o se liv in g in L on d on in the
six tee n th o r e a rly sev en teen th ce n tu rie s had b een b o rn th ere. T h e R efo rm a
tion m ad e m an y b u ild in g s and m u ch lan d av aila b le for n o n -relig io u s use; the
B lackfriars T h e a tre w as b u ilt o n lan d form erly b elo n g in g to a relig io u s order,

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a n d th e area in w h ich the G lo b e w as situ a ted w a s u n d er th e authority' o f the

B ish o p o f W in ch ester rath er th an th at o f th e city itself. In a d d itio n , th e social
m ix in L o nd on w as ex trem e ly d iv erse. H igh m o rta lity rates m e a n t a relatively
h igh p ro p o rtio n o f h o u se h o ld s w ere h ead ed b y w o m en ; th e re w a s a high
co n cen tratio n o f g en try ; the co u rt w as nearb y . T h e u n iq u e so cia l co n d itio n s o f
L o n d on, a city alw ay s in flu x and at th e fo refro n t o f so cial ch an g e, g reatly
h elped th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f th e u n iq u e th eatrical co n d itio n s o f Sh ak esp eare's
d ay. T h e city w as g ov ern ed by m em bers o f th e tra d e g u ild s. T h e se w ere
a sso ciatio n s g o v e rn in g crafts a n d in d u stries, su ch a s g o ld sm ith in g . M em b ers
o f th e g u ild s, like th e serv a n ts o f a risto cra ts, w'ere en title d to w e a r 'liv e ry ', a
d istin ctiv e u niform , a n d w ere in v o lv ed in g o v e rn m en t o n a lo ca l lev el, often
o n a v o lu n tary basis.
T h e relation b etw een th e city o f L o n d o n a n d th e th eatre w a s o fte n an ta g o n
istic. T h e city au th o rities so m etim es o b jected to th e a tre s o n th e g ro u n d s th at
they to o k p e o p le (esp ecially y o u n g peop le) aw a y fro m th e ir w o rk p la ce s o r
from m o re resp ectab le p u rsu its, su ch a s serm ons. T h ea tres, a s gath erin g
p laces for cro w d s, o ften p resen ted a p u b lic o rd er (or, in tim es o f sickness,
p u b lic h ealth ) p ro b lem . H ow ever, professional p layin g w a s a b le to su rv iv e
th rou gh a co m b in atio n o f factors: royal a n d aristo cra tic p ro tectio n ; th e siting
o f m any p la y in g p laces o u tsid e th e c ity 's ju risd ictio n (fo r ex am p le, th e south
b a n k o f th e T h a m e s); flexibility in to u rin g w h en th eatres w'ere clo se d and
(m ost o b v io u sly ) th e ability to k e e p p ay in g cu sto m ers co m in g th rou gh the
d oors.

M asqu e

A la v ish aristo cratic o r royal en tertain m e n t. In th e E a rly S tu a rt p erio d , the

co u rt activ e ly so u g h t a n d co m m issio n ed su ch th eatrical p erfo rm an ces. Jam es
V I / I 's co n so rt, A n n e o f D en m ark and h er lad ies-in -w a itin g a re k n o w n to have
tak en n o n -sp eak in g ro le s for so m e m asq u e p ro d u ctio n s. T h o se w h o co m m is
sion ed th ese sp ectacles o ften d em an d ed th e very b e s t th a t m o n ey co u ld buy
in te rm s o f d ra m a tic tex t, m u sic, d an ce, co stu m e and s ta g e effects. T h e p rin ci
pal su b je ct o f th e m a sq u e at co u rt w as p raise o f th e royal fam ily , p articu larly
the m o n arch . M asqu es u su ally w o rk ed alleg o rica lly , a n d em p lo y ed classical
m y th o lo g y . Stru ctu rally , th e id ealized e lem e n ts m igh t b e offset b y th o se o f
the 'a n ti-m a sq u e ', w h ich featured e lem e n ts o f d isord er, ev il o r u glin ess soon
ch allen g ed and d efeated by th e m a sq u e proper. T h e fou rth act o f T h e Tempest
featu res a 'w e d d in g m asq u e' for F erd in an d and M iran d a a t w h ich th e classical
g o d d esses C e re s a n d Ju n o appear.

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E a rl o f O x fo rd

E d w ard d e Vere (1 5 5 0 -1 6 0 4 ) p ro p o sed a s Ih e tru e a u th o r o f Sh ak esp eare's

p lays b y O x fo r d ia n s ' o r 'an ti-S tra tfo rd ia n s' (an altern a tiv e an ti-Stratfo rd ian
ca n d id ate is F ran cis B aco n , w h o did at least o u tliv e Sh ak esp eare). T h e b a sic
a n ti-S tratfo rd ian a rg u m e n t is th at S h a k e sp e a re 's p la y s are so p e rcep tiv e a b o u t
co u rt life a n d p o litics th at they m u st h a v e b een w ritten by a tru e insid er, a
co u rtier; eq u ally , su ch a n in sid er co u ld n ev e r allo w h is n a m e to b e a tta ch e d to
an y th in g a s lo w -statu s a s p la y s, so W illiam S h a k esp e a re o f Stratfo rd w a s
ch o sen a s th e 'fro n t m a n '. T h e m ain arg u m en ts a g a in st d e Vere are that
S h a k e sp e a re 's la te r p lays d epen d o n so u rces w h ich w ere n o t prin ted until
a fte r d e V ere 's d ea th , a n d th at the assu m p tio n th a t y o u h a v e to b e a full-tim e
m e m b e r o f a p articu lar co u rt in o rd er to w rite a b o u t co u rts in g en era l is in
itself u nsustainable.

Pastoral

T h e w ord 'p a sto ra l' co m e s fro m th e L atin fo r sh ep h erd , and is a literary

co n v en tio n id e n tify in g the often id ealized p o rtra y a l o f sh ep h erd s and
sh ep h erd esses in p articu lar, and co u n try life in g en era l. G reek a n d Latin
p a sto ral is p red o m in an tly a p o etic co n v en tio n . T h e co n v en tio n is b a se d on
the id ea th a t sh ep h erd s d o v ery little w o rk (a s o p p o sed to , say , p lou g h
m en), a n d co n seq u en tly h a v e a g rea t d ea l o f tim e o n th e ir h a n d s in w hich
to 's in g ' (cre ate p o em s), en jo y th e b eau ties o f n atu re and fall in and o u t o f
lo v e . G reek an d R o m an cu ltu re w a s p o ly th eistic, b elie v in g in m an y g od s
and o th er p o w erfu l n o n -h u m an bein gs. In the w o rld o f p a sto ra l, this m eans
th at an en co u n ter w ith a local sp irit, o r p e rh a p s e v e n a g o d , ca n n o t be
ru led out.
I Iow ever, G ree k a n d R o m an p asto ral p o etry d id n o t a ssu m e th at th is w as
h o w real co u n try p eop le liv ed . R ather, it w as a n o stalgic recreatio n o f a lost
'g o ld en ag e ' o f p e rp etu al sp rin g in w h ic h n o b o d y h a d to w o rk - th e natu ral
w o rld p ro vid ed ev ery th in g w h ich wra s n ee d ed , and p e a ce and so cia l h a rm o n y
p rev ailed . W riting ab o u t th is lo st w o rld w as n o t n ecessa rily sim p le esca p ism ;
it co u ld so m etim es b e a w ay o f in d irectly criticizin g th e m u ch w o rse w o rld in
w h ic h w rite r o r read er liv ed . B ecau se th e relatio n sh ip b etw een sh ep h erd and
flo ck had su ch o b v io u s p o litical p aralle ls, p asto ra l w ritin g co u ld h a v e sa tirica l
o r relig iou s m ean in gs. E qu ally, w ritin g o f th e jo y s o f a ru ra l estate, o r the
sim p licity o f co u n try life, co u ld b e b y w a y o f im p licit co n tra st to the an xieties,
co rru p tio n o r d an g ers o f c o u rt o r city life. T h e E u ro p ean en co u n ter w ith o th e r
cu ltu res (esp ecially a cro ss th e A tlan tic O cean ) g ath ered m o m en tu m d u rin g
th e six tee n th ce n tu ry , a n d g a v e p asto ral n ew p o ssib ilities o f m eanin g. H o w
clo se w ere th ese n a tiv e in h ab itan ts to G o ld en A g e sh ep h erd s? W ere they

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ig n o ra n t o r in n o cen t? D id it m atter th a t th e y too, lik e G reek a n d R om an

sh ep h erd s, w ere p ag an ra th er th a n C hristian ?
U n d erstan d in g th e ex p e cta tio n s su rro u n d in g p astoral w ritin g c a n help
b rin g in to fo cu s so m e e lem e n ts o f S h a k e sp e a re 's p lays. A M id su m m er N ight's
D ream a sso ciates the w ood s w ith su p ern atu ral b ein g s (fairies), m ag ic, getting
lost, fulfilling (an d m isp lacin g ) d esire; in o th e r w o rd s, it is an im agin ed sp ace
w h ere the n o rm a l ru les d o n o t apply. T h e seco n d p a rt o f H en ry I V p resen ts the
E n glish co u n try sid e a s a k in d o f m ello w a n d ben ev o len t en v iro n m en t a n d , as
su ch , p re sen ts a cle a r co n trast to th e h arsh n ess o f th e co u rt, h ig h po litics and
w ar. A s You L ike II featu res a co u rt d ecam p in g to th e forest o f A rd en , and
the rang e o f freed o m s a n d d isco v eries this en ab les. T h e Tem pest, a s sev eral
ch a p ters o f this b o o k consider, g ra fts the cen tu ries-o ld g en re o f p astoral onto
a v ery co n tem p o rary situ atio n .

P atronage

P atro n ag e is a sy stem o f recip ro cal o b lig atio n s b etw ee n parties o f d ifferent

eco n o m ic o r so cia l sta tu s o r pow er. A p art from th e rich est and m o st pow erful
m e m b ers o f S h a k e sp e a re 's so ciety , ad v a n ce m en t (and so m etim es su rvival)
d ep e n d ed o n cu ltiv atin g re latio n sh ip s w ith th o se in a b ette r position . This
w as p articu larly tru e o f w riters. T h e re w as n o co p y rig h t sy stem , a n d it
w a s v irtu a lly im p o ssible for a w riter to su rv iv e b y sellin g m a n u scrip ts to
p u b lish ers for a o n e-o ff fee.
S h ak esp e are w as en m esh ed in the p atro n ag e sy stem a s p o et, d ra m a tist and
actor. A s a p oet, h e so u g h t th e p atro n ag e o f H en ry W rioth esley, E a rl o f
S o u th a m p to n , to w h o m h e d ed icated V en u s an d A d on is a n d T h e R ap e o /L u c re c e
(1593) a n d W illiam H erbert, E arl o f P em b ro k e, to w h o m h e d ed icated the
S on n ets (1609). It h a s b een su g g ested th at P em bro k e w a s in flu en tial in secu r
ing K in g Ja m e s's p atro n ag e for S h ak esp e are's co m p a n y in 1603. A s an a cto r
and d ram atist, h e w a s u nd er the p atro n ag e o f (a t first) th e Lord C h am b erlain
a n d (later) K ing Ja m e s h im self, b u t for th e atre co m p a n ies p a tro n a g e w a s a
legal n ecessity . E ffectiv ely , th e p atro n p ro vid ed a 'p a ssp o rt' g u a ra n teein g th e
resp ectability , a t th e least, o f th e g ro u p , and co u ld prov id e p ro tectio n a g ain st
a n ti-th eatrical elem en ts w ith in L on d on a n d so ciety m o re g en erally.

Plague

A n ex trem e ly d ead ly d ise ase w h ich b ro k e o u t ep id em ically b etw een th e fou r

teen th and sev en te en th cen tu ries. It w as tran sm itted by flea b ites. In th e y ear
Sh ak esp eare w as b o rn , a q u a rte r o f th e in h ab itan ts o f Stratford -u p on -A von
d ie d ; th e vast m ajo rity o f th ese d eath s w ere th e resu lt o f p la g u e. In London,
the p lag u e e p id em ic o f 1593 led to th e d ea th o f so m e ten p er cen t o f the

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p o p u la tio n , and the clo su re o f th e th eatres fo r a b o u t tw en ty m on th s. T h e

e p id em ic o f 16 0 3 , co m b in ed w ith th e fu n e ra l o f Q u een E lizab eth , led to a
clo su re o f th e th eatres for o v e r a year, a n d a n o th er led to a clo su re for eigh teen
m on th s b eg in n in g in Ju ly 1608. T h e re w ere o th er clo su res in the su m m e r and
early au tu m n o f 1596 a n d the au tu m n o f 1605 a s w ell a s sev eral sm aller
clo su res. In the period 1 6 0 3 -1 1 , th e th eatres w ere clo sed for ro u g h ly h a lf the
tim e, w ith p lag u e b e in g the lead in g cau se. In an y case, co m p a n ies o ften
to u red o u tsid e L o n d o n in th e su m m e r m o n th s (w h ich w ere th e w o rst for
p lag u e), and relied o n to u rin g eco n o m ically (w ith th e o d d co m m issio n ed
p erfo rm an ce at a n o b le 's hou se, and u nd er Ja m e s 's p atro n age, th e o ccasion al
ca sh g ift) d u rin g tim es o f p lag u e. D u rin g th e 1593 clo su re, Sh ak esp eare w rote
h is lo n g p o em s V enus a n d A don is an d T h e R ap e o /L u c r e c e , and so m e th in k he
co llected and rev ised h is so n n ets d u rin g th e 1 6 0 3 -4 clo su re (th o u g h they w ere
n o t p rin ted u n til 1609). It h a s b een su g g ested , how ever, th a t o n e o f th e reasons
w e h a v e few er p lays fro m S h ak esp e are fro m th e seco n d h a lf o f h is career than
from the first is th at for m u ch o f th e tim e there w a s n o w h e re to p erfo rm them
in L o n don. B y th e o p en in g y ears o f th e sev en te en th ce n tu ry , th e cap ital
(rath er th an co u rt p erfo rm an ces) had b eco m e the m ain b a se for th e co m p any .

P la y in g C o m p a n y

A fu ll-tim e a n d d u ra b le trou p e o f acto rs, u su ally u n d er th e p a tro n a g e o f a

m em b er o f th e aristo cracy o r th e ro y al fam ily. T h e p a tro n a g e o f co m p anies
h a d g ro w n up in th e d ay s b efo re the p e rm a n en t L on d on th eatres to d is
tin gu ish g ro u p s o f p la y e rs fro m vag ab on d s. T h e n am es o f th e co m p anies
g en era lly in d icated th e id en tity o f th e ir p atro n ; Sh ak esp eare, fo r ex am p le,
w as a m e m b e r o f th e Lord C h a m b e rla in 's M en, th e first co m p a n y w ith w hich
wre can d efin ite ly a sso cia te h im . W hen K in g Ja m es ca m e to th e th ron e, the
m o n arch took o v e r th e ro le a s p atro n , and s o th e co m p a n y w a s ren am ed 'T he
K in g 's M en '. B o y co m p an ies w ere k n o w n eith e r b y th eir p a tro n 's n a m e, o r
b y th e v en u e in w h ic h they p e rfo rm ed ('B la c k fria rs B o y s', [St.] 'P a u l's B o y s').
T h ere w ere tw o k in d s o f th e atre co m p an y . T h e first w a s d ep en d en t u pon
o n e d o m in a n t fig u re, a s o rg an izer o r fin ancier. T h is w a s th e m o d el for th e boy
co m p a n ies w h ic h flo u rish ed fitfu lly o n the L o n d o n scen e, a n d for s o m e o th e r
a d u lt co m p an ies. F o r ex am p le, th e th eatrical im p resario , P h ilip H en slow e,
rented o u t th eatres to co m p an ies, b o u g h t p lays for them a n d p ro v id ed them
w ith co stu m e s a n d p ro p s d u rin g th e 1590s. W e still h a v e p a rt o f H e n slo w e's
'd ia ry ' w h ich in clu d es lists o f p ro p s a n d ex p en ses laid o u t o n co stu m e s and
scrip ts, a n d m o n ey receiv ed a t p erfo rm an ces o f p a rticu la r p lays. T h e o th e r
kind o f co m p an y , lu ckily for Sh ak esp eare, w as m u ch m o re d em o cratic. It
co n sisted o f an av erag e o f ten acto rs, a n d w as b a se d on g ro u p m an ag em en t
o f th e d ay -to -d ay b u sin ess, and an in co m e d eriv ed from p ro fit sh arin g.

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Sh a k esp e a re w as a 'sh a re r' (w e w o u ld n o w sa y 'sh a re-h o ld er') in the Lord

C h a m b e rla in 's M en and th e K in g 's M en, an d also in th e G lo b e T h eatre, w h ich
w a s b u ilt a s a d ed icated s p a c e for his co m p an y in 1599. It is th is 'sh a rin g '
w h ich m ad e Sh a k esp e a re en o u g h m o n ey to b u y h is p ro p erties in Stratford .

Props

T h e se are conventionally d ivid ed into th o se th e a cto rs can b rin g o n w ith them

('h an d h eld ' o r 'h an d p ro p s') and larger props, su ch a s bed s o r thrones, w hich
m igh t interrupt o r d istract from the stage actio n w h ile they w ere transported
o n - and off-stage. B efore Sh ak esp eare's com p any acquired the in d oor B lack
friars P lay h ou se in 1608 its u su al practice w as to p la y straig h t through with
n o breaks (this w as particularly necessary in the w inter, a s p lays did n o t start
u ntil 2 o 'c lo ck in th e afternoon and there w as n o artificial lighting). O ne
reason for the relatively few references to large props is th u s th e need to keep
the play flow ing. In ad d ition , o w in g to the fact th at the players m igh t h av e to
leav e th e p u rp ose-bu ilt theatres to play elsew h ere (for exam p le, b eca u se of
plague), it m ad e sen se n o t to h a v e elaborate props requirem en ts b u ilt in to the
action.
S o m e h an d p ro p s acq u ire sig n ifican ce a s th e a ctio n u n fo ld s: th e h a n d
k erch ief in O thello, for ex am p le. O th ers h a v e in th em selv es a ll k in d s o f
cu ltu ral sig n ifican ce. F o r ex a m p le, Y o rick 's sk u ll d o es n o t m erely con trast
w ith th e fo n d ly rem em b ered earlier en co u n ters w ith th e clo w n ; th e skull
itse lf w as a co n v e n tio n al sign o f m o rtality , the ce rta in ty th at ev e ry o n e w ill
d ie a n d be h eld to a cco u n t in th e fin al D ay o f Ju d g em en t. F o r th at reason , it
w as a co m m o n m o tif o n fu n eral m o n u m en ts an d so m etim es p e rso n a l jew el
lery. S o H a m let's h o ld in g th is prop is th e fo c u s fo r all k in d s o f cu ltu ral
m eanings.

P u b lish in g

T h e sc rip t o f a p lay b elo n g ed to th e th e atre co m p a n y o r im p resa rio , w h o paid

its w riter o r w riters a o n e-o ff fee. T h e w rite r's in v o lv em en t in th e p u blication
o f h is p la y s m ight en d a t this p o in t. Sh a k esp e a re, a s a co m p a n y sharer, w as
u nu su al in the le v e l o f in p u t h e co u ld h a v e o v e r p u b lish in g d ecisio n s; still, the
m ark et for p la y s (and th e m o n ey to b e m ad e from p u ttin g them in to p rint)
w a s lim ited , and h a lf o f S h a k e sp e a re 's p la y s w ere n o t p u b lish ed d u rin g his
lifetim e. P la y s w h ich ap p eared for th e first tim e after h is d ea th in th e First
F olio in clu d e Tzvelfth N ight, M acbeth, T h e T em pest a n d m a n y o th e rs. P o etry had
h ig h er sta tu s, a n d S h ak esp e are a p p e a rs to h a v e cared m o re a b o u t th e p u b lica
tion o f his p o etry th an h is p lays, p articu larly th e so n n ets. H is lo n g p oem
Venus an d A don is (1593) is h is m o st p o p u lar b oo k in th e period up to 1660.

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P oem s, lik e p la y s, w o u ld h a v e b e e n sold to a p u b lish er and a sin g le p a y m en t

(a c o u p le o f p o u n d s u su ally ) w o u ld h a v e b e e n m a d e to th e seller.
T h e p u b licatio n h isto ry o f S h a k e sp e a re 's p la y s is co m p licated . C ou n tin g
the p o sth u m o u s F irst F olio (see G lo ssary ), w h ich p re sen ts itself a s a 'c o l
le cte d ' d ram atic w o rk s, th ere w ere th ree su b sta n tia lly d ifferen t v ersio n s o f
H am let, tw o o f K in g Lear, tw o o f R om eo a n d Ju lie t and tw o o f R ichard III, to
n a m e o n ly a few. S o m e o f th ese d iffere n ces a re rela tiv ely sm a ll, b u t n o t all.
F or ex am p le, th e e a rliest p rin ted v ersio n o f H am let h a s 'T o b e o r n o t to be,
a y e th e re's th e p o in t / T o die, to sleep , is th a t a ll? A ye, a ll', in stea d o f 'To
b e o r n o t to b e ; th at is th e qu estio n / W h eth er 'tis n o b le r in th e m in d . . /
A s livin g th eatrical creatio n s, it is lik ely th at p lays w ere rev ised for a v ar
iety o f reason s (to u rin g , p erso n n el ch a n g es, crea tiv e secon d th o u gh ts); it is
also lik ely th a t th e m an u scrip ts receiv ed b y so m e p u b lish ers h a d to be
'm e n d e d ', 'im p ro v e d ' o r ad d ed to. It m ay be th a t a cto rs w h o had b een in
the p lays w ere co n su lted : th e ir m em o ries ap p e a r to h av e b e e n extrem ely
w ell d ev elo p ed , e v e n b y th e sta n d a rd s o f m o d ern acto rs. It is a ls o possible
th at scrib e s m ad e ch a n g es to the m an u scrip ts they co p ied , a n d th at those
in volved in p rin tin g m an u scrip ts ch an g ed texts in less sig n ifica n t w ays.
Ju st w h ic h se c tio n s o f w h ich te x ts w e can attrib u te a u th o rita tiv ely to
'S h a k e sp ea re ' is a so u rce o f co n tin u in g d ebate, n o t lea st b eca u se S h a k e
sp e a re m ay h a v e ch an g ed h is m in d a b o u t h is o w n p la y s d u rin g th e co u rse
o f th eir liv e s o n the stage.

R e p e rto ire

T h e ran g e o f p la y s a co m p an y o ffered d ep en d ed o n w h eth er th e y w ere in

L on d on o r o n tour. T o u rin g co m p a n ies w ere co n stra in ed in term s o f props
a n d co stu m es and they w ou ld o ffer a lim ited ch o ice o f p lays at ea ch v en u e. In
L o n d on, co m p etitio n b etw een co m p a n ies fo r au d ien ces m o stly led to them
o fferin g a d ifferent p lay e v e ry d ay. T h is w as certain ly th e situ atio n in the
1590s. I f a p lay w as reason ab ly su cce ssfu l it w o u ld b e rev iv ed a g a in , som e
w eeks later, so th a t th e 'r u n ' o f a su cce ssfu l p la y m ig h t tak e in tw en ty p er
form an ces o v e r a n u m b er o f y ears. If o ld p la y s w ere rev iv ed a fte r th e ir initial
run, th e y wrere o ften rev ised . S o T h e M erry W ives o f W indsor (a p la y p u ttin g
F alstaff in a co n tem p o rary rath er th an h isto rical settin g ) w a s rev ised to alter
a llu sio n s to th e no w -d ead Q u een E lizab eth . A p la y w ritten fo r a p u b lic, 'o u t
d o o r ' th eatre lik e the G lo b e m ig h t be rev ised to ta k e ad v a n ta g e o f th e scen ic
o r o th er p o ssib ilities o f a n in d o o r th e atre like th e B lackfriars. Sh ak esp eare also
probably rev ised h is p lays for stru ctu ral reaso n s, m ak in g m a jo r ch a n g es to
H an d el a n d K in g L ea r w h ich a re v isib le in th e d ifferen ces b etw een q u arto and
folio p u b licatio n s o f the plays.
O n e co n se q u e n ce o f the rep erto ry sy stem w a s th a t co m p a n ies p u t on

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co m p etin g v ersio n s o f th e sa m e trag ic o r h isto rical story - s o th ere w ere

sev eral p lays ab o u t H enry V. Sh ak esp eare w o rk ed very clo sely w ith ea rlier
p lays o n K in g Jo h n a n d H en ry V w h en h e w a s p ro d u cin g h is o w n , to the
ex ten t o f ev en liftin g lin es fro m them . T h e ev id en ce is v ery p atch y , b u t it
a p p e a rs th at co m ed ies w ere th e m o st p o p u lar o fferin g s; o n e a n a ly sis o f a
co m p a n y backed b y the im p resario H e n slo w e in th e p erio d 15959 6 cou nts
th irty -sev en p lays, sev en te en o f w h ich w ere n ew and se v e n te e n o f w hich
a p p e ar to h a v e b een co m ed ies.

R h e to ric

T h is is th e n a m e g iv en to th e u se o f lan g u ag e, w ritten o r sp o k en , to p ersu ad e,

a n d w as a m a jo r p art o f the E lizab eth an sch o o l sy lla b u s. Its a im w a s to help its
p ra ctitio n e rs a ch iev e su ccess by breakin g d ow n a p a rticu la r lan g u ag e u se into
its co m p o n en t p arts, w h ich co u ld th en b e ad d ressed in d etail. For exam p le,
rh etorical th eory b ro k e d o w n a p u b lic sp e ech in to id e n tify in g its arg u m en ts,
arra n g in g them in the rig h t order, em p lo y in g the rig h t sty le, m em orizin g
them and d eliv erin g th em . E ach o f th ese e lem e n ts w a s th en b ro k en dow n
fu rth er into fig u res o f sp e ech , o r 'tro p e s'. T h ere a re rela tiv ely few 'se t-p iece '
p u b lic sp eech es in S h a k e sp e a re 's p la y s - M ark A n to n y 's o ra tio n o v e r the
d ea d Ju liu s C a esa r is o n e ex am p le. H ow ever, S h a k esp e a re and th e ed u cated
m em bers o f h is au d ien ce (an d , by d efin itio n, his read ers) ap p ro ach ed literary
lan g u ag e, p articu larly its sty le and stru ctu re, w ith the k n o w led g e th at there
wra s an in cred ible ran g e o f d iffere n t rhetorical fig u res a t th e ir d isp osal.

R o m a n ce

T h e d efin in g featu re o f ro m a n ce as a literary g en re is its u n lik elin ess, a n d the

su b -cate g o ry o f 'ro m a n c e ' is now a g en erally a ccep ted term referrin g to
S h a k e sp e a re 's la s t p la y s - P ericles, C y m belin e, T h e W inters Tale, T h e Tempest,
H en ry V III and T h e N o ble K in sm en - w h ich featu re a v a riety o f u n lik ely
h ap p en in g s and situ atio n s. T h e se in clu d e h eav en ly v isio n s, g o d s d escen d in g
to ea rth , o m n ip o ten t m ag ician s and a statu e 'c o m in g to life '. Sh ak esp eare's
rom an ces are co m ed ies (and w ere so id en tified in th e F irst F olio ) in the sen se
th at they end h ap p ily , b u t they la c k co m e d y 's co n sisten t lig h tn ess o f ton e and
ty p ically also rep resen t so m e o f the n eg ativ e ex trem es o f h u m an exp erien ce.
In th is, and th e ir b lu rrin g th e b o u n d aries b etw een th e w o rld w e k n o w and
o th e r realities, they resem b le fo lk tales.

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S ce n e ry

T h e th eatrical trad itio n s Sh ak esp eare in h erited w ere m a n y a n d v ariou s. T h e

lo ca tio n o f a sc e n e , if on e w ere n o ted at all, w ou ld frequ en tly b e n o ted o r
im plied in the sp eech o f the ch aracters. T h e p e rm a n en t th eatres in London
em p lo y ed so m e v ery larg e p ro p s, am o u n tin g to scen ic item s. H en slo w e's
d iary record s a m o u th o f h ell, for ex am p le. O n e ex cep tio n to this in th eatres
like th e G lo b e o r th e B lack friars w as th e u se o f th e balco n y: th e p h y sical fabric
o f th e th eatre co u ld thu s fu n ctio n to in d icate, fo r ex am p le, th e w a lls o f a city
o r (as in H am let) a castle. In cases lik e this, h o w ev er, th e re is n o e v id en ce that
th ere w as a n y effo rt m ad e to 'd isg u ise ' th e b alco n y a s s o m eth in g e lse , thou gh
'h a n g in g s' (p ain ted clo th s o r cu rtain s) w ere u sed o n o ccasio n s to d eco ra te the
in sid e o f th e theatre, a n d so m etim es stages.

Stage D ire c tio n s

T h e se a re in stru ctio n s to b e found in a p rin ted tex t o f p la y s in d icating

a ctio n s, g estu res o r sp eak in g to n es. M any n in eteen th - a n d tw en tieth -cen tu ry
p la y s p ro v id e very fu ll in stru ctio n s ab o u t w h ere a n d w h e n a cto rs should
m ove, p erfo rm an actio n , e n te r o r exit. S o m e o f th em ev en sp e cify h o w actors
sh o u ld sp e a k th e ir lin es, u sin g b rack ets - for ex a m p le '(a n g rily )'. G o o d m o d
ern ed itio n s o f S h a k e sp e a re 's p la y s n ev e r sp ecify how acto rs sh o u ld speak
th eir lines, b u t they d o o ften ela b o ra te u p o n th e d irectio n s p resen t in early
p la y s and also 'in v e n t' sta g e d ire ctio n s o f th e ir ow n. T h e y d o th is to m ak e
w h at they th in k is h ap p e n in g clearer to th e m o d ern reader, b u t a s w h at is
h a p p e n in g (and, o ften , w h ere it is h ap p en in g ) is n o t a u th o rita tiv ely stated in
the tex t, su ch 'e d ito ria l' sta g e d irectio n s d o n o t s o m u ch d escrib e a rea lity as
crea te it. In ad d itio n , b o th acto rs a n d ed ito rs look for 'sta g e d ire ctio n s' to the
actu a l w o rd s sp o k en in c h a ra cte rs' sp eech es to g iv e them clu e s o n h o w a
s c e n e m ig h t b e p lay ed . If A riel sa y s g o ', it is p re tty cle a r from h is w ords
a lo n e th a t s / h e is m o v in g to w ard s a sta g e ex it. I f a ch a ra cte r sa y s 'm y lo rd ' it
is im m ed iately cle a r w h o th e y a re sp eak in g to. T h is k in d o f stag e d ire ctio n is
o ften k n o w n a s an 'e m b e d d e d ' sta g e d irectio n , b ec a u se it is em b ed d ed in
c h a ra cte rs' lin es rath er th an clearly stated in th e o rig in a l text. E v en 'o rig in a l'
s ta g e d irectio n s a re n o t n ecessarily from the au th o r; as the m a n u scrip t given
to a p rin te r co u ld b e a 'w o rk in g ' versio n , sta g e d ire ctio n s co u ld h a v e been
w ritten by d ifferent p e o p le a t d ifferent tim es, a n d co u ld e v e n h a v e b een
in serted b y a sc rib e m ak in g a 'fa ir co p y ' o f th e m a n u scrip t to g iv e to the
printer.

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Stages

W h en th in kin g o f h o w S h ak esp e are's p la y s w ere p erfo rm ed , it is b ette r to

think o f 'sta g e s' rath er th an theatres, b ec a u se w e h a v e record s o f m any
o cca sio n s w h en S h a k e sp e a re 's co m p a n y p erfo rm ed o u tsid e p u rp o se-b u ilt
L o n d o n th e a tre s - to w n h alls, th e In n s o f C o u rt, th e y ard s o f L o n d o n inns,
a risto cra tic h o u se s in sid e a n d o u tsid e L o n d o n a n d th e co u rt itself to n a m e bu t
a few. S h a k e sp e a re 's co m p an y d id ev en tu ally co m e to o p era te o u t o f tw o
p u rp o se-b u ilt L o n d o n th eatres (th e G lo b e and the B lackfriars). D esp ite this
v ariety o f p layin g p la ce s, th eatres and h alls sh ared a b a sic sta g e stru ctu re. At
the b a ck o f the sta g e , h o w ev er it w as sh a p e d , w ere tw o d o o rs v isib le to the
a u d ien ce. T h e v a st m ajo rity o f ex its a n d en tran ces w ere m ad e th ro u g h these.
S ta g e s th e m selv es co u ld be 'th ru st' o u t in to th e au d ien ce, w ho w ere th u s o n
th ree sid e s o f th e actio n and co u ld see ea ch o ther, o r se t m o re clo sely a g a in st a
w a ll o f th e b u ild in g o r at o n e ed g e o f th e space.

S u m p tu a ry Law s

T h e se w ere a serie s o f la w s b e g in n in g w ell b efo re th e six tee n th cen tu ry and

su b seq u en tly ex ten d ed w h ich a ttem p ted to restrict ce rta in ex p e n siv e o r high-
sta tu s clo th e s to p a rticu lar o rd ers o f so ciety . F o r ex a m p le, a 1562 p ro cla m
a tio n attem p ted to reg u late 'm o n stro u s a n d o u tra g eo u s greatn ess o f h o se'
[rid icu lo u sly b a g g y trou sers, then in fashion] b y sta tin g h o w m u ch cloth
ta ilo rs w ere allo w ed to u se in m a k in g th em , a n d fo rb id d in g a n y o n e below
th e ran k o f k n ig h t from g ild in g m etal accesso ries like sp u rs o r d agg ers. If
su m p tu ary law s had w o rk ed , it w o u ld h a v e b een p o ssib le to te ll so m eb o d y 's
so cia l sta tu s w ith so m e a ccu racy sim p ly b y lo o k in g a t th em . H ow ever, as
th ere a re m an y p ro clam atio n s attem p tin g to tigh ten up o n this p articu lar
b ra n ch o f la w en fo rcem en t, it is sen sib le to co n clu d e th at su m p tu a ry law s
w ere n o t resp ected , and th at m an y seized the o p p o rtu n ity to d ress lik e th eir
so cia l su p erio rs w h en th e ir p u rses allow ed .

Tragedy

A p la y w ith a p red o m in an tly so m b re tone rep resen tin g ch a ra cters p rin cip ally
from a so cia l elite and en d in g u nh ap p ily w ith a d eath . T h e o ries o f traged y in
S h a k e sp e a re 's tim e em p h asized its fu n ctio n a s a tru e rep resen tatio n o f the
n eg a tiv e asp e cts o f h u m an ex p erien ce (in S ir P h ilip S id n e y 's w o rd s, it show s
'th e u lce rs th at a re co vered w ith tissu e'). T h e m o st co m p ellin g represen tation
o f th is w as tak en to b e th e d ea th (an d , m o re im p o rta n tly , th e d o w n fall) o f
so m eo n e o f h ig h so cial statu s in w hom th e a u d ien ce had a stro n g em otion al
in v estm en t.

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Ju s t a s co m e d y h a d a v ariety o f sto c k ch aracters - lik e th e stu p id y ok el - so

tra g ed y so o n d ev elo p ed a ran g e o f reco g n izab le figures. E x a m p les in clu d e the
rev en g er and th e M ach iav el. M ach iav els (n am ed after th e su p p o sed ly
im m oral Italian h isto rian a n d p o litical th eo rist M ach iav elli) w ere , effectiv ely ,
p sy ch o p ath s, v illain s w ith n o co n cern fo r m o ra l co d e s w h o w reak havoc
b efo re th em selves d ying. 'R e v e n g e trag e d ies' (such a s H am let) typ ically
featu re a clash b etw ee n in d iv id u al h o n o u r and so cial and co sm ic govern m en t,
w h ere it b eco m es in creasin g ly clear th a t th e re v en g er ca n n o t su rv iv e.
W h ere co m e d y focu ses o n so ciety as a w h o le, a n d its ca p a city to renew
itself, trag ed y ty p ically zo o m s in o n o n e o r tw o im p ressiv e b u t flaw'ed in d i
v id u als a n d their in ab ility to e sca p e th e ir fate. T h e ex p erien ce o f tragedy
is ty p ically on e o f in creasin g ten sio n a s this fate d ra w s to its co n clu sio n , a
ten sio n w h ic h in so m e th e o rie s is 'd isch a rg ed ' at th e tragic d eath o f the
p ro ta g o n ist (A risto tle term ed th is 'c a th a rsis'). T h e tragic w orld is w ith ou t
m ercy o r ju stice, w ith o u t secon d ch an ces an d w ith o u t laughter. Tragedy
u n v eils the p o ssibility th at h u m an k n o w led g e and u n d erstan d in g m a y grow
in ce rtain ex trao rd in ary in d iv id u als (such a s p ro tag o n ists) d u rin g tim es o f
in ten se su fferin g b u t co n v e n tio n a lly it p laces rig o ro u s lim its on h u m an
a u to n o m y . W e frequ en tly d isco v er the tragic h ero o r h ero in e ca u g h t b etw een
m u tu ally ex c lu siv e co d e s o f b eh a v io u r a n d su b seq u en tly d estro y ed spiritu ally
a n d p h y sically by the co n se q u e n ce s o f th e ir actions.

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How to Read Shakespeare
This p a g e intentionally left blank
 Case Studies in Reading I
Reading the Texts

Kirk M eln iko ff

C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w

Sh akespeare's English 72
Shakespeare's Verse 73
Analysing the Sonnet 75
Language and D ram atic C om m unication 77
Sh akespeare's Prose 79
The M ovem ent betw een Poetry and Prose 82
Shakespeare's Imagery 84
Plays as D ram atic Poems 86
Sh akespeare's W ord-play 87
Language and the Lower O rders 89
Sh akespeare's Language Experts 90

In th is ch ap ter, w e w ill ex am in e th e v ariou s d im en sio n s o f Sh ak esp eare's

v erb a l art. Sh ak esp eare w as, a fte r a ll, a p o et a s w ell as a d ram atist, in terested
a s m u ch in the fin er d etails o f lan g u ag e - its so u n d , its rh y th m , its gram m ar,
its a m b ig u ities etc. - a s h e w as in actio n , ch a ra cte r a n d plot. T h ro u g h o u t his
d ra m a tic career, how ever, Sh ak esp eare n ev e r tired o f m o ck in g th o se w ho
o v er-read o r th o u g h tlessly o b sess ab o u t lang u ag e. In th e p lays th at w e have
tak en a s o u r o b jects, M alvo lio and P o lo n iu s are m o st g u ilty o f th ese respective
sin s, bu t literally d o zen s o f sim ilarly flaw ed ch ara cters e x ist in the full b o d y o f
S h a k e sp e a re 's d ra m a tic w o rk . A s w e ex p lo re h is E n g lish , h is cra ft in poetic
co m p o sitio n and his w o rd -p lay , w e w ill bear th is in m in d , rem em b erin g
a lw a y s th at S h ak esp e are's la n g u a g e is a p a rt o f a la rg e r a rtistic w h ole.

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S h a k e sp e a re 's En g lish

To s a y th at S h a k e sp e a re 's E ngland w as a n ation in tran sitio n is n o t, o n the

face o f it, a sta rtlin g o b serv atio n . T ran sitio n , o f co u rse, co u ld b e sa id to be
the in ev itab le co n d itio n o f all n atio n s, m o d e m o r early m o d ern . B u t w hen
Sh a k esp e a re w as b o rn in 1564, E n g lan d w as in the m id st o f u np reced en ted
ch a n g e (se c E n g e l, th is v o lu m e, C h a p te r 2). A cco m p a n y in g th ese d ev e lo p
m en ts w a s a sig n ifica n t sh ift in th e fortu n es o f th e n a tio n 's v ern acu lar, o r
n ativ e lang u ag e. A t th e b eg in n in g o f the six tee n th cen tu ry, E n g lish w a s rou
tin ely m aligned for its lim ited v o cab u lary and cru d e w o rk in g s. French
rem ained the preferred m ed iu m o f th e so cial elite, and L atin and G ree k w ere
still th o u gh t th e o n ly accep tab le lan g u ag es fo r sch o la rs. B o lstered b y the
em erg en ce o f a n a tiv e p rin t in d u stry and d riv en b y P ro testa n tism 's fo cu s o n
la ity a ccess to a v ern acu lar B ib le (see E n g e l, this v o lu m e, C h a p ter 2 ), how ever,
E n glish w o u ld q u ick ly su p p lan t F ren ch an d riv a l L atin . B y th e la ter years
o f the ce n tu ry , n o t o n ly w o u ld its v o cab u lary b e g reatly ex p a n d e d b y as
m an y as 10,000 n ew w o rd s, b u t its ascen t w ould b e en su red b y sp ectacu lar
n ew w o rks w ritten in th e v ern acu lar lik e S p e n se r's Faerie Q u een e (1590) and
th e K in g Ja m es B ib le (1611) (see E ngel a n d L o n g sta ffe ch a p ters 1 a n d 2,
th is volu m e).
In fact, it w as d u rin g S h a k e sp e a re 's lifetim e th at w ritte n E n g lish w a s taking
a n u m b er o f im p o rtan t step s to w ard s b eco m in g the la n g u ag e th at w e reco g
n ize to d ay . N ev erth eless, S h a k e sp e a re 's E n g lish can still see m u n fa m ilia r to
the m o d ern e a r a n d ey e for a n u m b er o f reason s. T h is is m ain ly b eca u se at the
e n d o f th e six tee n th ce n tu ry , sp e llin g a n d g ram m a r h a d y e t to b e stan d ard
ized , m e a n in g th at fo r S h ak esp e are a n d h is co n tem p o ra ries th e re w a s n eith er
o n e correct sp e llin g o f a w ord n o r th e sa m e restrictio n s o v e r w h ere o n e put
w o rd s in a sen ten ce. O u r m o d ern E n g lish ed itio n s o f S h a k esp e a re's plays
h av e v eiled the cap ricio u s sp e llin g o f a p lay w rig h t w h o d u rin g h is lifetim e
sp elled h is n a m e in at least tw o d ifferent w ays: 'S h a k sp e re ' a n d 'S h a k sp e a re'.
B u t S h ak esp e are's v a ria b le gram m ar, essen tial a s w e sh a ll see in co n stru ctin g
the rh y th m ic flow o f h is v erse and p rose, still lo o m s large. In co m p o sin g
q u estio n s, Sh ak esp eare co u ld c h o o se b etw een tw o b a sic p attern s, eith e r fo rm
in g them w ith the m o re m o d e m 'd o ' o r th rou gh th e n o w -o b so lete m eth od
o f in v ersion . H am let, for ex a m p le, ask s H o ratio 'S ta y ed [the g h o stj lo n g ? ' (1.
2 . 235). B u t h e also co u ld h a v e ask ed , 'D id [th e g h o st] sta y lo n g ?' S im ila rly , in
form in g n e g a tiv e statem en ts, Sh a k esp e a re co u ld ch o o se b etw ee n p u ttin g 'd o
n o t' b efo re a verb o r p lacin g 'n o t' after th e v erb . In T h e T em pest's ep ilog u e,
P rosp ero a sk s th e a u d ien ce to 'Let m e not [m y em p h asis] [ . . . ] d w ell. In this
b a re islan d b y y o u r sp e ll' (5 -8 ); if m e tre w ere n o t an issu e, h e also co u ld h ave
a sk ed , D o n ot let m e [m y em p h asis] [ . . . ] d w ell / In th is b are islan d b y y ou r
sp ell'.

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Sh ak esp eare a ls o h a d m o re o p tio n s w h en it ca m e to v erb en d in g s and p ro

n ouns. F o r h is p re sen t-ten se v erb s in th e th ird -p erso n singu lar, eith er '-e s ' o r
'-e th ' co u ld b e u sed . In th e follo w in g tw o -lin e ex a m p le from S o n n e t 135,
Sh ak esp eare em p lo y s b o th o p tio n s follo w in g th e su b je ct 'se a ':

T h e sea, all w ater, y e t receives rain still,

A n d in ab u n d an ce ad d eth to h is store, [m y em p h asis] (p. 1969)

H ere, th e so n n e t's te n -sy llab le lin e ex p lain s w h y 'th e se a ' first 'rece iv e s rain
s till' and th en 'a d d e th ("a b u n d a n ce "] to h is sto re '. 'R e c e iv e th ' w o u ld h a v e
g iv en th e fo rm er lin e elev en sy llab les, w h ile 'a d d s ' w o u ld h a v e g iv en the
latter n in e sy llab les. In h is p lays, w h en th e requ irem en ts o f rhythm and m etre
w ere n o t at issu e, S h ak esp e are g en era lly see m s to h a v e fav ou red the en d in g '-
e th ' for h is m o re form al scenes.
F orm ality w a s also at issu e in S h ak esp e are's ch o o sin g to use th e secon d -
p erso n p ro n o u n s 'th e e ', 'th o u ', 'th y ' a n d 'th in e ' a s o p p o sed to 'y o u ' a n d 'y o u r'.
D u rin g the six tee n th ce n tu ry , frien d s, fam ily and a cq u a in ta n ces ad d ressed
o n e a n o th er u sing 'th o u ' a n d its v a rio u s form s. 'Y o u ' and 'y o u r ' w ere reserved
for m o re form al situ atio n s a n d w h en a so cia l in ferio r w a s a d d ressin g h is o r
h er su p erior. T h e m o re in fo rm al 'th o u ' co u ld co n v ersely b e u sed b y a social
s u p erio r o r eld er in resp ectiv ely ad d ressin g an in ferio r o r y ou th . H am let's
p ast in tim acy w ith O p h elia is su g g ested in h is letter to h er b y h is u se o f the
m o re p e rso n a l 'th e e ' and 'th in e ' in the clo sin g : ' "B u t th at I lo v e th ee b e s t, O
m o st b est, b elie v e it. A dieu. / T h in e ev erm o re, m o st d e a r lad y, w h ilst this
m ach in e is to h im , / H a m le t" ' (2. 2. 1 2 1 -2 4 , pp. 1 6 9 3 -4 ). In a n o th er exam p le,
O rsin o 's u se o f 'th o u ' and its fo rm s in his first in tera ctio n w ith 'C e sa rio ' (the
d isg u ised V iola) u n d ersco res h is o w n s e n se o f so cia l su p erio rity : 'C esa rio , /
T h o u k n o w 'st n o less b u t all. 1 h a v e u n clasp ed / T o th ee the b o o k e v e n o f m y
secret so u l. / T h erefo re, g o o d y ou th , ad d ress th y g a it u nto her, / B e not
d en ied access [ . . . ] / Till thou h ave a u d ien ce' (1. 4 . 1 2 -1 7 , p. 1774). O rsin o 's
u se o f th ou and thin e at th e sa m e tim e, how ever, iro n ically in v ites V io la's o w n
d esire for m o re fam iliarity w ith him a s h is belo ved .

S h a k e sp e a re 's V erse

A lo n g w ith its n o w arch aic gram m ar, S h a k e sp e a re 's d ra m a tic la n g u a g e can

also s e e m alien in o th e r w a y s w ith its n o rm a tiv e 's w e ll'. L ik e m o st o f the
six tee n th -cen tu ry p ro fessio n al p lay w rig h ts, Sh a k esp e a re w rote p o etic d ram a,
w h ic h m eans th a t ta k en to g eth er th e m ajo rity o f S h a k e sp e a re 's d ram atic
la n g u ag e is w ritten not in p rose, b u t in so m e fo rm o f verse. M o st o f the
lin es in h is p lays, in o th e r w o rd s, co n tain a set n u m b er o f sy lla b les a n d a
regu lar rh y th m ic pattern . In read ing S h a k e sp e a re 's p lays (as o p p o sed to

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w a tch in g th em ), th e d ifferen ce b etw ee n S h a k e sp e a re 's v erse and p ro se is u su

a lly a p p aren t in th e la y o u t o f th e prin ted p age. G iv e n below is th e o p en in g o f
T w elfth N ight's first sc e n e , a scen e w ritte n en tirely in v erse. U n d ern ea th the
em b o ld en ed A ct a n d scen e n u m b er ('1 .1 ') a n d th e o p en in g s ta g e d irectio n for
'M usic' to b e played and ch aracters to E nter' are the first eig h t lin es o f a
sp e ech to b e sp o k en b y O rsin o , the D uke o f Ilyria. T h is sp eech is in v erse, and
th is is ty p o g rap h ically in d icated b y th e facts th at: (1) O rsin o 's lin es d o n o t
ex ten d to th e ed g e o f the rig h t m arg in and that: (2) ea ch o f th em b eg in s w ith a
ca p italized w ord (even th o u gh m o st o f th em d o n o t b eg in a new sen ten ce):

1.1
M u sic. E n ter O R S IN O D u ke o f Illy ria, C U R IO , a n d o th er lords
O R S IN O If m u sic b e th e fo o d o f love, play on,
G iv e m e e x c e ss o f it th at, su rfeitin g ,
T h e a p p e tite m a y sick en a n d so die.
T h at strain ag ain , it had a d y in g fall.
O , it ca m e o 'e r m y ea r lik e the sw e e t sou n d
T h at b reath es u p o n a b a n k o f violets,
Stealin g a n d g iv in g odour. E n ou g h , n o m ore,
'T is n o t so sw eet n o w a s it w as before. ( 1 . 1 . 1 - 8 , p. 1768)

C o n v e rsely , Tivelfth N ight's third scen e is w ritten en tirely in p rose. G iven

b elo w is th e o p en in g o f th is third scen e, w ith the first sp e ech b e g in n in g u n d er
the em b o ld en ed A c t a n d sc e n e n u m b er ('1 .3 ') a n d th e o p en in g sta g e d irection.

1.3
E n ter S IR T O B Y [Belch] a n d M A R IA
S IR T O B Y W h at a p lag u e m ean s m y n iece to ta k e th e d ea th o f h er b ro th er
th u s? I am su re c a re 's an en e m y to life. ( 1 .3 . 1 - 2 , p. 1771)

U n lik e th e ty p o g rap h ical ap p e a ra n ce o f th e p rev io u s scen e, h ere (1) Sir T oby's

o p en in g lin e ex ten d s to th e rig h t m arg in a n d (2) th e b eg in n in g o f h is su cce s
siv e lin e is n o t cap italized .
T h ro u g h o u t h is p lays a n d p o etry , S h a k e sp e a re 's preferred m etrica l pattern
is iam bic pen tam eter. It is th e rh y th m in wTh ich O rsin o sig h s 'I f m u sic b e the
fo o d o f lo v e , p lay o n ' in th e lin es q u o ted ab o v e, a n d it is the p o etic m etre in
w h ich H am let fam ou sly ask s T o b e o r n o t to be . . . ' . Iam bic is the ad jectival
form o f iam b an d re fe rs to a tw o -sy llab le m etrical u n it ( a fo o t ) in w h ic h th e first
sy lla b le is u n stressed and th e seco n d sy lla b le is stressed . T h ere a re m an y
co m m o n w o rd s th at are b y th em selves iam b ic in th e ir stress p a ttern s like
b eh old (b / h o ld ), untie (tin / tie), and again st ( / g ain st). T h e m o st com m on
m etrical feet o r u n its in e a rly E n glish p o etry are, a lo n g w ith th e iam b, the
trochee (stre sse d /u n stre sse d ), th e d acty l (s tre sse d /u n s tre ss e d /u n stre ss e d ), the

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an ap aest (u n stre sse d /u n stre sse d /stre ss e d ) and the sp o n d ee (stre sse d /stre sse d ).
P en tam eter refers to a p o etic lin e th a t co n ta in s five m etrica l u n its. In
S h a k e sp e a re 's d a y , th e m o st co m m o n ly em p lo y ed m etres w ere trim eter (three
m etrical u n its), tetram eter (fo u r m etrical u nits), p en tam eter, h ex am eter (six
m etrical u n its) and h ep tam eter (sev en m etrical units).
S h ak esp e are's lik in g for iam b ic p en tam eter had m a n y ro o ts. Im m ortalized
in C h a u c e r's C an terb u ry Tales tw o ce n tu rie s earlier, th e m etrica l p a tte rn had
b eco m e a m ainstay o f E n g lish p o etry b y th e e n d o f th e six tee n th cen tu ry. It
had h elp ed to en liv e n th e ly ric p o etry o f W y att, H o w ard a n d S id n e y ; bolstered
the a m b itio u s in ten tio n s o f S p e n se r in h is ep ic F aerie Q u een e and u nd erpinn ed
the m igh ty lin es o f S h ak esp e are's ill-fated co n tem p o ra ry C h risto p h er M arlow e
in T am bu rlaine and D octor Faustu s. B u t p e rh ap s m o re im p o rtan tly , it w a s
also th e rh y th m ic m etre th o u gh t clo sest to ev e ry d a y sp e ech , b o th in its
u n s tre sse d /stre s se d rh y th m (rem in iscen t o f th e b e a t o f a h u m a n h e a rt - d e
d u m , d e d u m , d e d u m ) a n d in its len gth (sim ilar to th e sp an o f a n o rm al breath).
T h u s, in iam bic p entam eter, Sh ak esp eare found an id eal v eh icle for the
ex trao rd in ary y e t p aten tly h u m an p erso n alities th at he w ou ld crea te for his
co m ed ies, h isto ry p lays, trag ed ies and rom ances.
In fash io n in g th e rh y th m ic m u sin g s o f V iola, H am let, P rin ce H al, Prospero
a n d o th e rs, S h ak esp e are w as u n d o u b ted ly in sp ired b y h is e x te n siv e early
w o rk w ith th e so n n et (see G lo ssary ). In to ta l, Sh ak esp eare pen n ed 1 5 4 o f th ese
sh o rt ly ric lo v e p o em s. F irst p u b lish ed to g eth er in 1 6 0 9 , th ese so n n ets are
fam ou sly id io sy n cratic in th e ir tw o ad d ressees: th e first 126 a re d ed ica ted to
a 'y o u n g m a n '; w h ile th e la s t 2 8 are d ed icated to a 'd a rk la d y '. Follo w in g
the p o etic co n v en tio n s o f th e tim e, a lm o st all o f th em a re co m p o sed u sin g
ia m b ic p en tam eter, a n d to g eth er they d o cu m en t S h a k e sp e a re 's ch a n g in g
p o etic e n g a g e m en t w ith tw o v ery d iffere n t b elo v ed s. A s su ch , they afford
ex cellen t e x a m p les o f S h a k e sp e a re 's m eth od s o f ex p ressio n w ith in h is fav ou r
ite rh y th m ic m etre.

A n a ly sin g th e S o n n et

P rin ted below is S h a k e sp e a re 's tw e lfth so n n et. A s a p oem en d o rsin g m arriage

a n d rep ro d u ctio n fo r th e y o u n g m an a s a 'd e fe n ce ' a g a in st 'th e w a ste s o f
tim e', this so n n et ech o es a n u m b er o f sim ilarly -th em e d so n n ets at th e b e g in
n in g o f th e 1609 co llectio n . F o r o u r p u rp o ses, th e p o em affo rd s a g o o d startin g
p la ce in th a t its iam b ic rh y th m is relativ ely easy to reco g n ize. A s y o u read,
n o te th a t th e o p en in g lin e is w ritten w ith p e rfe ct - w h a t is ca lle d 're g u la r' -
iam b ic p en tam eter:

W h en I d o co u n t th e clo ck th at tells th e tim e,

A n d see th e b ra v e d a y su n k in h id eo u s night;

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W h en I b eh o ld th e violet p a st prim e,
A n d sa b le c u rls en silv ered o 'e r w ith w hite;
W h en lo fty trees I s e e b arren o f leaves,
W h ich erst from h ea t d id can o p y the herd,
A n d su m m er's g reen all g ird ed u p in sh eav es
B o rn e o n the b ie r w ith w h ite and b ristly beard:
T h e n o f th y b eau ty d o I qu estio n m ak e
T h at thou a m o n g th e w astes o f tim e m u st g o,
S in ce sw e e ts and b eau ties d o th em selv es forsake,
A n d d ie a s fa s t a s th e y see o th ers g row ;
A nd n o th in g 'g a in st tim e 's scy th e c a n m ak e d efen ce
S a v e breed to b ra v e h im w h en h e tak es th ee h en ce, (p. 1927)

L ike a n u m b er o f S h ak esp e are's p o em s and d ra m a tic sp e e ch e s, S o n n e t 1 2 is

co m p o sed w ith a rem arkably co n siste n t m etrical b eat. E v en th o u g h thirteen
o f its fou rteen lin es a re n o t en tirely regular, clo se to th ree-q u arters o f the
p o em 's feet are iam bic. A s su ch , th e p o em d ev e lo p s a m ech a n ica l rh y th m , one
d ifficu lt to ig n o re eith e r w h e n read o r h eard . T h is is th e b a s ic rh y th m th at
u nd ersco res - in vary in g reg u larity a n d p acin g - m u ch o f S h a k e sp e a re 's d ra
m atic v erse. It is th e rh y th m ic fram e o f P rin ce H a l's su rp risin g d eclaration
th at k n o w y o u a ll' a t th e end o f 1 H en ry I V 's seco n d scen e, th e energetic
b e a t u n d erly in g all o f H a m le t's so lilo q u ies, a n d the d elica te ca d en ce o f
P ro sp ero 's p ain ed reco gn itio n th a t 'o u r little life / Is ro u n d ed w ith a sle e p ' in
the fou rth A ct o f T h e Tempest.
It is im p o rta n t to reco g n ize, h o w ev er, th at h ere a n d in all o f h is iam bic
p en tam eter, S h ak esp e are rarely co n fin es h im se lf to th e regular. P u t bluntly,
p erfect rh y th m ten d s to w ard s sin g -so n g , to w ard s th e a rtificia l o r pat.
Sh a k esp e a re co n sisten tly av o id ed su ch reg u larity , fa sh io n in g h is iam bic
rhythm to crea te p a rticu lar effects and to rein force h is la rg e r a rtistic d esign s.
To co n tin u e w ith it as o u r ex em p lu m , S o n n et 1 2 offers a good in sta n ce o f such
carefu l fash io n in g . It ap tly b eg in s w ith a reg u lar lin e b eca u se su ch reg u larity
w ell in tro d u ces th e p o e m 's p rin cip al th e m e o f u n ceasin g tim e. M o n osy llab ic
a n d ex actin g ly filled o u t w ith a co m p letely regu lar ia m b ic 'u n s tre ss e d /
stresse d ' pattern , this lin e read s w ith th e ev en p a ce o f a clo ck 's 'tic toe, tic toe,
tic to e, tic toe, tic toe'. To th is, lin e 2 ad d s th e d o u b ly stressed sp o n d ee rhythm
o f 'd a y su n k ' to su g g est the ad jo in in g m o v em en t o f the s u n 's in ex o rab le 'sin k
in g ' in th e sea o f n ig h t. Sh a k esp e a re cre a te s a sim ila r d o u b le m o v em en t in the
p o em 's seco n d -to -last lin e w h en h e jo in s th e sp o n d ee o f 'tim e 's s c y th e ' to the
rest o f th e lin e 's reg u lar iam bic m etre, su g g estin g th e q u ick sw eep o f th e grim
reaper w ith in th e co n sta n t cu rren t o f tim e. O n ly in the so n n e t's fin al lin e does
Sh a k esp e a re essen tially ab an d o n iam b ic p en tam eter. H ere, the lin e 's only
iam b ic fo o t 'to b ra v e ' p reced es three final sp o n d e e rh yth m s: 'h im w h en ';

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'h e ta k es'; 'th e e h e n c e '. T h is six-stressed en d in g u nd ersco res th e fin ality o f

'tim e 's sc y th e ' tak in g th e y o u n g m an in d ea th ; it also sig n a ls th e p o ssib ility
o f a n o th er p lace o u tsid e o f regu lar tim e w here th e re a re n o tic-to cs a n d , as
H am let tells u s b e fo re h is d eath , '[t]h e re st is silen ce' (5. 2. 300).

Lan g u ag e and D r a m a tic C o m m u n ic a tio n

In d ire ct co m p ariso n w ith h is m o d es o f co m p o sitio n in th e so n n ets, S h a k e

sp e a re u sed an irreg u larly regu lar iam b ic p en tam eter in h is p la y s for specific
p u rp o ses: to h e lp co n ju re th e m ood o r en erg y o f a p a rtic u la r scen e; to
d elin eate th e ch aracte ristic m o v em en t o f a p a rticu la r sp e a k e r's m in d a n d /o r
to h elp in d icate a ch a ra cte r's em o tio n al sta te. S h a k esp e a re's ia m b ic rhythm s
w o u ld b eco m e m o re co m p licated and d iv erse a s h is d ram atic ca reer p ro
g ressed , y ield in g th e d y n a m ic p e rso n a litie s o f H am let, Lear, M a cb e th and
C leo p atra. H is p en tam eter w o u ld fo llo w a sim ila r trajecto ry ; it w o u ld b eco m e
m o re and m o re extram etrical (having lines co n ta in in g elev e n sy lla b les rath er
th an ju st ten) and le ss and le ss en d -sto p p e d w ith p u n ctu atio n . A t the b eg in
nin g o f H am let, for ex am p le, H a m le t's d istrau g h t reactio n to th e d eath o f
his fath er a n d q u ick rem arriag e o f h is m o th er is w ell en ca p su la ted b y the
irreg u lar rh y th m s and lin catio n o f h is first so lilo qu y:

HAM LET O th at th is too too so lid flesh w o u ld m elt,

T haw , a n d resolv e itse lf in to a dew,
O r th at th e E v erlastin g had n o t fixed
H is can o n 'g a in st self-slau g h ter! O G o d , O G od,
H o w w eary , stale, flat, a n d u n p ro fitab le
Seem to m e a ll th e u ses o f th is w orld!
F ie o n 't, ah fie, fie! 'T is an u nw eed ed g ard en
T h a t g ro w s to seed ; th in gs ran k a n d g ro ss in n atu re
P ossess it m erely. T h a t it sh o u ld co m e to th is -
B u t tw o m o n th s d ead - n ay , n o t s o m u ch , n o t tw o -
S o e x c e lle n t a k in g , th a t w as to th is
H y p erio n to a satyr, so lo v in g to m y m o th e r
T h a t h e m ig h t n o t b etee m th e w in d s o f h eav en
V isit h er face too rou ghly! (1. 2. 1 2 9 -4 2 , pp. 1 6 75-6)

U n lik e th o se in S o n n e t 12, H a m le t's lin es h ere a re an y th in g b u t p red om in

a n tly iam bic. In stead , th e rh y th m o f h is lan g u ag e is fitfu l and u np red ictab le,
b ro k en up w ith a n u m b er o f m id -lin e p au ses (w h a t w e call 'c a e s u ra s ') and
sp o n d ee ex clam atio n s like G o d , O G o d ' a n d 'F ie o n 't, ah fie [ . . . ] ! ' A t the
s a m e tim e, h a lf o f H a m let's lin es a re not p u n ctu ated at th eir en d in g s, creating
u n b rok en b u rsts o f sen tim e n t su ch a s O r th a t the E v erla stin g had n o t fixed /

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H is can o n 'g a in st self-sla u g h te r!' Su ch sen tim e n t literally b u rsts th e b o u n d s

o f reg u lar p en tam eter in H a m let's la st q u o ted sen ten ce, p u sh in g b o th lin e 140
('H y p e rio n to a satyr, so lovin g to m y m o th e r') and lin e 141 ('T h a t h e m igh t
not b etee m the w in d s o f h ea v e n / V isit h e r fa ce too ro u g h ly !') o u tsid e o f
th e ir ten -sy llab le b o u n d s w ith ex tra b eats. In effect, H a m let's early la n g u ag e
a p tly m o v es w ith th e u np red ictab le e n e rg y o f an u n settled and p assio n ate
m ind.
A s y o u m a y h a v e n o ticed , b esid es b ein g m o re irreg u la r in p acin g and
len gth , th is o p en in g so lilo q u y is also v ery d ifferen t fro m S o n n e t 1 2 in th at
H a m let's lin es are all u n rh ym ed . W h ile p attern s o f rh y m e lik e th e 'Ita lia n '
(ab b aab b acd cd ee) a n d the 'E n g lish ' (ab ab acd cd efefg g ) rh y m e sch e m es w ere
the n o rm for so n n et w ritin g , u nrhym ed iam b ic p e n ta m e ter o r 'b la n k v erse'
h a d b e e n th e stan d ard d ram atic id io m e v e r sin ce M a rlo w e had reigned
triu m p h an t w ith it in h is 15 8 7 th e a trica l d e b u t T am burlaine. In th e fa ce o f
ch a n g in g th eatrical n o rm s, Sh ak esp eare w o u ld co n tin u e to em p lo y rh y m e for
a n u m b er o f d ra m a tic p u rp o ses. It m o st o b v io u sly tu rn s up in the m a n y songs
in p la y s like T w elfth N ight and T h e Tem pest. T h e se so n g s can fu n ctio n in p er
form an ce a s im p o rtan t d ra m a tic set-p ieces, p o w erfu lly affectin g atm osp h eres
a n d m o o d s. R h y m e also c a n co m m o n ly be found sig n a llin g tran sition s
b etw een scen es o r sp eech es w ith an ab ru p t p o etic flo u rish . O rsin o , for
ex a m p le, clo ses h is afo rem en tio n ed o p en in g a p p e a ra n ce in Tw elfth N ight
w ith su ch p o etic em p h asis. T o V alen tine, h e o p tim istica lly d eclares, 'A w ay
b efo re m e to sw eet b ed s o f flow ers. / L o v e-th o u g h ts lie rich w h en can op ied
w ith b o w e rs' (1. 1 . 3 9 -4 0 ). S im ilarly , a fte r sa v in g A lonso from A ntonio
a n d S e b a stia n 's u su rp in g sw o rd s in T h e T em pest's seco n d A ct, A riel p u n ctu
a te s th e sc e n e w ith a rh y m ed iam b ic p en tam eter co u p let: 'P ro sp e ro my
lord sh all know w h a t I h a v e done. / So , K ing, g o sa fely o n to see k th y so n '
( 2 .1 . 3 2 3 -2 4 ).
E sp ecially in h is early p lays, Sh ak esp eare u sed rh y m e to sh ift th e m ood o f a
m o m en t o r o f an en tire scen e. In V io la 's seco n d d isg u ised in teractio n w ith
O rsin o , th e g ro w in g em o tio n a l b o n d betw een th e tw o ch a ra cters is m ark ed by
th e ir b o th su d d en ly sp e a k in g in rhym e:

V IO L A 1 think it w ell, m y lord.

O R S IN O T h e n let th y lo v e b e y o u n g er th an thyself,
O r th y affectio n ca n n o t h o ld the ben t;
For w o m en a re a s ro ses, w h o se fair flo w er
B ein g o n ce d isp lay ed , d o th fall th a t very hour.
V IO L A A n d s o they are. A las th a t they a re so :
T o d ie e v e n w h e n th e y to p erfectio n grow.
( 2 .4 . 3 4 -4 0 , p. 1787)

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A d ifferent k in d o f m o o d sh ift is effected th rou gh rh y m e at th e en d o f 1

H en ry IV . A fte r h av in g d efeated H o tsp u r in b attle, P rin ce H al in itially p ro
v id es a m o v in g b lan k -v erse trib u te to th e fa lle n y o u n g w arrior. U p on seein g
F alstaff o n th e g ro u n d , how ever, H als m ood and lan g u ag e ch an ges:

P R IN C E H A R R Y [ . . . ] T h is earth th at b e a rs th ee dead
B e a rs n o t a liv e s o sto u t a g en tlem an .

A d ieu , and tak e th y p raise w ith th e e to h eaven.

T h y ig n o m in y sleep w ith th ee in the g rav e,
B u t n o t rem em bered in thy ep itaph.
H e spieth F A L ST A FF on the g rou n d
W h at, o ld acq u ain tan ce! C o u ld n o t all this flesh
K eep in a little life? P o o r Ja ck , farew ell.
I co u ld h a v e better sp ared a b ette r m an.
, I sh o u ld h a v e a h eav y m iss o f thee,
I f I w ere m u ch in lo v e w ith vanity.
D eath h a th n o t stru ck s o fat a d eer tod ay,
T h o u g h m an y d earer in th is b lo o d y fray.
E m bo w elled w ill I see th ee b y and by.
T ill th en , in b loo d b y n oble P e rc y lie. Exit
(5. 4 . 9 1 -9 2 , 9 8 -1 0 9 , p. 1220)

In a d d ressin g h is seem in g ly -d ead frien d , n o t o n ly is H a l's d ictio n sim p ler and

m o re in fo rm al - 'C o u ld n o t all th is flesh / K eep in a little life? P o o r Jack,
fa rew ell' - bu t it also b eco m es lig h te r a n d m o re im p ish . W ith 'h e a v y m iss',
H al clev e rly su g g ests b o th th at h e w ill 'g rea tly la m en t' F a lsta ff's d ea th and
th at F alstaff's fa t b o d y co n stitu tes a 'h e a v y ' o b ject to b e m issed . H e co n tin u es
h is focus on F alstaff's h u g e b o d y in p la y in g w ith the id en tical so u n d s bu t
d iffere n t m ean in g s o f 'd e e r ' and 'd e a r'. R h ym e, in the fo rm o f th ree rhym ed
co u p le ts, p ro v id es an e n d in g fram e for H a l's w itty tribu te. It is a fittin g p a rt o f
H a l's p lay fu l h o m a g e to the frien d w h o m ento red h im in th e p o ssib ilities o f
la n g u ag e and play.

S h a k e sp e a re 's Pro se

H ow ever, in at lea st o n e sen se , H a l's h o m a g e is n o t en tirely apt. F alstaff

h im s e lf rarely sp e a k s in 'n u m b e rs' ('m e tre '); h is n o rm al la n g u ag e is n o t verse
b u t th e 'e v ery d a y ' lan g u ag e o f prose. W h ile p ro se m ay co n stitu te th e sm a lle r
p o rtio n o f S h a k e sp e a re 's d ra m a tic lan g u ag e, it is a sign ifican t p o rtio n , fu n c
tio n in g in a n u m b er o f p ro v o cativ e w ays. A t th e b eg in n in g o f h is career,
Sh a k esp e a re su b scrib ed to a co n v en tion al d istin ction b etw een p ro se and

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v e r se u sage. Ju s t a s elite ch a ra cte rs w ere th o u g h t to b e the a p p ro p ria te su b

je c ts o f trag ed y a n d sh o u ld sp e a k in th e elev ated la n g u ag e o f v erse, low er-
o rd e r ch a ra cte rs w ere th o u g h t to b e the a p p ro p ria te su b jects o f co m e d y and
sh o u ld sp e a k in th e ev e ry d ay la n g u a g e o f prose. S h a k e sp e a re 's ad h eren ce to
th is sty listic sy stem can b e reco g n ized in th e p ro se m u sin g s o f F este and
M a lv o lio in T w elfth N ight, o f th e g rav ed ig g ers in H am let, and o f the tavern
g o ers in 1 H en ry IV . It also u n d erg ird s o n e o f S h a k esp e a re's m o st m em o rab le
o p en in g s. S e t at sea am id st th e th u n d er a n d lig h tn in g o f a p o w erfu l storm ,
T h e T em pest's first sc e n e en erg etically beg in s w ith th e M a ste r a n d th e B o at
s w a in 's d irect and co m m an d -lad en prose:

M A ST E R B oatsw ain!
BO A TSW A IN H ere, M aster. W h at cheer?
M A STER G o o d , sp e a k to th 'm arin ers. F a ll to 't y a rely , o r w e run
o u rselv e s ag rou n d . Bestir, bestir! Exit
E n ter M A R IN E R S
BO A TSW A IN H eigh, m y h earts! C h eerly , ch e e rly , m y h earts! Yare, yare!
T ake in th e topsail! Tend to th 'M a ste r's w h istle! - B lo w till
th o u b u rst th y w in d , if ro o m e n o u g h .' ( 1 .1 . 1 -7 , p. 3055)

P rose a ls o p ro v e s to be th e id io m o f th e p lay 's co m ic d u o T rin cu lo and

S tefa n o , A lo n so 's je ste r and bu tler. T rin cu lo en ters th e p la y 's seco n d A c t co m
p lain ing in p rose th at th ere is 'n e ith e r b u sh n o r sh ru b to b e a r o ff an y w ea th er
a t a ll' (2. 2. 1 8 -1 9 ), w h ile S te fa n o 's clo w n ish p ro se is o n ly m o m en tarily
d ela y ed w h en h e first e n ters sin g in g a 'scu rv y tu n e'. Iro n ically , p rose is n ot the
id io m o f th e ir co -co n sp irato r C alib an , a n d his p re feren ce for v erse is co n tin u
a lly in ten sio n w ith T rincu lo a n d S te fa n o 's p ro se u tteran ces. T h is u nd erscores
not sim p ly h is d ifferent n a tu re and m o tiv atio n b u t also ca lls in to q u estio n h is
u b iqu itou s tag o f 'm o n ster'.
As w e w ill see , S h ak esp e are w o u ld q u ick ly d ev e lo p h is o w n b ran d s o f
d iv isio n b etw een p ro se a n d verse. W h a t w o u ld n o t ch a n g e, th o u gh , w a s his
u n su rp asse d a b ility to in scrib e p erso n ality in to h is ch a ra cte rs' la n g u a g e, n o t
ju s t in v e rse b u t also in p rose. In Tw elfth N ight, O liv ia 's stew a rd M a lv o lio is
an y th in g bu t su b tle ab o u t h is au sterity , p articu larly in h is d erisiv e attitu d e
to w ard s th e d o m estic m isru le o f F este a n d S ir Toby. M a ria 's sc h e m e writh the
forged letter sh o w s u s th at M alv o lio 's au sterity is in fact d riv en b y h is ow n
a m b itio n and n arcissism . S u ch o v errid in g p erso n a lity traits b eco m e am p ly
cle a r in b o th th e co n ten t a n d fo rm o f M alv o lio 's p ro se resp o n se to th is letter:

M A L V O L IO D a y lig h t and ch a m p a ig n d isco v ers n o t m ore. T h is is o p en . 1

w ill b e p ro u d , I w ill read p o litic a u th o rs, I w ill b affle Sir Toby, I w ill
w ash o ff g ro ss acq u ain tan ce, I w ill b e p o in t-d ev ice the v ery m an. I do

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n o t n o w fool m y self, to le t im ag in atio n ja d e m e; for e v e ry reason

ex cites to th is, th at m y lad y lo ves m e. ( 2 .5 .1 4 0 - 4 4 , p. 1792)

In im agin in g w h at 'w ill' b e h is a ffa ir w ith O liv ia , M a lv o lio c a n o n ly th in k in

term s o f h im se lf an d w h a t h e w ill gain . U n d ersco rin g th is s e lf fo cu s, T is fiv e
tim es th e su b je ct o f M alv o lio 's co m p o u n d third sen ten ce, and th is sen ten ce's
b a re-b o n e, rep eated g ra m m a r su b tly su g g ests its sp e a k e r's o v erly sim p listic
v ision o f actio n in th e w orld . M alvo lio im ag in es th at he 'w ill' d o ev ery
thing h e se ts o u t to d o , w ith n o ad v erb to q u a lify th e force o f h is action s.
N o t su rp risin g ly , M alv o lio 's fo u rth q u o ted sen ten ce b eg in s a n d e n d s w ith
M a lv o lio ('I' and 'm e ').
A m u ch m o re a ttractiv e b ran d o f n arcissism d efin e s the co m ic ce n tre o f
1 H en ry IV . A s P rin ce H al d escrib e s it at th e b eg in n in g o f th e p lay, fo r the
m o u n ta in o f fle sh th a t is F alstaff, n o th in g h a s any sig n ifica n ce th a t is o u tsid e
the b o u n d s o f his great ap p etite, e v e n tim e. 'W h a t a d ev il h a st th ou to d o w ith
the tim e o f th e d a y ? ' a sk s H a l, 'U n less h o u rs w ere cu p s o f sa ck , a n d m inutes
ca p o n s, a n d clo ck s the to n g u es o f baw d s, and d ials the sig n s o f leap in g-
h o u se s, and the b lessed su n h im se lf a fair h o t w en ch in flam e-colo u red taffeta'
(1. 2 . 5 - 9 , p. 1160). N e v er o n e to c o n c e d e an y th in g , esp ecia lly th e last w ord,
F alstaff resp o n d s q u ick ly to H a l's p la y fu l accusation :

F A L ST A F F M arry then, sw eet wrag, w h en th ou art k in g let n o t u s that are

sq u ires o f th e n ig h t's b o d y b e called th ieves o f th e d a y 's beau ty . L e t us
b e 'D ia n a 's fo reste rs', 'g en tlem en o f the sh a d e ', 'm in io n s o f the m o o n ',
an d let m en sa y w e b e m en o f g o o d g o v ern m en t, b ein g g o v e rn ed , as
th e sea is, by o u r n o b le a n d ch a ste m istress th e m o o n , u n d er w hose
co u n te n a n ce w e steal. (1. 2. 2 0 -2 6 , p. 1160)

L ike M alv o lio 's lan g u ag e, F a lsta ff's p ro se reveals m u ch . H is v o cab u lary d em
o n stra tes h is ex ten siv e kno w led ge. A t the sa m e tim e, h is sy m m etrical p h ra s
ing - 'sq u ire s o f th e n ig h t's b o d y ' h as th e sa m e am o u n t o f sy llab les a s 'th ie v e s
o f th e d a y 's b e a u ty '; 'D ia n a 's fo reste rs'= 'g e n tle m e n o f th e s h a d e '= 'm in io n s o f
th e m o o n ' - sh o w s h is im p ressiv e lin g u istic artistry. A n d p erh ap s m o st
im p o rtan tly , th ese ev en ly -w eig h ed co m p o u n d co n stru ctio n s u n d ersco re his
ex p a n siv e v isio n . H e c a n eq u ally im ag in e h is crew as 'sq u ire s', a s 'th ie v e s', as
'fo re ste rs', a s 'g e n tle m e n ', a s 'm in io n s' and a s 'm e n o f good g o v e rn m en t'.
B o th o f th e ex am p les w ell illu stra te th a t S h ak esp e a re's p ro se c a n its e lf b e as
a rtfu l a s h is verse. In th e fo u r p lays th a t w e h a v e b e e n co n sid erin g , thou gh,
Sh a k esp e a re sh o w s h im self p erh ap s to b e m o st in terested in th e d ram atic
p o te n tia l o f p rose. T h o u g h it still fu n ctio n s a s th e d efin in g id io m o f h is lo w er-
o rd e r serv a n ts and clo w n s lik e M alv o lio an d T rin cu lo , it a t the sa m e tim e
is freq u en tly u sed b y h is elite ch aracters. In th ese p lays, w h o sp e a k s p rose is

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less im p o rta n t th an w hen th e y sp e a k it. P rose, in o th er w o rd s, tells u s so m e

th in g ab o u t th e d ra m a tic situ atio n o f th e p lay. It u su a lly sig n a ls so m e kind
o f ch an g e, eith e r w ith in a scen e o r b etw een o n e scen e a n d th e n ex t, and
it clearly a ls o fu n ctio n ed a s a p erfo rm an ce p ro m p t for a cto rs, in d icating
le ss-fo rm al m o d es o f d eliv ery . O p h e lia 's sh ift to p rose in th e fou rth A c t o f
H am let - 'C o m e , m y co ach ! G o o d n ig h t, lad ies, good n ig h t, sw eet la d ies, good
n ig h t, good n ig h t' (4. 5 . 6 9 -7 0 ) - p o in ts to h er o w n d e sc e n t in to m ad ness.
S im ilarly , H a m let's o w n a ltera tio n from sp e a k in g v erse a t th e e n d o f A ct O ne
to sp eak in g p ro se in th e second sc e n e o f A c t T w o tells us n o t sim p ly th a t he
has low ered h is la n g u a g e to the lev el o f P o lo n iu s, b u t it also su g g ests th e early
ch a m e le o n -lik e trap p in g s o f H am lets p ro m ised 'a n tic d isp o sitio n ' ( 1 .5 .1 7 3 ) .

T h e M o vem e n t b e tw e e n Poetry and Prose

S h ifts in a n d o u t o f p ro se c a n a ls o in d icate ch a n g es in ch a ra cte rs' m oods

w ith in a sin g le scen e. In O liv ia 's first in terview w ith th e d isg u ised V io la in
T w elfth N ight, V io la 's ch an g e from p lay fu l w it to serio u s w o o e r is sig n a lled by
h e r s h ift from p ro se to v erse in sp eak in g o f 'b e a u ty [being] tru ly b le n t' in
O liv ia 's face. A t th e sa m e tim e, O liv ia 's in itia l re sista n ce to this p o etica l w oo
ing is ex p ressed clearly in h e r sa rca stic p ro se responses:

V IO L A G o o d m ad am , le t m e see y o u r face.
O L IV IA H a v e you any co m m issio n from y o u r lord to n eg o tia te w ith m y
face? Y ou a re n o w o u t o f y ou r text. B u t w e w ill d ra w th e curtain
a n d sh ow y o u th e picture.
[S he nnveils]
L ook y o u , sir, su ch a o n e I w as th is presen t. Is't n o t w ell d one?
V IO L A E x cellen tly d o n e, if G o d d id all.
O L IV IA 'T is in g rain , sir, 'tw ill en d u re w ind a n d w eather.
V IO L A 'T is b eau ty tru ly b le n t, w h o se red and w h ite
N atu re 's o w n sw e e t an d cu n n in g hand laid on.
L ad y , y o u a re th e c ru e ll'st sh e aliv e
If y o u w ill lead th e se g ra ce s to the g rav e
A n d le a v e th e w o rld n o copy.
O L IV IA O sir, I w ill n o t b e s o h ard -hearted . I w ill g iv e o u t d ivers
sch e d u les o f m y b eau ty . It sh all b e in v en to ried and every
p a rticle and u ten sil lab elled to m y w ill, a s, item , tw o lip s,
in d ifferen t red ; item , tw o g rey ey es, w ith lid s to th em ; item , on e
n eck , o n e ch in , and s o forth . (1. 5. 2 0 2 -1 8 , p. 1779)

C y n ical p rose, how ever, q u ick ly sh ifts to p o ig n a n t v e rse a fte r V iola speaks
o f O rs in o 's 'fe rtile te ars' and 'g ro an s th at th u n d er love, w ith sig h s o f fire'

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(2 2 4 -2 5 ). To su ch ferv en t assu ran ce s o f O rsin o 's p assio n , O liv ia a d m its in

b la n k v erse th a t su p p o se h im v irtu ou s, know him n o b le , / O f g rea t estate,
o f fresh an d stain less y ou th , / In v o ices w ell d iv u lg ed , free, le a rn ed , and
v a lia n t, / A n d in d im en sio n and th e sh ap e o f n atu re / A g raciou s p erso n ; but
y e t I can n o t lo v e h im ' (2 2 7 -3 1 ). O f co u rse, the iron y h ere is th at O liv ia does
love, and h er ard o u r for the d isg u ised V iola is su b tly su g g ested b y th e h eig h t
en ed lan g u ag e o f th is denial.
M ore g en era lly , ch an g es in a sc e n e 's o v erall m ood c a n also b e a ffected by
sh ifts in an d o u t o f prose. A t th e b eg in n in g o f T h e T em pest's seco n d A c t, for
ex am p le, for th e first tim e w e see A lo n so and h is party sa fely lan d ed on
P ro sp ero 's islan d . P red ictab ly , th e g o o d -n atu red y e t v o lu b le G o n z a lo opens
the scen e w ith a v erse ap p eal to h is kin g w h o is m elan ch o ly at th e p ro sp e ct o f
h is s o n 's death:

GON ZALO (to A L O N SO ) B eseech y o u , sir, b e m erry. Y ou h ave cau se,

S o have w e all, o f jo y ; for o u r escap e
Is m u ch b ey o n d o u r lo ss. O u r h in t o f w o e
Is co m m o n ; ev ery d a y so m e sa ilo r's w ife,
T h e m a sters o f so m e m erch an t, a n d th e m erch an t,
H ave ju s t o u r th em e o f w o e. B u t fo r th e m iracle,
I m e an o u r p reserv atio n , few in m illion s
C a n sp e a k like u s. ( 2 . 1 . 1 - 8 , p. 3070)

A lonso, h o w ev er, refu ses to e m b ra ce G o n z a lo 's o p tim istic m u sin g s, resp o n d

ing o n ly w ith th e en treaty 'P rith ee , p eace'. A lo n s o 's p a t refu sa l qu ickly
ch a n g es th e sce n e 's lan g u ag e and m o o d . F o r th e n e x t n in e ty lin es, th e co n
tem p tu o u s p ro se rejo in d ers o f A n to n io and S e b a stia n d o m in a te th e scene,
u n d erm in in g the p o sitive effo rts o f b o th G o n zalo and A d ria n to in sp ire h o p e -
a n d le ad ersh ip - in th e ir d istrau g h t king. G o n z a lo 's o w n lan g u ag e qu ickly
su ccu m b s to the u n certain , q u alify in g p rose o f A n to n io and S eb astian . It is
o n ly w h e n A lo n so fin ally en g ag e s w ith th e situ a tio n th at th e s c e n e 's m ood
a n d la n g u a g e tem p o rarily changes:

G O N Z A L O [to A L O N SO ] Is n o t, sir, m y d o u b let a s fresh a s the first d ay I

w o re it? I m e a n in a sort.
A N T O N IO Ito S E B A ST IA N ] T h a t 's o rt' w as w ell fished for.
G O N Z A L O [to A L O N SO ] W h en I w o re it a t y o u r d a u g h te r's m arriage.
A L O N SO You cram th e se w o rd s into m in e ea rs a g ain st
T h e sto m ach o f m y sense. W ould I had n ever
M arried m y d a u g h te r there! For, co m in g thence,
M y so n is lo st; and , in m y rate, sh e too,
W h o is s o far from Italy rem oved

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I n e 'e r ag ain sh all see her. O th o u m in e h eir

O f N a p les a n d o f M ilan , w h a t stra n g e fish
H ath m ad e his m eal o n th e e? ( 2 .1 .1 0 1 - 1 3 , p. 3072)

A lo n so 's v erse o u tb u rst elev ates the m ood o f the scen e, re cla im in g it from
G o n z a lo 's b u m b lin g reassu ran ces and A n to n io and S e b a stia n 's a cid ic in terjec
tio n s a n d asid es. H ere h eartfelt g rie f tem p o rarily tru m p s cy n ic ism , n o b le p as
sio n silen ces reb ellio u sn ess. In m in iatu re, this sc e n e 's m o v em en ts fro m verse
to p ro se a n d p rose to v e rse u n d ersco re th e p o w e r o f leg itim a te p o litical
au th o rity . In d o in g so , it also su b tly criticizes the p resen t truant le a d er th at is
A lo n so and the p a st truant lead er that w as Prospero.

S h a k e sp e a re 's Im agery

S h a k e sp e a re 's art is, o f co u rse, an y th in g bu t lim ited to th e rh y th m s and d ra

m atic effects o f h is v erse an d p rose. H is a rtistic ren d erin g o f th e w orld
in clu d es n arrativ es taken fro m h isto ry and literatu re a n d , a s w e sh a ll d iscu ss
in th is sectio n , im ag ery tak en from n atu re, from h is d aily life, from th e bod y
a n d fro m th e arts. In fact, a s co m m e n tato rs from a s e a rly a s th e sev en teen th
ce n tu ry h a v e ack n o w led g ed , S h a k e sp e a re 's lan g u ag e is literally 'to p fu ll' o f
im agery. T h e term 'im a g e ry ' c a n m e a n a n u m b er o f th in gs, bu t for o u r p u r
p o se s w e w ill be u sin g it to refer to lan g u ag e th at eith e r (1) p la y s d ire ctly to
o u r five sen se s (i.e. sigh t, h earin g, sm e ll, taste a n d /o r tou ch ) o r th at (2) draw s
an a lo g ies th at ap p eal to ou r sen se s, m o st o ften th rou gh th e p o etic v eh icles o f
'sim ile ' (exp licit co m p ariso n s u sin g 'lik e ' o r 'a s ') a n d 'm e ta p h o r' (im p licit
co m p ariso n s). In H am let, H o ra tio 's d escrip tio n o f th e G h o s t's first a p p e a r
a n ce s o ffers a relativ ely straig h tforw ard ex a m p le o f im a g ery in the first sen se.
To H am let, H o ratio d escrib es an en tity that, 'A rm ed at all p o in ts ex a ctly , cap -
-p ie [head to fo o t), / A p p ears b efo re them [M arcellu s and B a rn a rd o J, and
w ith so le m n m arch / G o es slo w and stately b y th em . T h rice h e w a lk ed / B y
th eir o p p ressed and fear-su rp risd e y es / W ith in h is tru n ch eo n 's [staff's]
len gth , [. . .]' (1. 2. 2 0 0 -4 , p. 1677). A p p ealin g p articu larly to o u r sen se o f sight,
H o ra tio 's im age is n o t sim p ly o n e o f a 'so le m n ' m a rtia l figure, b u t also one
th at o u tlin es an eerily clo se en co u n ter, on e 'W ith in h is tru n ch e o n 's len gth '.
H ow ever, S h a k e sp e a re 's im a g e s o ften fu n ctio n a s to o ls o f an alo g y. They
a re , in o th e r w o rd s, u sed to d escrib e so m eth in g - b e it an o b ject, a p e rso n , a
p la ce o r so m eth in g m o re a b stract lik e tim e o r a n id e a - in a d ifferen t, fre
q u en tly u n ex p ected w ay. Su ch co m p arativ e la n g u a g e is, a s R u ss M cD on ald
h a s w ritten , 'am o n g th e m o st v alu ab le to o ls in th e S h a k esp e a rea n k it' (2001:
5 4), a n d le arn in g to reco gn ize a n d ap p reciate it is an essen tia l p a rt o f clo sely
en g a g in g w ith S h a k e sp e a re 's p o etic art. R etu rn in g b riefly to o u r S o n n et 12
ex a m p le, w e can see th a t it p ro v id es g o o d ex am p les o f im a g ery in th is vein.

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T h e p o e m 's im a g e s o f 'lo fty trees [ . . . ] b arren o f le a v es' and th e 'th e v io let p ast
p rim e' o ffer sim p le p ictu re s o f n atu ral d ecay w h ile th e y at th e sa m e tim e
su b tly fig u re th e n ecessary w ith erin g o f both p o w erfu l m e n ('lo fty trees') and
b ea u tifu l w o m en ('v io le tjs ]'). A s w e sh all see , in h is p la y s S h a k esp e a re uses
im agery to ad d d ep th to h is ch aracters, to u n d ersco re m o o d s a n d th em es, and
to p ro v id e, a s h e d o es in S o n n e t 12, th e sim p le p lea su re th at co m es from
reco g n izin g sim ila rity in d ifference.
F o r a n o th er ex a m p le, w e can retu rn to 2 H enrif I V a n d lo o k m o re clo sely at
P rin ce H a l's su rp risin g rev elatio n th a t know y o u a ll'. In this A c t O ne
sp e ech , H al essen tially re v ea ls his p lan to refo rm h is 'id le ' beh av iou r, co n
ten d in g th at th is refo rm atio n w ill m ak e him seem 'm o re g o o d ly a n d attract
m o re e y e s' th an if h e had n ev e r h a d to reform at a ll. In th e ab stract, this is n o t
a d ifficu lt id ea to exp ress. H al, h ow ever, co m m u n icates it th ro u g h a serie s o f
im a g e s, th e m o st ex ten d ed o f w h ich co m es at th e b e g in n in g o f th e sp eech :

P R IN C E H A R R Y I k n o w y o u all, and w ill a w h ile uphold

T h e u n y o k ed h u m o u r o f y o u r id leness.
Y et h erein w ill I im itate th e sun,
W ho d o th p erm it th e b ase co n tag io u s cloud s
T o sm o th e r u p h is b eau ty from th e w orld ,
T h a t w h e n h e p lease a g a in to b e h im self,
Being w an ted h e m a y b e m o re wro n d ered at
By b reak in g th rou gh th e fo u l a n d u gly m ists
O f v a p o u rs th at did seem to stra n g le him .
(1 .2 .1 7 3 - 8 1 , p . 1164)

R eferrin g to F alstaff a n d his co h o rts w ith th e im p erso n a l seco n d -p e rso n p ro

n o u n 'y o u ', H a l offers an im ag e w h erein h e co m p a res th e su n sp ecta cu la rly
'b rea k in g ' th rou gh clo u d co v e r to w h at h e ex p e cts w ill b e h is o w n a w e
in sp irin g em erg en ce from the tavern w o rld o f F alstaff. T h is ex ten d ed im age
n o t o n ly in tim ates eg o , e v e n p re su m p tio n in H a l's see in g h im s e lf a s the
m ig h ty 's u n ', b u t it, in its re n d e rin g o f th e clo u d s a s 'b a s e co n ta g io u s' and
'fo u l a n d u g ly ', also reveals H a l's su rp risin g d isd a in for h is lo w er-o rd er 'm ist'
co m p an io n s. Su ch d isd a in is h in ted at in th e secon d line. T h ere H a l p a in ts an
im a g e o f h is lo w er-o rd er co m p an io n s a s liv esto ck in su g g estin g th at th eir
in clin atio n s ('h u m o u rs') a re u n b rid led ('u n y o k e d '). Together, th ese im ages
co m p licate H a l's ch a ra cte r b y su b tly u n v eilin g h is h eav y in v estm en t in 'su n '-
like statu s a n d so cial d ifferen ce, an in v e stm e n t n o t im m ed ia tely a p p a ren t in
h is first in teractio n s w ith F alstaff a n d co m p an y . A t th e sam e tim e , th e y also
p lea su ra b ly e n m e sh u s in H a l's o w n crea tiv en e ss a n d facility w ith language.
N ot s o lo n g ag o, the critica l in v estig atio n o f S h a k esp e a re's im agery w as
in fo rm ed b y the co n ten tio n th at su ch im ag ery reveals the p la y w rig h t's

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p e rso n a l id io syn crasies (see H isco c k /L o n g sta ffe , this v o lu m e, C h a p te r 1).

S h a k e sp e a re 's v ariou s im a g e s w ere ta k en to su g g est - a m o n g o th e r th in g s -
the p la y w rig h t's fo n d n ess fo r th e co u n try sid e, fo r th e feelin g s o f an im als,
for the sim p le d o m estic life, ev en fo r p a rticu la r ty p e s o f fo o d . A t first
b lu sh , th ese co n clu sio n s are strain ed , ev en b izarre, b u t th e y a re b a se d upon
sou n d o b serv atio n s, n am ely , u p o n the u n d en iab le fact th at p a tte rn s do ex ist
a m o n g S h a k e sp e a re 's im ages, p articu larly w ith in h is in d iv id u al p lays. W h at
th e se p a tte rn s rev eal, how ever, is n o t Sh a k esp e a re th e m a n - a t le a st n o t
in a n y straig h tfo rw ard w ay - b u t ra th er S h a k e sp e a re 's su b tle m eth od s o f
d ra m a tic art.
As h is d ram atic ca reer p rogressed , S h ak esp e are w ou ld rely m o re a n d m ore
u pon im ag ery a s a v eh icle for ch a ra cte r d ev elo p m en t. In so m e in sta n ces - as
w e saw w ith H a l's em erg in g -su n m etap h o r - a sin g le im a g e c a n rev eal as
m u ch o r m o re a b o u t a c h a ra cte r's perso n a as h is / h e r actio n s o r clear-cu t
ex p ression s. In o th er in stances, co n stellatio n s o f related im ages w ith in a sin
g le sp e ech can su g g est th e co m p lex co n to u rs o f a ch a ra cte r's p erso n ality .
T ow ard s th e end o f T h e Tem pest, to cite a n o th er ex am p le, P ro sp ero 's latent
m elan ch o ly and h is ex p a n siv e creativ ity a re rev ealed in the im a g ery o f his
w e ll-k n o w n A c t F o u r speech:

P R O SP E R O O u r revels n o w a re en d e d . T h e se o u r acto rs,

A s I foreto ld y o u , w ere all sp irits, and
A re m e lte d in to air, in to th in air;
A nd lik e the b a se less fab ric o f this vision ,
T h e clo u d -cap p ed to w ers, th e g o rg eo u s p alaces,
T h e so le m n tem p les, th e g rea t g lo b e itself,
Yea, all w h ic h i t in h e rit, sh all d issolve;
A n d , this the in su bstantial p ag ea n t faded,
L ea v e n o t a rack b eh in d . (4. 1. 1 4 8 -5 6 , p. 3 0 9 5 )

M o v in g from h is w isp y im ag e o f 'm e ltin g ' 'sp irits', P rosp ero q u ick ly fash ion s
th e m o re p ro fo u n d im ag e o f o u r w o rld and its so cia l in stitu tio n s - th e political
('to w e rs'), th e ec o n o m ic a n d artistic ('g o rg eo u s p a la ce s') and th e religious
('te m p le s') - a s 'd isso lv in g ' in to n o th in gn ess. In th e ten sio n b etw een the range
a n d co n ten t o f its im ages, this sp e ech g iv es sh ap e to th e co n tra d ictio n s at the
h eart o f P ro sp ero 's character.

P lay s a s D ra m a tic Poem s

P a ttern s o f im ag ery can not o n ly b e fou n d in S h ak esp e a re's sp eech es; they can
also b e fou n d m o re b ro ad ly w ith in m an y o f h is plays, (see H is c o c k /L o n g -
sta ffe, th is v o lu m e, C h a p te r 1) T h ro u g h o u t T h e Tem pest, im a g ery h a v in g to do

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w ith th e se a , sto rm s a n d th e n a tu ra l e lem e n ts co n tin u ally rem in d s u s o f the

p o w er o f th e n atu ral w o rld ; th ese im a g e s also h elp to u n d ersco re th e p la y 's
m ajo r th e m e o f h u m an ity 's u n av o id ab le co n fro n ta tio n w ith n atu re, both
w ith o u t an d w ith in . It is th e latte r sen se o f n a tu re th at P ro sp ero in v o k es w hen,
at th e end o f the p la y , h e ad m its th at T h i s th in g o f d a rk n ess I / A ck n o w led g e
m in e ' (5. 1. 2 7 8 -7 9 ). M o st im m ed iately , h e is tak in g resp o n sib ility for his
tru an t slav e, b u t h e is ad m ittin g a s w ell th at h e h im s e lf is also g u ilty o f all the
'd a rk ' n a tu ra l p assio n s em b od ied in C alib an . In H am let, im ages re la tin g to
p o ison in g, sick n e ss, a n d d e c a y in fu se th e en tire p lay. Su ch im a g ery estab
lish e s and rein forces th e p la y 's p o litical th em es co n cern in g a co rru p t and
co rru p tin g sta te, b u t it also co n trib u te s stro n g ly to th e p la y 's d a rk m o o d s and
tones. P ay in g atten tio n to b o th th e p la y 's actio n a n d im a g ery , it is hard to miss
th at '[sjo m e th in g ', a s M arcellu s say s at th e en d o f th e p la y 's fo u rth scen e, 'is
ro tten in th e sta te o f D en m ark ' (67).

S h a k e sp e a re 's W o rd -p la y

It is also hard to m iss th a t th ro u g h o u t S h ak esp e a re's w o rk s, lan g u ag e can

b e , a s F este h as it, a 'v e ry ra sc a l'. In h is p lays and in h is p o em s, in his
tra g e d ies an d in h is co m ed ies, in his p rose and in h is v erse, w o rd s c a n o ften
h av e d o u b le, trip le, e v e n q u ad ru p le m ean in g s o r co n n o ta tio n s. S u ch 'w o rd
p lay ' co lo u rs S h a k e sp e a re 's titles, h is m o st p assio n a te ex ch a n g es, a n d even
h is m o st h eartren d in g sp eech es. It c a n fill a sc e n e w ith d iz z y in g p a ce and
en erg y , and at th e sam e tim e it can su b tly rev eal the h id d en d ep th s o f a
c h a ra cte r's p erso n ality . T h at said , S h ak esp e are's u n d en iab le fo n d n ess for
th e 'p u n ', 'q u ib b le ' o r 'p la y o n w o rd s h a s also lo n g b een a so re p o in t for
so m e o f h is g re a te st ad m irers. In an o ft-q u o ted p a ssa g e from h is P reface to
Shakespeare, S am u el Jo h n so n (or 'D r Jo h n so n ' as h e h a s b een called sin c e the
eig h tee n th cen tu ry ) fa m o u sly lam en ted th at q u ib b le is to Sh ak esp eare
w h a t lu m ino u s v a p o u rs are to the traveller: h e follo w s it a t all ad v en tu res;
i t is su re to le a d h im o u t o f h is w ay , an d su re to en g u lf h im in the m ire'
(Jo h n so n 1968: 74). F o r early critics like D r Jo h n so n , p u n s - like th a t o n
're st' in H a m let's la s t lin e 'th e re st is silen ce' (5. 2. 3 00) - d efo rm S h a k e
s p e a re 's b e s t creatio n s; they m ar b y frequ en tly b eco m in g en d s in and o f
th em selves.
M o re re cen t co m m e n tato rs o n S h ak esp e are's fon d n ess for the p u n h av e
b e e n less ju d g m en tal. In stead , they h a v e sh o w n h o w th is p e n ch a n t reflected
th e p la y w rig h t's o w n fascin atio n w ith th e p erm eab ility o f lan gu age. A t the
sta rt o f h is career, S h ak esp e are w as clearly m o re in terested in th e m o re p o si
tiv e asp e cts o f la n g u a g e 's irrep ressib le am bigu ity. In h is e a rly co m ed ies,
w o rd -p lay is co u p led w ith th e la ten t tran sfo rm ab ility o f all th in g s - o f society,
o f re latio n sh ip s and o f in d iv id u als. Ju s t a s m ean in g is n o t sta tic, p e o p le and

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p la ce s can b e m etam o rp h o sed , m o st o f th e tim e fo r th e better. S o m e th in g o f

th is o p tim ism can still b e seen in th e h ap p y en d in g o f Tw elfth N ight. Here,
situ a tio n al a m b ig u ities stim u la te n ew p o ssib ilities o f h u m a n e x p e rie n ce and
lead to lo v e b etw ee n O liv ia a n d S eb astian , O rsin o and V iola. A s h is career
p rogressed , h ow ever, Sh a k esp e a re also in creasin g ly exp lored the d a rk er side
o f la ten t am b ig u ity . In h is traged ies, m u ltip licity o f m e a n in g is asso ciated
w ith p o litical a n d p erso n al m an ip u lation , w ith m a d n ess a n d w ith em p tin ess
a n d d eath . O p h e lia 's in itiatio n in to a w o rld o f a m b ig u ity a n d d o u b t is o b v i
o u sly an y th in g b u t red em p tiv e; in stead , h er in ab ility to u n d erstan d the
ch a n g ea b ility o f H am let d ire ctly lead s to h er d eterio ratio n a n d d ea th in Act
Four.
S h ak esp e are's 'p u n s ' are a s varied in their w o rk in g s a s the d ra m a tic sce n
a rio s in w h ich they occur. T h e y a re also alw a y s m e a n t to b e a so u rce o f
p lea su re in a n d o f th em selv es. A ll o f h is p la y s a re d en sely p acked w ith pu ns
w h erein o n e w ord su g g ests tw o o r m o re d ifferen t m ea n in g s. Sh ak esp eare's
fav ou rites in clu d e p la y in g u p o n the d ifferent m ea n in g s o f 'lig h t', 'lie ', 'k in d '
a n d 'p ric k '. A n o th er o f S h a k e sp e a re 's m o st freq u en t fo rm s o f w o rd -p la y has
to d o w ith u sin g w o rd s th a t sou nd alike b u t th at h a v e d ifferen t m ea n in g s like
'h a rt' and 'h e a r t' o r 'ta le ' a n d 'ta il'. A s w e h a v e alrea d y seen , H al, at th e e n d o f
H en ry IV , in v o k es the d ifferen t m ean in g s o f th e lik e -so u n d in g w o rd s 'd e er'
a n d 'd e a r' in h is fittin g trib u te to w h a t h e b eliev es to b e h is d ead friend
Falstaff. S h ak esp e are also em p lo y s p u n s in v o lv in g rep etitio n , w h ere in a w ord
o r p h ra se is rep eated to m ean so m eth in g d ifferen t in its secon d in stan ce.
F a lstaff em p lo y s su ch a figure w h en h e resp o n d s to H a l's co m p la in t th a t he
h as o ften u sed 'h is c re d it' to p ay F a lsta ff's d ebts. T o th is, F a lsta ff cynically
resp o n d s, 'Y ea, an d s o u sed it th a t w ere i t n o t h ere ap p aren t th a t th o u a rt h eir
apparen t (m y em p h a sis]' ( 1 .2 .5 0 - 5 1 ) . W ords a n d th e ir d ifferen t p o ssib le m e a n
in g s a re also frequ en tly b a n d ie d ab o u t b etw ee n ch a ra cters. S u ch co m p etitiv e
w o rd -p lay is ev ery w h ere in the afo rem en tio n ed ex ch a n g es b etw ee n H a l and
F alstaff and b etw een O liv ia and th e d isg u ised V io la; it also p e rv a d es such
sc e n e s a s H a m let's first in tera ctio n w ith P olo n iu s (2. 2) and F e ste 's first
ex ch a n g e w ith O liv ia (1. 5).
T h ro u g h o u t h is p lays a n d h is p o em s, Sh ak esp eare co n siste n tly tu rn ed to
w o rd -p lay a s b o th en tertain m e n t and d ra m a tic v eh icle. E v e n th e sim p le p res
e n c e o r ab se n ce o f w o rd -p lay can be m ean in g fu l. E sp ecially in h is co m ed ies,
Sh a k esp e a re u ses ex ch a n g es o f w it to in d icate d eep in terp erso n a l co n n ectio n s.
In Tw elfth N ight, for ex a m p le, O liv ia 's fo n d n ess for F este is w ell sig n ified by
h e r w illin g n ess to 'ta k e d elig h t' in th e v erb al m a ch in a tio n s o f th e new ly
retu rn ed jester. A t th e sa m e tim e, O liv ia 's p assio n for th e d isg u ised V iola is
clea rly sp ark ed b y th e ir in itia l w a r o f w it in A c t 1, scen e 5. E v en M aria's
en d in g en g ag em en t to S ir Toby c a n be ex p lain ed b y the tw o c h a ra cte rs' fre
q u e n t v erb al sp arrin g . Shared w o rd -p lay , Sh ak esp eare su g g ests a g a in and

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a g a in , requires in tim acy , an in tim a cy th at c a n g ro u n d tru e lo v e and la stin g

friendship.
C o n v e rsely , th e ab se n ce o f sh ared v erb al p lay o ften fig u res d ista n ce b etw een
S h a k e sp e a re 's ch aracters. W h en H am let first e n co u n ters R o se n cra n tz and
G u ild en stern in A c t 2, scen e 2 , th e ir ex ch a n g es q u ick ly m o v e fro m being
p lay fu l - w ith sh ared jo k e s ab o u t th e w h o rish n ess o f d a m e F o rtu n e (2 2 0 -3 0 ) -
to b ein g stilted a n d u ncom fortable:

H A M LET W h a t's th e n ew s?
RO SEN C R A N TZ N o n e, m y Lord, b u t th at the w o rld 's g ro w n honest.
HAM LET T h e n is d o o m sd ay near. B u t y o u r n ew s is n o t true. L et m e
qu estio n m o re in p articular. W h a t h a v e y o u , m y g o o d friends,
d eserv ed a t the h an d o f Fortu ne th at she sen d s y o u to p riso n h ith er?
G U IL D E N S T E R N P rison, m y lord ?
H A M LET D en m ark 's a prison.
RO SEN C R A N TZ T h e n is the w o rld one.
H A M LET A g o o d ly on e, in w h ich th e re a re m a n y co n fin es, w ard s, and
d u n g eo n s, D en m ark b e in g o n e o ' th ' w orst.
RO SEN C R A N TZ W e th in k n o t so, m y Lord. (2. 2 . 2 3 1 ^ 3 , p. 1696)

U n lik e th e ir initial v erb al p lay , n o w itty re jo in d e r is offered to H a m let's asser

tion th at D en m ark is a 'p riso n ', o n ly G u ild e n ste rn 's in cred u lo u s 'P riso n , m y
L o rd ?' S im ilarly , to H a m let's su b seq u en t riff o n th e w o rld b e in g a p rison ,
R o sen cran tz can o n ly o ffer the v erb al ro ad b lo ck 'W e th in k n o t so , m y lo rd '.
R o sen cran tz a n d G u ild en stern w ill a d m it th at th e y w ere 's e n t fo r', th a t they
a re m o re C la u d iu s's lack ey s th a n H a m let's clo se frien d s, b u t this fa ilu re o f
v erb a l play h as alread y m a d e th e ir d istan ce fro m th e ir sch o o l fellow ' v ery clear.

Lan g u ag e a n d the L o w e r O rd e rs

O f co u rse, w o rd -p lay m o st o b v io u sly tu rn s u p in th e la n g u ag e o f S h a k e

s p e a re 's ru stics, fo o ls and serv an ts. It n o t o n ly en d o w s th e ir v a ry in g ex p res
sio n s w ith a p leasu rab le u n p red ictab ility , bu t it also serv es a s th e p rim ary
m ean s o f w h a t o ften p ro ves to b e th e ir irreverent en g a g em en t w ith au th ority.
W h en Sh a k esp e a re b e g a n h is th eatrical ca reer in th e late 1580s a n d early
1 590s, the p ro fessio n al sta g e had for a d eca d e b e e n u n d er the sp ell o f the
'c lo w n ' p e rfo rm e r (see L o n g staffe, th is v o lu m e, C h a p te r 3). A co m b in atio n
o f co u n try b u m p k in , acro b atic en te rta in e r a n d sca lly w a g , th e E lizab eth an
'clo w n ' h ead lin ed th e p la y s in w h ich h e ap p ea red , en th ra llin g L on d on 's
n ew ly u rban ized au d ien ces w ith h is a b ility to triu m p h in the face o f h is
o w n ru stic n av et. S o m e th in g o f th is ch a ra cte rs en erg y and uncanny
acu m en is cap tu red in th e am b ig u ou s la n g u a g e o f H am let's fifth -A ct 'clo w n '

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g ra v ed ig g ers. S p eak in g in fam iliar p ro se to a so cia l in ferior, H a m le t's in itial

q u estio n to th e first g ra v ed ig g er sp ark s a sh o rt b o u t o f w o rd -p lay, on e tu rn
ing o n th e m ean in g s and co n n o ta tio n s o f the w o rd s 'lie ', 'q u ic k ', and 'm a n ':

H A M LET W h o se g ra v e 's th is, sirrah?

F IR S T C L O W N M in e, sir.
{Sin gs) O , a p it o f cla y for to b e m ade
For su ch a g u est is m eet.
H A M LET I th in k it be th in e in d eed , fo r th ou liest in't.
F IR S T C L O W N You lie o u t o n 't, sir, a n d th erefore it is n o t y o u rs. F o r m y
p art, I d o n o t lie in 't, and yet it is m ine.
H A M LET T h o u d o st lie in 't, to be in 't and sa y 'tis th in e. 'T is for th e d ead ,
n o t fo r th e q u ick ; th erefo re th o u liest.
F IR S T C L O W N 'T is a q u ick lie, sir, 'tw ill aw a y a g a in from m e to you.
H A M LET W h at m an d o st th o u d ig it for?
F IR S T C L O W N F o r n o m an , sir.
H A M LET W h at w o m an , then?
F IR S T C L O W N F o r n o n e, neither.
H A M LET W h o is to be b u ried in 't?
F IR S T C L O W N O n e th at w as a w o m an , sir; bu t, re st h er so u l, s h e 's d ead .
( 5 .1 . 1 0 7 -2 5 , p. 1743)

W hat b eg in s w ith H a m le t's sim p le q u er)' about th e g ra v e 's fu tu re o ccu p an t

so o n tu rn s into a d izzy in g ex ch a n g e d riv en b y th e p o ssib le m ea n in g s o f 'lie
in 't': (1) to be located in th e g ra v e o r (2) to tell u n tru th s w ith in th e grave.
W h en H a m let finally in sists th at th e g ra v e ca n n o t b e th e g rav ed ig g er's
b ec a u se it is n o t fo r th e 'q u ic k ' (or 'liv in g '), th e g ra v ed ig g er iro n ically agrees,
a d m ittin g th at h is w o rk in th e g ra v e w ill o n ly b e 'q u ic k ' (o r 'sh o rt'). W hen
H am let tries to re fram e h is q u estio n , th e g ra v ed ig g er ag ain th w arts his
in v estigatio n b y recallin g H a m let's o w n p rev io u s in sisten ce u pon a d istin c
tion b etw ee n th e liv in g an d th e d ead . T h e g ra v ed ig g er en d s b y also in sistin g
th a t h e d o cs n o t d ig a g ra v e fo r a 'm a n ' (or a 'liv in g p e rso n ') b u t fo r so m eo n e
w ho is d ead . In this ex ch a n g e w ith the g raved ig g er, H a m le t's o w n w ords
b etra y him , a n d h e is forced to b o w to th e u n can n y w isd o m o f th e clow n.

S h a k e sp e a re 's Lan g u ag e Exp erts

W h en it co m es to lin g u istic d ex terity a n d irrev e ren t w isd o m , h ow ever, no

ch a ra cte r in S h ak esp e are's can o n c a n o v ersh ad o w 2 H en ry I V 's F alstaff. F al
s ta ff's w o rd s and b o d y to g eth er attest to h is w o rld ly , self-cen tred p ersp ectiv e.
H is am p le g irth b e a rs w itn ess to h is b o d ily ex cess, and h is ta v ern lifesty le is
fash io n ed e x p lic itly ag ain st w o rk and resp o n sib ility . A s w e h a v e already

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scon , F alstaff su b je cts all to his le v ellin g en erg y . N o th in g - n o t id ea ls, n o t

la n g u ag e, n o t au th o rity - p ro v e s secu re fro m h is pro b in g w it. W an d erin g the
b a ttlefield o f Sh re w sb u ry a t th e en d o f th e p lay, F a lsta ff d irects m u ch o f his
d erisio n at n o tio n s o f valou r, h o n o u r a n d m artial h eroism . W h en h e com es
u pon the b o d y o f th e d ead k n ig h t S ir W alter B lu n t, F a lsta ff's resp o n se proves
to b e an y th in g b u t sy m p a th e tic o r reverent:

FA LSTA FF T h o u g h I co u ld scap e sh o t-free at L o n d on , I fea r the sh o t here.

H e re's n o sco rin g bu t u pon th e p ate. - So ft, w h o a re y o u ? - S ir W alter
B lu nt. T h e re's h o n o u r fo r y o u . H ere's n o v an ity. I a m as h o t as m olten
lead , and a s h eav y to o . G o d k eep lead o u t o f m e; 1 need n o m o re
w eig h t th an m y o w n b o w els. I h a v e led m y rag am u ffin s w h ere they
a re p ep p ered ; th e re 's n o t th ree o f m y h u n d red and fifty le ft a liv e, and
they a re for th e to w n 's en d , to b e g d u rin g life. (5. 3 . 3 0 -3 7 , p. 1217)

P la y in g o n th e d o u b le m e a n in g s o f 's h o t' (as b o th a ta v ern b ill and a bullet)

a n d 'sc o rin g ' (as both a ru n n in g d e b t 'sc o re d ' o n a ta v ern w all a n d a w ound ),
F alstaff p lay fu lly d raw s a d istin ction b etw een th e h a z a rd s o f th e tavern and
the b attlefield , th e fo rm er b e in g p re fe ra b le to th e latter. S e e in g the d ea d B lu n t
b efo re h im , h e then tu rns h is a tten tio n to 'h o n o u r'. A s F a lsta ff see s it, h o n ou r
is for th e d ead and th e e lite. W h ile it m a y iro n ically e n d o w th e k n ig h t's d ead
b o d y w ith d ig n ity, it h a s n o p lace w ith th e livin g , e sp ecia lly the u n d er
p rivileg ed . T h o u g h they su rv iv e d th e b a ttle , his 'th ree ' p o o r so ld iers w ill only
en d u p /b eg [g in g ] d u rin g life '; they w ill reap n o b en efits from th e ir m ar
tial exp loits. Irrev eren t w o rd -p lay - a lo n g w ith an u n d erp in n in g w orldly
w isd o m - d efin e s F alstaff a s a ch aracter. T h ro u g h o u t H en ry IV , F alstaff
fu n ctio n s n o t sim p ly a s H a l's frien d bu t a s h is m entor. F rom h im , H al n o t only
b eco m es sk illed at n av ig atin g the w o rld o f th e d isp o ssessed , b u t h e also
learn s the v alu e o f b ein g a b le to m a n ip u la te la n g u a g e and p e rsp ectiv e, skills
th at w ill all co m e to d efin e h is su ccessfu l k in g sh ip in H en ry V.
Sh ak esp eare a g a in and a g a in u s e s w o rd -p lay to help him to d istin g u ish h is
ch a ra cters. M o re su b tly , a s w e h a v e se e n w ith h is im a g ery , h e also em p lo y s it
to h elp d ev elo p h is p la y s' v a rio u s them es. In H am let, th is 'a sso cia tiv e u se o f
w o rd p la y ' (M ah o o d 1957) can b e traced in the m a n y p u n s th at rev eal an
irrecon cilab le ten sio n b etw een ex p ected co n d u ct a n d n ecessa ry co n stra in t in
th is w o rld . P erh ap s o n e o f th e m o st rev ealin g o f th ese p u n s o cc u rs in
H a m let's fam ed 'T o b e o r n o t to b e ' sp e ech at th e b eg in n in g o f th e third A ct.
Q u a lify in g h is in itia l o p tim ism ab o u t a p lea sa n t 's le e p ' a fte r '[tak in g ) arm s
a g a in st a sea o f tro u b le s' (61) is, h e realizes, th e p o ten tial 'r u b ' (o r im p ed i
m en t) o f u n w elco m e 'd re am s':

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H A M LET [ . . . ] To d ie , to sleep .
To sleep , p erch an ce to d ream . A y, th e re 's th e rub,
F o r in th at sleep o f d eath w h a t d rea m s m ay co m e
W h en w e have sh u ffled o ff this m o rtal coil
M u st g iv e u s pau se. T h e re 's th e respect
T h at m ak es calam ity o f so lo n g life , [ . . . ] (3.1 6 6 -7 1 , p. 1705)

C en tral in this sectio n o f H a m let's m u sin g s is a co n flict b etw ee n energy

a n d co n fin e m en t th at is w ell ex p ressed b y h is p u n o n 'c o il', w h ich in
S h a k e sp e a re 's d ay co u ld m ean eith e r 'b u stle o r tu rm o il' o r a 'le n g th o f rope
g ath ered u p into a n u m b er o f co n c e n tric rin g s'. H am let h im self, o f co u rse, is
a t this m o m en t u nd ecid ed ab o u t w h at to d o in th e future, a n d h is in actio n - a
ce n tral th e m e in th e p lay - is w ell sig n alled b y h is p u n 's irrecon cilab le m e a n
in g s. O th er ex am p les o f su ch th em e-rev ealin g w o rd -p lay can also b e fou n d in
F este 's play o n 'p a tc h ' (co n flatin g both repaired a n d m a d e in to a foo l) in
'A n y th in g th a t's m end ed is b u t p a tch ed ' (1. 5 .4 0 - 4 1 ) ; o r in P ro sp ero 's p la y on
'g lo b e ' (co n flatin g b o th th e w o rld and S h a k e sp e a re 's o u td o o r th eatre, 'th e
G lo b e') in h is aforem entio n ed referen ce to 'th e great g lo b e itse lf' ( 4 .1 .1 5 3 ).
H ow ever, h av in g said a ll o f th is, it b e a rs re m em b e rin g th at Sh ak esp eare
w as h im self n o islan d ; h e, lik e all o f u s, w as m o u ld ed b y th e w o rld in w h ich
h e w as born . H is so ciety - its n o rm s a n d ev e ry d a y p ra ctices - irrev ocab ly
sh a p e d his w ritin g , and its p a rticu lar so cial lo g ics can b e traced w ith in the
less-o b v io u s co n n o ta tio n s o f h is u b iq u ito u s w o rd -p lay. C o m p lica ted a sso ci
a tio n s h av in g to d o w ith sta tu s - sp ecifically w ith the u n certain so cia l position
o f th e m e ssen g er o r g o -b etw een - a re co n tin u ally b a n d ie d a b o u t in H en ry
I V 's n u m ero u s p u n s h a v in g to d o w ith co n v ey an ce su ch a s 'b e a r' a n d 'c a rry '.
In sigh ts in to th e so cia l p la ce o f w o m en c a n be in ferred fro m H am let's tw o-
d o z e n o ccu rren ces o f the w ord 'n o th in g ', allu d in g b o th to a n o n -en tity an d , as
H am let h as it at the b e g in n in g o f T h e M ou setrap sc e n e , th at w h ich 'lie[s]
b etw een m a id s' le g s ' (3. 2. 107). A nd th e v io len ce o f early m o d ern colonial
ex p a n sio n is h in ted at in M ira n d a 's iron ic ch arge a g a in st C a lib a n th a t he
w o u ld n o t w illin g ly ta k e 'a n y p rin t o f g o o d n ess' ( 1 .2 .3 5 5 ) - 'p rin t' su g g estin g
both an im p ressio n a n d the m ark o f a foot.

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 Case Studies in Reading II
From Texts to Theory

M ark Robson

C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w

Shakespeare in Theory 93
Reading Reading 95
N ew Historicism 96
'R a c e ' and Ethnicity 10 0
G end er and Sexuality 103
Psychoanalysis and D econstruction 10 5
Shakespeare After Theory 11 0

S h a k e sp e a re in T h eo ry

Sh a k esp e a re h a s alw ay s a ttracted th eo ries. S o m e o f th ese th eo ries a re b ased

o n Sh ak esp eare h im self, that is, o n the b io g rap h ica l statu s o f th e a u th o r o f
the p o em s and p lays. T h e y a sk q u estio n s ab o u t w h eth er Sh ak esp eare w as
Sh ak esp eare, o r w h eth er th e w riter w as so m eo n e else, su ch a s F ra n cis Bacon,
o r E d w ard d e V ere, E arl o f O xfo rd , o r E lizab eth I, o r C h risto p h er M arlow e.
Equ ally, there a re th e o rie s a b o u t th e id en tity o f th e D ark Lad y o f th e son n ets
o r th at o f 'M r. W. H / , ab o u t the m issin g y e a rs b etw ee n S h a k e sp e a re 's d ep a rt
u re from Stratfo rd an d h is a rriv a l in L o nd on , ab o u t h is sex u a lity , h is po litics,
h is 'p h ilo so p h y ' (or w h eth er he can be said to h a v e had o n e), a b o u t h is w ill,
his retirem en t an d s o o n (see E gan , th is v o lu m e, C h a p te r 9). N o a n sw ers to
a n y o f th ese q u estio n s w ill b e g iv en here.
M o re in terestin g ly for o u r p u rp o ses, th ere are also th e o rie s a b o u t th e w orks
th em selv es. E ith er a critic tries to fo rm u late so m e g en era l p rin cip les o n the
b a sis o f a read in g o f o ne o r m o re texts, o r e lse a critic w ill b rin g a se t o f
assu m p tio n s (ab o u t lan g u ag e, o r the essen ce o f literatu re, o r the h isto ry o f the

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p erio d in w h ich the te x ts w ere first w ritten , o r a b o u t sta g in g co n d itio n s, o r

th e n atu re o f b e in g h u m an , o r sex u a lity , o r p o litics a n d s o o n ) a g a in st w h ich
the tex t o r te x ts w ill be held u p a s a 'te s t ca se'. T h ere a re , th en , tw o basic
p ro ced u res th at ch aracterize th ese critica l activ ities: to m o v e from the sp ecific
to the g en eral (w h at can H am let tell u s ab o u t the h u m a n m in d ?) o r to m o v e
from th e g en eral to the sp ecific (w h a t can p sy ch o a n a ly sis tell u s a b o u t H am let?).
So m e tim es critics lo o k for co n firm atio n o f th e p o sitio n from w h ich th e y b eg in
( ' [ . . . ] a n d th u s th is p ro v e s in a n ew w ay th a t Sh ak esp eare w as a g en iu s [ . . . ] '
o r ' [ . . . ) a n d so w e find fu rth er co n firm atio n o f th e rig h tn ess o f Ju d ith B u tler's
id eas o n g en d er p e rfo rm a n ce [ . . . ] ') , so m etim es they w ish to use a tex t to
d em o n strate th at a th eory is w ro n g ('M ich el F o u cau lt say s x, Sh ak esp eare
sa y s y , and sin ce Sh ak esp eare is a g en iu s clearly F o u cau lt is in erro r').
E v ery critica l sch o o l o r m eth o d o lo g y h as b e e n tried o u t o n Sh ak esp eare's
te x ts, and th e re are m o re b o o k s p u b lish ed o n Sh a k esp e a re in a y e a r th an m o st
p eop le w ill read in a lifetim e. In evitably , this ch a p ter w ill d o little m o re than
scra tch the su rfa ce o f th e m aterial av ailab le, and th ere is n o su b stitu te for
im m ersin g y o u rself in th e o rig in a l critica l texts. O n e w ord o f w a rn in g , h o w
ev er: the title o f this ch ap ter d eclares a m o v em en t from texts to th eo ry, b u t
th is sh o u ld n o t b e th o u g h t o f as le av in g the texts b eh in d . T h e b e s t th eoretical
w o rk seek s n o t o n ly to te ll u s so m eth in g 'n e w ' a b o u t th e te x t b e in g read,
it also reflects o n th e critical p ro ced u res th a t it em p lo y s in p ro d u cin g th at
read in g, and this sh o u ld n o t lead to rep lacin g th e texts w ith th eo ry. In o th e r
w ord s, th eory can lead u s b o th to th in k ab o u t a p a rtic u la r text d ifferen tly and
to reth in k th e b ro a d e r ca teg o ry into w h ich th at tex t fits (litera tu re, d ram a, the
early m o d e m p e rio d , trag ed y an d s o on). T h u s, rath er th an le a v in g th e tex t
b eh in d , th e o ry m a y b e seen a s a w ay o f re tu rn in g to th e te x t anew.
T h ere is a n o th e r reaso n fo r av o id in g th e im p ressio n th at th e o ry and tex t
m igh t be in so m e w ay o p p o sed , o r th at ju st stick in g w ith the text is so m eh o w
'b e tte r' o r ea sier th a n en g ag in g w ith theory. C e n tra l to th e th eo retical projects
th at h a v e in flu enced th e stu d y o f S h ak esp e are in re cen t d e ca d es - w h a tev er
the d iffere n ces b etw een them - h a s b een a sh ared s e n s e th at th e re is no read in g
o f a tex t w h ich d o es n o t carry w ith it a s e t o f assu m p tio n s. T h ere is n o n eu tral
read ing, a n d n o critic c a n claim - in good faith - pu re o b jectiv ity . T h is does
not m ean th a t all re ad in g s a re sim p ly su b je ctiv e , o r th at a read er is free to say
w h a tev er h e o r sh e likes ab o u t a text. L an g u a g e is a so cial m ed iu m - as
is th eatre, o f co u rse, o r p rin t cu ltu re - and thu s read in g is n ev e r sim p ly a
p e rso n a l o r p riv ate m atter, sin c e it m u st e n g a g e in and w ith p ra ctices o f
m ea n in g -g cn eratio n (h o w e v er w e w ish to co n ceiv e it) th at a rc th em selv es
so cia lly d eterm in ed .
T h at th ere a re lim its to in terp retatio n , is su g g ested b y the n eed to provid e
e v id en ce fo r a read in g. A n y th eo ry ab o u t a text m u st b e d em o n stra b le to the
sa tisfactio n o f a read er o r h earer if it is to be p ersu asiv e. T h e read er o f a critical

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essa y h a s to b e ab le to re co g n ize a n d ack n o w led g e so m eth in g in th e read in g

o f th e te x t th a t is sh a re d , a n d w h ich th e read er can accep t a s ag reein g w ith h er
o r h is o w n v ie w o f th e tex t. A th eory th at is accep ted b y o n ly o n e p erso n is
u n lik ely to h a v e m u ch lastin g im p act. S im ilarly , n o th eo ry th at w o rk s fo r o n ly
a sin g le literary ex a m p le is o f m u ch u se to an y o n e, ev en if th e creatio n o f
a th e o ry m u st alw ay s p ro ceed from th e sin g u lar n a tu re o f a g iv en tex t and it
m u st alw ay s b e p o ssib le to te st it a g a in st a sp e cific case.

R e a d in g R eading

In th e re st o f this chap ter, I w ill b e lo o k in g at th e w a y s in w h ich various

th eo retically-in fo rm ed ap p ro ach es h a v e attem p ted to a n sw er th e qu estion
p osed in th e title o f th is sectio n o f this b o o k : 'H o w to read S h a k esp ea re?' B u t
a s N ich o las R o y le h as co m m en ted , in a b o o k en titled H ow to R ead S h akesp eare:
'T h e re is so m eth in g lau g h ab le o r ev en crazy a b o u t th e p h rase "h o w to read
S h a k e sp e a re " ' (R o y le 2005: 2). R o y le is n o t sim p ly say in g th at reading
'S h a k e sp ea re ' is tricky , b u t n o tin g th at 're a d in g ' is itself a fa r from tran sparen t
o r in n o cen t activ ity . E v en d isco u n tin g the fact th a t d ifferen t te x ts m ay
d em an d to be read in d ifferent w ays (m ost o b v io u sly in te rm s o f g en res), there
a re d iffere n t w ays o f read in g , a n d p e o p le read for d iffere n t reason s. For
ex a m p le, it see m s o b v io u s th a t in m o st cases rea d in g a re cip e is n o t th e sam e
a ctiv ity a s read ing a po em ; in th e first case w h a t the reader w an ts is p rim arily
a s e t o f in stru ctio n s o r in fo rm atio n th at w ill allo w him o r h er to d o so m eth in g ,
th at is, to co o k a m eal, w'hile in th e seco n d , the rea d in g m a y h a v e a less
ex p licit p u rp o se. It m ay b e 'fo r p lea su re', th at is, w ith o u t a sp ecific o b jectiv e in
m in d b ey o n d th e e x p e rie n ce o f read in g th e tex t. E q u a lly , h ow ever, read in gs o f
a p o em can also d iffer d ep en d in g o n th e circu m stan ces in w h ich it is read.
W hat a read er w an ts fro m a tex t im p acts o n th e kind o f read in g th at takes
p lace. C o m in g to a n u n k n o w n tex t, o n e m ight read it d riv en p rim a rily b y the
d esire to find o u t w h at h ap p en s. F o r a rem em b ered text, 'w h a t h a p p e n s' is
a lrea d y k now n, a n d so the read er is lo o k in g p rim a rily for so m eth in g bey o n d
th e sa tisfa ctio n p ro vid ed by th e n a rrativ e alo n e, p erh a p s ta k in g p lea su re less
from w h at h ap p e n s th an from h o w it happens. In te rm s o f th in kin g a b o u t
Sh a k esp e a re th is qu estio n o f fam iliarity a n d u n fam iliarity is a tricky on e. A
Sh a k esp e a re p lay m ay seem to b e very fam iliar; H am let, fo r ex am p le, con tain s
m o m en ts th a t a re k n o w n o n so m e lev el ev en to th o se w h o h av e n ev e r read it
in fu ll o r se e n it p e rfo rm ed . M an y p eop le w ill be a w a re o f lin es su ch a s 'T o be
o r n o t to b e ', 'A las, p o o r Y o rick ' and 'T h e re st is s ile n c e '. T h is is tru e to so m e
ex ten t o f ev ery Sh a k esp e a re text, and m an y p h rases th a t are to b e fou n d in
S h a k e sp e a re 's w o rk s h a v e p assed in to ev e ry d a y sp e ech , ju s t a s the p lo ts and
scen es from h is w o rk s - few o f w h ich wrere o rig in a l to him in th e first p la ce -
h a v e b e e n rew o rk ed b y o th er w riters a n d a rtists to p ro d u ce o th e r p la y s and

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p o em s, n o v e ls, film s, o p era s, p ain tin g s a n d s o o n . F o r a n y c r itic o f Sh ak esp eare

th ere is alw ay s a ch allen g e. A fte r fo u r h u nd red y ears o f co m m en tary , w h at
m o re can be said? If th e critic is n o t sim p ly co n te n t to rep ea t w h a tev er has
b een w ritten in th e past, it is n ecessary to find so m eth in g 'n e w ' to sa y w hile
an ch o rin g th at n ew n ess in th e b e s t o f th at tradition.

N e w H isto ric is m

In o n e o f th e m o st fam o u s d efin itio n s o f n ew h isto ricism , L o u is M on trose

id en tifies a co m m itm e n t to w h a t h e term s T h e H isto ricity o f Texts and Textu-
ality o f H isto ry '. E x p lain in g this co m m en t, M o n tro se notes:

T h e n ew o rien tatio n to h isto ry in R en aissan ce literary stu d ies m a y b e

su ccin ctly ch a ra cte riz ed , o n the o n e hand , b y its a ck n o w led g m en t o f the
h istoricity o f texts: th e cu ltu ral sp ecificity , th e so cia l em b ed m en t, o f all
m o d es o f w ritin g - n o t o n ly th o se texts that critics stu d y b u t also th e texts
in w h ich they stu d y th em ; a n d , o n the o th e r h and , b y its ack n o w led g em en t
o f th e textua\ity o f h istory: th e u n a v a ila b ility o f a full and a u th en tic past,
a liv ed m aterial ex isten ce, th at h as n o t alread y b een m ed iated b y the
su rv iv in g texts o f th e so ciety in q u estio n - th o se 'd o cu m e n ts' th at
h isto ria n s co n stru e in th e ir o w n te x ts, called 'h is to rie s ', h isto rie s th at
n e c essa rily bu t alw ay s in co m p le te ly co n stru ct the 'H is to ry ' to w h ich they
o ffer a ccess. (M o n tro se 1986: 8)

M on tro se is su g g estin g tw o a p p aren tly o p p o sed th in g s h ere. First, texts are

a lw a y s p ro d u ced in a sp e cific h isto rical co n tex t, a n d a re th u s n o t 'tim e le ss'
w o rks o f art. B u t, h e w arn s, w h a t w e call h isto ry is itself th e p ro d u ct o f
o u r read in gs o f h isto rical d o cu m en ts, in o th er w o rd s, texts. So , o n e o f
S h a k e sp e a re 's p la y s co m es from a p a rticu lar p o in t in h isto ry : the late six
teen th o r early sev en teen th ce n tu ry . B u t w h a t w e u n d ersta n d o f th at p erio d is,
in p a rt, sh ap ed by texts su ch a s S h a k e sp e a re 's p lays. F o r th e n ew h isto ricist
critic a ch an g e in o u r u n d e rstan d in g o f the cu ltu re from w h ich Sh ak esp eare's
te x ts co m e sh o u ld lead to a c h a n g e in o u r re ad in g s o f Sh ak esp eare. E qu ally, a
ch an g ed read ing o f Sh ak esp eare m ig h t lead u s to re v ise o u r id eas a b o u t early
m o d ern culture.
N ew h isto ricism h as ch an g ed the kind s o f q u estio n s th a t are a sk ed a b o u t
S h a k e sp e a re 's texts. It p a rticu la rly atten d s to th e 'm a rg in a liz ed ' (th a t is, n o t
ce n tral o r d o m in an t) asp e cts o f a cu ltu re, a n d th u s to p ics su ch a s ra ce and
eth n icity , co lo n ia l and p o stco lo n ia l ex p erien ces, n o n -stan d ard sex u a lities and
d esires, a n d class and p o litical p o w er h a v e co m e to ch a ra cte riz e th e field. But
th is em p h a sis o n th em es and issu es th at ap p aren tly lie 'o u tsid e ' th e texts has
led so m e critics to w o n d e r w h ere ex a ctly the p lays and p o em s stand in all this

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co n cern for h isto ry . T h e re is alw ay s th e risk th a t th e te x ts b eco m e h istorical

d o cu m en ts, valued p rim arily fo r th e in fo rm atio n th a t th e y c a n g iv e u s a b o u t
so m eth in g o th e r th an th em selv es, d ep riv in g th em o f th e ca p a city to create
a n y o f the effects th at w e a sso cia te w ith art.
L e t u s b eg in w ith o n e o f th e m o st fam ou s u ses o f n o n -literary te x ts in new
h isto ricism , Step h en G ree n b la tt's treatm en t o f H en ry IV, p art 7 in 'In v isib le
B u llets', fro m h is b o o k S hakespearean N egotiation s (1988). G ree n b la tt read s this
play a s p a rt o f a seq u en ce th a t ru ns th ro u g h b o th o f th e H en ry I V plays,
cu lm in atin g in H en ry V a n d w h ich co u ld be said to h av e sta rte d in R ichard II,
th u s form in g a seq u en ce o f fo u r p lays, o r tetralo gy . G ree n b la tt sa y s little
a b o u t R ichard II in th is essay , a n d th is is largely b ec a u se h is fo cu s is p rim arily
o n th e ch a ra cte r o f H al, w h o w ill go on to b eco m e H en ry V. H ow ev er, in
the read ing th a t G ree n b la tt p ro d u ces, h e g o e s b ey o n d the u su al sen se o f
ch a ra ctcr-stu d y to fo c u s o n th e stru ctu ra l p o sitio n o f H a l a s em b lem a tic o f a
ce rta in u n d erstan d in g o f pow er.
In d irect co m p ariso n w ith th e q u o tatio n fro m M on tro se th at w e stu d ied a
m o m en t ag o, G reen b latt d raw s to g eth er th e w orld th at the p la y s d ep ict, the
w o rld in w h ich they w ere p ro d u ced , and m od ern critica l a ttitu d e s tow ards
b o th th e tex t a n d th e w orld:

In literary criticism R en aissan ce a rtists fu n ctio n like R en aissan ce

m o n arch s: at so m e lev el w e k n o w p e rfectly w e ll th at the p o w e r o f the
p rin ce is largely a co lle ctiv e in v en tio n , the sy m b o lic em b o d im en t o f the
d esire, p leasu re, and v io len ce o f th o u san d s o f su b je cts, th e in stru m en tal
ex p ressio n o f co m p lex n etw orks o f d ep en d en cy a n d fear, th e a g en t rath er
th an th e m a k er o f so cia l w ill. Yet w e c a n scarcely w rite o f p rin ce o r p oet
w ith o u t accep tin g th e fictio n th a t p o w er d irectly em a n a tes fro m h im and
th at so ciety d raw s u pon this pow er. (G reen b latt 1 9 8 8 :4 )

G ree n b la tt is h ere g iv in g v o ice to an u nd erstan d in g o f p o w er th at stem s from

the w o rk o f th e tw en tieth -cen tu ry F ren ch thin ker M ich el Fou cau lt. It is u sual,
p e rh ap s, to th in k o f p o w er a s so m eth in g th at is ex ercised from a b o v e: m o n
arch s o r d ictato rs o r g o v ern m en ts have p o w er o v e r th e p eop le w h o in h ab it
the sp ace o v e r w h ich th e y rule. P o w er is a k in d o f p o ssessio n - so m e h a v e it,
so m e d o n 't - a n d so cia l h ierarch y (w ealth , sta tu s , p ro p erty , in flu en ce and so
o n ) reflects a h ierarch y th at ru n s from th e p o w erfu l at th e top to the p o w erless
a t th e bo tto m . F o u ca u lt's th in k in g o n p o w e r ch allen g es this m o d el. In a fam
o u s sta tem e n t th a t is en d o rsed ex p licitly o r im p licitly b y m an y n ew h isto ricist
critics, F o u ca u lt su g g ests th at 'P o w er is ev ery w h ere; n o t b eca u se it em b races
ev ery th in g , bu t b ecau se it co m es from ev e ry w h e re' (F o u ca u lt 1990: 93). In
o th e r w o rd s, p o w e r is n o t th e p reserv e o f th o se w h o ru le; ru lers are a b le to
rule in p a rt b ec a u se th o se wrh o are ru led allo w them to. E v ery m em b er o f a

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so ciety eith er ch allen g es o r m ain tain s th e stru ctu re o f th at so ciety, a n d m o st

m ain tain it by a ctin g in w ays th at co n fo rm to n o tio n s o f law a n d order.
G ree n b la tt d raw s o n F o u ca u lt's w o rk p a rtly b eca u se h e b eliev es th at
'S h a k e sp ea re 's p la y s a re cen trally , re p eated ly co n cern ed w ith th e p rod u ction
a n d co n tain m en t o f su b v ersio n a n d d iso rd er [ . . . ] a b o v e a ll in th e p lays that
m ed itate o n the co n so lid atio n o f sta te p o w e r' (G reen b la tt 1988: 40). From this
p e rsp ectiv e, F o u ca u lt's w o rk reflects a p re o ccu p a tio n w ith p o w e r th a t seem s
to b e a t w o rk w ith in the p la y s th em selves. B u t it is also a u sefu l m o d el o f
h ow p o w er fu n ctio n s b ecau se it a llo w s G reen b latt to ex a m in e th e p la y s as
p a rt o f the p ro cess b y w h ich p o w er is co n so lid ated : if all the elem en ts o f a
cu ltu re eith e r ch a lle n g e o r m aintain the stru ctu res o f so ciety , th en this
in clu d es the theatre. T h is p o litical in terp retation o f th eatre is n o t in its e lf new.
Topics su ch a s cen so rsh ip o r p o litical alleg o ry w ere w ell e sta b lish ed lo n g
b efo re n ew h isto ricism . T h ere is a d iffere n t em p h asis, h ow ever, in th is sen se
th at e v e n in th e ab se n ce o f ex p licit en g ag em en t w ith th e p o litics o f th e period
in w h ich th e p lay is w ritten a n d first p e rfo rm ed , a n d ev en w h ere th ere is no
cle a r p arallel o r 'a p p lica tio n ' o f the ev e n ts o r ch a ra cters d ep icted , th ere is
a p o litical d im en sio n to the stru ctu res o f p o w e r th at S h a k e sp e a re 's texts
presen t.
If w e tu rn to the read ing o f the p lay itse lf w e find G reen b latt q u o tin g the
follo w in g sp e ech by th e E arl o f W arw ick from H en ry IV , p art 2:

T h e P rin ce b u t stu d ies h is co m p an io n s,

L ike a stra n g e to n g u e, w h ere in , to gain the lan g u ag e,
'T is n eed fu l th at th e m o st im m o d est w ord
B e lo o k ed u p o n and learn t, w h ich o n ce attained ,
Y ou r h ig h n ess k n o w s, co m es to n o fu rth er use
B u t to be k n o w n a n d h ated ; s o , like g ro ss term s,
T h e P rin ce w ill in the p e rfe ctn ess o f tim e
C a st o ff h is follow ers, an d their m em ory
S h a ll a s a p attern o r a m e a su re live
By w h ich h is g ra ce m u st m ete th e liv e s o f other,
T u rn in g p ast ev ils to ad v an tag es. (4. 3 . 6 8 -7 8 )

W arw ick, a s o n e o f K in g H e n ry 's lo y a l follo w ers, is o fferin g co n so latio n to the

s ick k in g , alth o u g h it is n o t im m ed iately co n v in cin g . Warw-ick arg u es th a t Hal
h as b e e n m isju d g ed , and th at th e a p p a ren t w ild n ess and fo lly o f h is y ou th has
b e e n a kind o f train in g for his fu tu re k ingship. In th is w ay, th e a u d ien ce is
p rom p ted to re th in k th e E astch eap scen es, creatin g a t o n ce b o th a m o re p o si
tiv e im ag e o f H al as so m eo n e w h o h as a stra te g y a n d a critica l d ista n ce from
the ex cesses, self-d ecep tio n and crim in ality o f F a lsta ff's w o rld and a negative
sen se th at H a l is cu n n in g , in sin ce re and d eceiv in g h is su p p o sed frien d s. In the

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p ro cess o f th is reth in k in g , H al b eco m es b o th m o re a n d less re a ssu rin g a s a

fu tu re king.
W arw ick 's assessm en t o f h im ech o es H a l's o w n sp e ech a t th e e n d o f th e first
s c e n e in w h ic h h e ap p ears. L eft a lo n e o n th e sta g e, H a l is a b le to reveal
h im self b y sta tin g how calcu lated his b eh a v io u r h a s b een . L ik e th e su n , he
a llo w s h im se lf to b e cloaked a s if b y clo u d s so th at, w h en h e reap p ears, the
p rin ce is all th e m o re im p ressive:

S o w h en th is lo o se b eh av io u r I th row o ff
A nd p ay th e d eb t 1 n ev e r prom isd ,
By h o w m u ch b e tte r th an m y w ord I am ,
By s o m u ch sh all I falsify m e n 's h o p es;
A n d lik e b rig h t m etal o n a su llen grou nd ,
M y refo rm atio n , g littrin g o 'e r m y fault,
S h a ll sh o w m o re g o o d ly a n d a ttra ct m o re eyes
T h a n th at w h ich h a th n o fo il to se t it off. (1. 2 .1 8 6 - 9 3 , p. 1357)

H a l's tactic is to crea te false ex p ectatio n s w h ich h e can th en d efy , a n d gain

legitim acy fro m d o in g so. A s G ree n b la tt co m m en ts, the m a rk o f tru e au th ority
in th e p lay 'is p recisely th e a b ility to b etray o n e 's frien d s w ith o u t sta in [on
o n e 's ch a ra cte r]' (1988: 58). R ath er th a n rev ealin g so m eth in g p articu lar a b o u t
H a l's p erso n al traje cto ry from p rin ce to k in g , G reen b latt see s th e tactic as
rev ealin g a tru th ab o u t th e w ay p o w e r itse lf fu n ctio n s, 'c re a tin g ' an o ppon en t
w h o se d efeat co n firm s the leg itim acy o f the victor.
G ree n b la tt's read in g d iffers from p rev io u s read in gs o f the p la y b y d raw in g
p articu larly o n a tex t w ith a relig iou s d im e n sio n a n d a co lo n ia l co n tex t,
T h o m a s H a rio t's 1588 tex t B r ie f a n d True R eport o f th e N ew Fou n d L an d o f
Virginia. H a rio t's tex t ce n tre s o n th e e n co u n ters betw een th e A lgon qu ian
n a tiv e A m e rican s a n d the E u rop ean co lo n ists, n otin g th e w ays in w h ich the
A lg o n q u ian s are en co u rag ed to b elie v e in th e C h ristia n G o d o f the colonizers
th rou gh d em o n stratio n s o f th e h u m an in v e n tio n s th a t th e y b rin g w ith them ,
in clu d in g clo ck s, telesco p es, g u n s and b o o ks. T h u s, h u m a n p o w ers o f in v en
tio n a re u sed to 'p ro v e ' th e p o w e r o f d iv in e creation . A s G reen b latt n o tes, the
text p arad o x ically d ep lo y s arg u m en ts used in E urope a g a in st the C h u rch , that
it is itse lf fu n d am en tally a h u m an in vention. T h o s e see k in g to co n v ert the
A lg o n q u ian s are th u s u sing th e stru ctu re o f a su b v ersiv e a rg u m e n t a g ain st
religion to rein force the p o w e r o f religion . In th is w a y , th e stru ctu re th at
H ario t id en tifies m ap s o n to th e stru ctu re u sed b y H a l in Sh ak esp eare's
plays. L ike th e co lo n ists, H al a d o p ts b eh a v io u r w h ic h in o th e r co n tex ts w ould
b e co n sid ered su b v ersiv e; h ow ever, h e d oes th is in order, u ltim ately , to
stren g th en h is position : th e reprobate is u nex p ected ly tran sfo rm ed in to a
p arag o n o f p o litical v irtu e. In th e term s u su ally u sed to d escrib e th is argu m en t,

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'su b v e rsio n ' m u st p reced e th e 'c o n ta in m e n t' o f th e th reat p o sed b y th at

su b v ersio n .
W h a t th en m ig h t th e o b jectio n s be to th is rea d in g ? F irstly , th e re are so m e
q u estio n s th at h a v e b een raised aro u n d w h at h a s co m e to b e k n o w n a s the
'su b v ersio n and co n ta in m e n t' m o d el th at is to b e found in th is essa y , and
w h ich is o ften taken to rep resen t th e p o litics o f n ew h isto ricism m o re g en er
a lly . H ow ever, there are p o ten tially p ro b lem s w ith the m eth o d o lo g y o f this
essa y , a s w ell a s in th e resu lts to w h ich th a t m eth o d olo g y leads. W h y , for
ex a m p le, is H a rio t's te x t seen to b e a n 'a p p ro p ria te ' co n te x t fo r th ese plays?
In talk in g ab o u t the co n tex t for p lays set in th e u n d erw orld o f L on d on , w h y
d o e s n 't G reen b latt sa y m o re ab o u t this w o rld rath er th an co lo n ial V irginia?
T h e re w o u ld certain ly b e lo ts o f m aterial av ailab le in the m a n y p am p h lets and
p ro se te x ts th at o u tlin e th at crim in al m ilieu . M o re sig n ifican tly , p erh ap s, w h y
is s o little a tten tio n g iv en to th e m o st o b v io u s co n te x t o f a ll, th a t is, th e o th e r
p lays p ro d u ced in th e sam e th eatres in w h ic h Sh a k esp e a re w o rk ed a s both
a cto r a n d w riter? T h e re is cle a r e v id en ce th at Sh ak esp eare eith e r read , played
in o r saw m an y o f th e p lays w ritten b y h is co n tem p o ra ries, b u t G ree n b la tt -
n o t o n ly h ere b u t in his w o rk as a w h o le - sa y s little o f th at wro rk . G reen b latt
ch o o ses th e co n tex ts w h ic h allow him to m a k e h is points.

'R a c e ' a n d E th n icity

O n e o f th e k ey e lem e n ts o f th eo retical ap p ro ach es to Sh ak esp eare h a s b een an

in creased aw aren ess o f th e situ a tio n s o f th o se w h o h a v e n o t trad itio n ally
o ccu p ied d o m in a n t p o sitio n s w ith in a so ciety. In th e largely h isto ricist
ap p ro ach es th a t h a v e em p lo y ed a categ o ry o f 'r a c e ' in o rd er to th in k a b o u t
Sh ak esp eare, th ere h a s b een a n in ev itab le fo cu s o n p la y s th a t co n ta in su p
p o sed ly n o n -E u ro p ean ch aracters su ch a s O th ello , A aro n the M o o r in Titus
A n d ron icu s, th e In d ian b o y in A M id su m m er N ight's D ream , o r th o se su ch as
S h y lo ck in T h e M erchan t o f V enice w h o are tak en to rep resen t a ttitu d e s tow ards
e th n ic ca teg o rie s su ch a s 'th e Je w ' (see M aley, th is v o lu m e, C h a p ter 10).
I sa y 'su p p o se d ly n o n -E u ro p ea n ' b ecau se o n e o f th e m o st strik in g aspects
o f th o u g h t co n cern in g id en tity - w h eth er th in k in g h ere o f person al id entity,
n atio n al id en tity o r su p ra - an d tran sn atio n al en titie s su ch as E u ro p e - has
b een th e stress p laced on th e fact th at id en tity form ation is as m u ch a n eg ativ e
a s a p o sitiv e p ro cess: p eop le d efin e th em selv es and find th em selves defined
a s m u ch b y w h a t they are n o t (o r w ou ld like to b elie v e th e y are n o t) a s by
th e ir p o sitiv e featu res and ch aracteristics. From a n h isto rica l p ersp ectiv e,
E u rop ean s trad itio n ally - and still n o tice a b ly in d eb ates b ein g co n d u cte d a s I
w rite th is o n w h eth er o r n o t T u rkey sh o u ld be a d m itte d a s a m em b er o f the
E u rop ean U n io n - asserted th e ir E u ro p ean id en tity in p a rt b y id en tifyin g
th em selv es w ith C h ristian ity , w ith id e a s in h erited from A n cien t G ree k and

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R o m an cu ltu re su ch a s d em o cracy , a n d w ith an e th n ic w h iten ess. B u t the

m o v em en t th at acco m p an ies this self-id en tifica tio n is on e o f id en tify in g
o th e rs, o ften in h o stile w a y s: to be C h ristian is n o t to b elo n g to a n o th er faith,
e sp ecia lly n o t Ju d a ism o r Islam ; th e lin k to G reek and R o m an th o u g h t often
rep resses the ex ten t to w h ich th at th o u gh t w as preserv ed a n d m ed iated by
Isla m ic sch o lars. T h e id e a o f a sing le E u ro p ean id en tity also ten d s to repress
the d ifferences b etw ee n states and re g io n s w ith in E urope, n o t lea st lingu istic
o n es. T h e id en tity th a t is created in this w ay is a lw a y s relatio n al, th at is, it
o n ly em erg es th rou gh sim u lta n eo u s p ro cesses o f id en tificatio n a n d d ifferen
tiation w h ich co n tin u e to le a v e p ro fo u n d tra ces w ith in th e cu ltu re th at thinks
o f itself a s Europe.
In th e co n tex t o f this re-ev alu atio n o f id en tity , the p la y w h ich h a s attracted
m o st a tten tio n h a s b e e n T h e Tem pest. A t the h e a rt o f th e d iscu ssio n h a s been
th e ch a ra cte r o f C a lib a n (for a su rv ey o f th is m a teria l, see V au g h an and
V aughan 1991, a n d W h ite 1999). F o llo w in g a lead esta b lish ed b y a se rie s o f
w riters fro m th e C a rib b e a n a n d o th e r form erly co lo n iz ed areas w h o have
id en tified w ith C a lib a n in d escrib in g th eir ow n rela tio n to the co lo n ial history
o f E u ro p e, critics h a v e seen in C a lib a n , w h o p reced es P rosp ero o n th e island,
a n em b o d im en t o f the co lo n ial su b je ct. R ead in th is w ay, th e sto ry h in g es o n
issu es o f p o ssessio n and d isp ossessio n . C a lib a n is tu rn ed in to a sla v e and
'c iv iliz ed ' (h e sp eak s P ro sp ero 's lan g u ag e in th e p la y , n o t h is ow n).
O n e sp e ech in p a rticu lar h as co m e to sta n d fo r this co lo n ia l h isto ry . C alled
forth b y P ro sp ero , C a lib a n narrates the recent h isto ry o f the islan d , sta k in g a
cla im to its p ossession:

T h is is la n d 's m in e, by S y co ra x m y m other,
W h ich th ou ta k 's t fro m m e. W hen th o u ca m 'st first,
T h o u stro k 'st m e and m ad e m u ch o f m e, w o u ld st g iv e m e
W ater w ith b errie s in 't, a n d teach m e how
T o n a m e the b ig g er ligh t, and h o w the less,
T h a t bu rn b y d ay a n d n ig h t; and th en I lo v ed thee,
A n d sh o w ed th e e a ll th e q u alities o 'th 'isle,
T h e fresh sp rin g s, b rin e-p its, b arren p la ce a n d fertile -
C u rsed b e I th at did so ! A ll th e ch arm s
O f S y co rax , toads, b eetles, b a ts, ligh t o n you;
F o r I am all th e su b je cts th at y o u have,
W h ich first w as m in e o w n k in g , and here y o u sty m e
In th is hard rock , w h iles y o u d o k eep from m e
T h e re st o 'th 'isla n d . (1. 2. 3 3 4 -4 7 , p. 3065)

T h is s e n se o f d isp o ssessio n - ev en th o u gh it is d en ied b y P ro sp ero , w ho

im m ed iately co u n te rs th at C alib an is a 'ly in g s la v e ' in w h a t is eith e r an

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u n fo rtu n ate o r rev ealin g ch o ice o f w o rd s - is clear, a lth o u g h C a lib a n 's title to
th e island is n o t en tirely co n v in cin g . It is h is p o sse ssio n , h e cla im s, th rou gh
Sy co rax , h is m other. A n ia L o om ba su g g ests th a t th e fig u re o f S y co ra x fu rth er
g en d ers th e co lo n ial situ atio n - p ittin g a fem ale figure a g ain st b o th Prospero
a n d M iran d a - a n d th at P ro sp ero also em p h asiz e s h er n o n -E u ro p ea n orig in s
a s w ell a s h er w itch craft: 'P ro sp e ro 's tak eo v er is b o th ra cial p lu n d er and a
tran sfer to p atriarch y [ . . . ] P ro sp ero a s co lo n ialist co n so lid a te s p o w e r w h ich is
sp ecifically w hite and m ale, a n d co n stru cts S y co ra x a s a b lack , w ayw ard and
w icked w itch in o rd er to leg itim ise it' (L o o m b a in W h ite 1 9 9 9 :1 4 6 , em p h ases
in o rig in al).
C a lib a n 's d isp o ssessio n , in w h ich h e claim s h e h a s b eco m e a su b je ct w here
form erly h e w as a k in g , is m ad e ex p licit in this kind o f rea d in g at the p o in t
w h ere P rosp ero lay s c la im to C alib an him self: 'T h is th in g o f d a rk n ess I /
A ck n o w le d g e m in e ' ( 5 .1 . 2 7 8 -7 9 ). H ow w e read th is is a key to h o w w e read
the p lay. Is it a m o m en t o f reco n ciliation , in w h ich P rosp ero o ffers so m e vision
o f fo rg iv en ess (C alib an h as ju st b e e n in volved in a p lo t to k ill h im , o f cou rse)?
Is it a fu rth er ex a m p le o f P ro sp ero 's p o w e r o v e r C a lib an , o r o f h is d esire to
retain so m e p o w er o v e r him ev en as h e p rep ares to le a v e the islan d ? Is it a
reco g n itio n o f th e e x te n t to w h ich P ro sp ero 's trea tm en t o f C a lib a n m a y h a v e
sh a p e d him ? A ll o f th e se re ad in g s are p o ssib le, b u t th e ir persu asiv en ess
d ep en d s o n h o w w ell th e y fit in to a b ro ad er s e n s e o f the play a s a w h ole.
As w ith the n ew h isto ricist ch o ice o f co n tex ts, ch o o sin g w h ic h is th e m ost
'a p p ro p riate' read in g p resen ts p ro b lem s, and th is has le d to so m e critical
scep ticism w ith resp ect to th e co lo n ial read in g o f T h e Tem pest. E d w ard P ech ter
u n d erlin es that:

N ew h isto ricists o ften p riv ileg e their criticism b y a ssu m in g th a t their

v ersio n o f h isto ry is the th in g itself, a s if they w ere d o in g h istory , bu t if
w e u nd erstan d th at th e y a re m erely d oin g h isto ry , th en th at p riv ileg e
d isap p ears. To say th at th e co lo n ia list T em pest is su p erio r b ec a u se 'th e
R en aissan ce w as a n a g e ch aracterized b y th e ex p a n sio n o f p o w e r' d oes n o t
a n sw er th e q u estio n , it b eg s it. (P e ch ter 1995: 6 5 -6 6 )

If h isto ry is n o t an o b ject th at is so m eh o w 'o u t th ere' w aitin g to b e d iscovered ,

b u t is in stead p ro d u ced th rou gh a n d a s a critica l p ro cess, th en an ap p ea l to
h isto ry is p art o f th at p ro cess, n o t its end p o in t. S im ila rly , critics su ch as
P ech ter w o u ld o b je ct th a t th e re lev an ce o f th e co lo n ia l rea d in g co m e s fro m a
sen se th a t b ecau se th is is a p erio d w itn essin g sig n ifica n t a ctiv ity th at th is fact
m u st so m eh o w b e reflected in the text. B u t w h a t is th e p u rp o se o f rea d in g the
text, if it o n ly rein fo rces so m eth in g alread y in d ep en d en tly k n o w n ? T h ere has
to b e a d eg ree to w h ich the 'alread y k n o w n ' m ay b e called in to q u estio n by
the read in g o f th e tex t, if th at read in g is n o t to b eco m e a 'm e re ' rep etition .

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O n e o f th e fu rth er p ro b lem s in attem p tin g to d ea l w ith q u estio n s o f

eth n icity lie s in th e aw k w ard critical sta tu s o f the term 'r a c e ' itself. A s H en ry
L o u is G a te s, Jr, pu ts it: ' " r a c e " is a m etap h o r fo r so m eth in g else a n d n o t an
e ss en ce o r a thing in itself, a p art fro m its creatio n b y an act o f la n g u a g e'. So
'r a c e ' is n o t a d escrip tiv e term , it b rin g s in to b e in g th e o b ject to w hich it
su p p o sed ly refers. M o re d istu rb in g ly , h e arg u es, ' " r a c e s " , p u t sim p ly , do
n o t e x is t' (G ates 1986: 4 0 2 -3 ). In th is w ay , a p lay su ch a s T h e Tem pest u rges us
to rev isit cu ltu ral h a b its o f th in kin g and to in terro g a te th e ir orig in s. N o n eth e
less, d esp ite th e p ro b lem atic n atu re o f 'r a c e ' as a co n cep t, th is is n o t a b arrier
to ex p lo rin g h o w it h as b e e n d ep lo yed in a v a riety o f co n tex ts a n d d iscou rses.

G e n d e r a n d Se x u ality

T h e o p en in g p a g es o f K ate C h e d g z o y 's Shakespeare's Q u eer C hildren circle

aro u n d th e sta tem e n t 'T h is is la n d 's m in e '. In th is case, C h ed g z o y is citin g n o t
T h e Tem pest, bu t a 1988 p lay b y P h ilip O sm en t fo r the G a y Sw eatsh o p T heatre
C o m p a n y , en title d T his Island's M in e. S ta rtin g from th is statem en t, C h ed gzo y
a sk s tw o (or re ally fou r) qu estio n s: 'w h o m a y sp e a k o f / f o r Sh ak esp eare? and
f o r /t o w h o m m a y Sh ak esp eare b e m ad e to sp e a k ? ' (C h ed g z o y 1 9 9 5 :1 ). A s in
the d iscu ssio n o f 'r a c e ', ou r an sw ers to th ese q u estio n s d ep en d to a great
ex ten t o n o u r u nd erstan d in g o f p ro cesses o f id en tificatio n . A s w e w itn essed
in o u r co n sid eratio n o f 'r a c e ', m u ch is a m atter o f rep resen tatio n : h o w are
w o m en rep resen ted ? Is a gay o r lesb ian a u d ien ce m em b er a b le to identify
w ith the ch a ra cte rs o r situ atio n s th a t h e o r sh e see s o n sta g e? T h in k in g a b o u t
Sh a k esp e a re in te rm s o f sex u a lity o r g e n d e r a m o u n ts to m u ch m o re than
a sk in g 'Is the A n to n io in T h e M erchan t o f V enice o r Tw elfth N ig h t g a y ?' o r 'W as
Sh a k esp e a re a m iso g y n ist?' A s th e qu o tatio n a b o v e fro m A n ia L oom ba
regard ing T h e Tem pest d em o n strate s, issu es o f g e n d e r h a v e b e e n b ou n d up in
a ra n g e o f stu d ies th at h a v e n o t tak en g e n d e r as th e ir p rim ary fo cu s, a s w ell as
b ein g a t the h e a rt o f a critical in d u stry (see H o p k in s, th is v o lu m e, C h a p ter 8).
Q u e stio n s o f p atriarch y , the rep resen tatio n o f w o m en (p articu larly in the
co n te x t o f a re n aissan ce stag e co n v e n tio n th at h a d fem a le p a rts p la y ed by
b o y s, w h ic h has also in ev itab ly a ttracted th eo rists o f sex u ality ) (see Barker
a n d K am p s 1995, a n d F erg u so n a n d V ick ers 1986), cro ss-d ressin g o f ch aracters
su ch a s V iola in Tw elfth N ight (B elsey 1988; Ja rd in e 1983), the co n stru ctio n o f
fem ale id en tity (C h arn es 1993), the read ing o f Sh a k esp e a re b y w om en
(T h o m p so n and R o b e rts 1997) o r th e u se m a d e o f Sh ak esp eare b y w om en
w riters (S an d ers 2001), h a v e all a ttracted su b stan tial b o d ies o f w ork. T h is has
b e e n su p p lem en ted by w o rks o n m ascu lin ity , o n sex u a lity a n d p a rticu la rly by
q u ee r th eory (G o ld b erg 1992; S m ith 2000).
W hile m u ch o f th e w o rk that I h a v e ju s t in d icated fo cu se s o n p lays, so m e o f
the k ey w o rk o n sex u a lity , g e n d e r and S h ak esp e a re ce n tre s o n th e son n ets.

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P a rt o f the attractio n , o f co u rse, lie s in th e sen se th at th e v o ice th at sp e a k s in

th e so n n ets - b ecau se it is n o t o b v io u sly a d ra m a tic ch a ra cte r - m ig h t b rin g us
clo ser to Sh ak esp eare 'h im se lf' (see H isco ck and L o n gstaffe, th is v o lu m e). T h e
largely p o st-R o m an tic asso cia tio n o f a ly ric v o ic e w ith co n fessio n , self-
ex p ressio n , h a s led to m u ch b io g rap h ical sp e cu la tio n a b o u t a d irect co rrel
a tio n b etw een th e situ atio n s and ch aracters d escrib ed in th e so n n ets and
S h a k e sp e a re 's life , fu ellin g m u ch o f th e a ctiv ity to id en tify th e D ark L a d y , the
y o u n g m an and th e riv al p o et in th e seq u en ce. T h o u g h m a n y h a v e sp ecu lated
a b o u t w h a t so m e so n n ets re v eal ab o u t S h a k e sp e a re 's se x life, o n e o f the
clo sest read ers (and ed ito rs) o f th e so n n ets, Step h en B o oth , co n clu d e s that
'W illiam Sh ak esp eare w as alm o st certain ly h o m o sex u a l, b isex u a l o r h etero
sexu al. T h e so n n ets p ro v id e no ev id en ce o n th e m atter' (B o o th 2000: 548).
In stead , h ere I w ill ex p lo re how th eo ries o f g e n d e r a n d sex u a lity m ig h t help
u s to rea d th e sonnets.
O n e o f the k ey th in gs to rem em b er in read in g S h a k e sp e a re 's seq u en ce
o f so n n ets is th at th e T w h o sp e a k s is a p erso n a, n o t a p erso n (and certain ly
not Sh ak esp eare 'h im se lf'). T h e v o ice th a t w e h e a r w h en rea d in g th e son n ets
is a co n stru ctio n , as is an y v o ice in a p o em , b u t th is is m a d e p articu larly
e v id e n t here. In S o n n et 144, w e a re told:

T w o lo ves I h a v e, o f co m fo rt and d esp air,

W hich lik e tw o sp irits d o su g g est m e still.
T h e b e tte r an g el is a m an rig h t fair,
T h e w o rser sp irit a w o m an co lo u red ill. (p. 1972)

T h e sim p le su p p o sitio n in th ese lin es th at th e m ale m u st tak e p reced en ce o v er

the fem ale d o es n o t ex h a u st w h a t th at c a n te ll u s a b o u t g en d er ex p e cta tio n . As
B ru ce S m ith p o in ts o u t: 'T h e " I " w h o sp eak s th rou gh all the so n n ets m ay
see m to en jo y an in d ep en d en t ex iste n ce, b u t h e is co n stitu ted b y th is "h im "
and th is " h e r " . In p oem after p o em h e d efin es h im se lf w ith re sp ect to them .
H e is q u ite u n im ag in ab le w ith o u t th e m ' (Sm ith 2 0 0 0 : 101). T h e sp eak in g
p erso n a is th u s a lw a y s p o sitio n ed in relatio n to th e m ain su b je cts o f th e
p o em s th em selves, th e Y ou n g M an w ho featu res in th e o p en in g p a rt o f the
seq u e n ce and the D ark Lad y o f th e la tte r p art. E a ch so n n et u ses rela tio n to
a n o th e r - so m etim es m ale, so m etim es fem ale - to d efin e a n d red efin e the
s p e a k e r's m ascu lin e id en tity . A s in read in gs th at fo cu s o n the co lo n ial o r
e th n ic O ther, th is is o ften a s m u ch a n eg ativ e p ro cess a s a p o sitiv e on e. T h e
so n n ets th u s esta b lish tw o kind s o f d ifference: th a t b etw een th e m ascu lin e
a n d th e fem in in e, a n d th a t b etw een o n e m ale and another.
A sta g in g o f m ascu lin e and fe m in in e d ifferen ce tak es p la ce o n (at least) two
lev els. S o n n et seq u en ces tend to p lay o n th e id e a o f an u n attain ab le fem a le
figure w h o is d esired b y th e m ale p erso n a (see G lo ssa ry ). Sh ak esp eare's

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seq u e n ce d isru p ts this b y b e g in n in g w ith a m ale a d d resse e - th e Y ou n g M a n -

w h o is u rg ed to rep ro d u ce in o rd er to p re serv e h is b ea u ty fro m d ea th and
d e c a y (on th e relation b etw een d esire and d ea th in th e so n n ets, s e e D ollim ore
20 0 1 ). T h e sp e a k e r seem in g ly u rges th e Young M an to h a v e a relation sh ip
w ith so m eo n e else. T h is u n u su al startin g p o in t is co m p o u n d ed b y the
a p p e a ra n ce o f a fem ale figure o f d esire w h o fits n o n e o f the stan d ard ex p ect
atio n s: sh e is all too attain able, and n o t ju st b y the sp eak in g p erso n a , a n d the
so n n ets ad d ressed to h er a re n o t ch a ste ex p ressio n s o f id ea liz ed lo v e b u t
frequ en tly b aw d y a n d p u n n in g in th e ir sex u ality . In d eed , th e seq u e n ce ends
w ith a p o em th at is u su ally tak en to b e ab o u t a sex u a lly tran sm itted d isease:
'T ill m y bad an g el fire m y g o o d o ne o u t' (So n n et 144, lin e 14). S o w h ile th ere is
an ex p ected d istin ction b etw een th e m ale sp e a k e r and th e d esired fem ale,
th ere is also a d istin ctio n betw een the m ale and fem ale ad d ressees, a s w ell
a s b etw een th e fig u res th a t ap p e ar in S h a k e sp e a re 's seq u e n ce a n d th o se th at
a p p e ar in m o re trad itio n al so n n ets (see S o n n e t 130, for a n exam p le o f this
n eg ative p ro cess o f definition).
T h e d iv isio n o f on e m an from a n o th er co m e s acro ss m o st clea rly in So n n ets
133 and 134. C la im in g th at the lad y h a s d isd ain ed h is lo v e and tak en u p w ith
h is frien d , th e sp eak er co m p licates m atters b y re ferrin g to th e frien d a s 'm y
n ex t se lf' (133, lin e 6) a n d 'th a t o th er m in e ' (134). B u t th is en ta ils th e lo ss o f the
w om an, th e loss o f the frien d a n d th e loss o f h im self: O f h im , m y self, and
th ee 1 am forsak en - / A torm ent thrice threefo ld th u s to b e cro sse d ' (133,
lin es 7 - 8 ). N o w w e h a v e a third d ifferen ce th at su p p lem en ts a n d u nd erp ins
the o th er tw o: w e m o v e from th e d ifferen ce b etw ee n m ascu lin e and fem inine,
a n d th at b etw een o n e m a le and another, to th a t w ith in o n e 's e lf'. T h in k in g o f
g e n d e r id en tity a s an o n g o in g p ro cess, rath er th a n a fixed en tity , ch allen ges
u s to id en tify o u r o w n relatio n to th e se p ro cesse s, rath er th an sta n d in g at
a sa fe d istan ce from th em . S u b jectiv ity is co n stru cted th rou gh ex a ctly the
lin gu istic and co n cep tu a l p ro cesses th at c a n b e seen at w ork in th e son n ets.
Id en tify in g the n a tu re o f th e relatio n sh ip s w ith in th e so n n ets is th u s also a
m a tter o f id en tify in g ou r o w n relatio n to th o se processes.

P sy c h o a n a ly sis a n d D e c o n stru c tio n

T h e relatio n b etw ee n Sh a k esp e a re and p sy ch o an aly sis is a co m p lex on e. W h ile

it is tru e th at there h a v e b e e n m an y p sy ch o an aly tica lly in form ed re a d in g s o f
S h a k e sp e a re 's p lays, w h a t is also im p o rta n t to reco g n ize is the e x te n t to w h ich
p sy ch o an aly sis is itself d ep e n d en t o n Sh ak esp eare fo r so m e o f its cru cia l
in sights. Its tw o m ain fig u res in term s o f th e ir in flu en ce o n literary stu d ie s -
S ig m u n d Freu d , th e fo u n d er o f p sy ch o an aly sis, a n d the F ren ch an alyst
Ja cq u es L acan , w h o se o w n w o rk rep resen ted a fa m o u s 'retu rn to F re u d ' - both
w ro te a b o u t Sh ak esp eare, and Freud in p a rticu lar d ev elo p ed so m e o f h is m o st

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im p o rta n t id e a s th rou gh th in kin g a b o u t d ram a a n d literatu re (w e m ig h t think

o f th e O ed ip u s C o m p lex , for ex am p le, a n d its relian ce o n F reu d 's rea d in g o f
b o th S o p h o cles and Sh ak esp eare, o r o f th e 'T h e "U n c a n n y " ' a n d its relation to
H o ffm an n 's sh o rt sto ry 'T h e S an d M a n '; s e e Freu d , 1997).
M a n y p sy ch o an aly tic read in gs seem in co m p atib le w ith h isto ricism , stress
ing u n iv ersal rath er than h isto rically co n tex tu alized featu res o f the h u m an
p sy ch e. F o r F reu d, it is p o ssib le to ta lk a b o u t a n O ed ip u s C o m p lex th at is 'th e
s a m e ' for A n c ie n t G reek cu ltu re (as in th e S o p h o cles p la y from w h ich h e takes
h is m o d el), early m o d ern E n glish cu ltu re (ex em p lified b y a Sh ak esp earean
traged y, H am let) and th e late-n in eteen th -cen tu ry m id d le-cla ss V iennese
patients o n w h o se an aly sis h e b a se d m an y o f h is findings. Su ch cla im s to
u n iv ersality are, o f co u rse, n ecessary for F re u d 's attem p ts to g roun d p sy ch o
a n a ly sis a s a scien ce; it w ou ld b e n o good if th e fin d in g s o f p sy ch o an aly sis
w orked for o n ly a sin g le p a tie n t, ju st a s a 'la w ' o f g rav ity th at w a s o n ly valid
in C h elm sfo rd w o u ld be u n lik ely to m eet w ith w id esp read acclaim .
P sy ch o an aly tic criticism is m o st co n v in cin g in its h an d lin g o f Sh ak esp eare -
a s it is w h en ev er it tu rns to literatu re - w h en it a v o id s the p itfa lls o f tryin g to
p sy ch o an aly se eith e r th e ch aracters o r the a u th o r (see H o p k in s o n Jo n e s vs
R ose, th is v o lu m e, C h a p te r 8). N o ch a ra cte r in S h a k e sp e a re 's p la y s h a s a 'life'
in the u su al sen se , n o n e h as had a ch ild h o o d , h a p p y o r u n h ap p y, o u tsid e the
te x t o r th e p erfo rm an ce o f th a t text. It is alw ay s p o ssib le to sp e cu la te, o f
co u rse, ab o u t th e se x life o f the M acbeths, o r a b o u t L ea r's d a u g h ters as
ch ild ren , b u t this is n o t s o m u ch criticism a s th e creatio n o f a n o th er text (see
H isco ck and L o n g staffe, th is v o lu m e).
W hat, th en , can p sy ch o an aly sis te ll u s a b o u t S h a k e sp e a re 's te x ts? T h e cliche
a b o u t p sy ch o an aly sis is th a t it is d o m in ated by a co n c e rn w ith sex u a lity , and
th is m ig h t su g g est th a t its ap p eal is lim ited to k n o w in g w h a t M a cb e th is really
th in kin g ab o u t w h e n he w o n d ers w h eth er o r n o t he see s a d a g g er b efo re h im ,
o r ex p la in in g the sy m bo lism o f th e fact th at Ju lie t sta b s h e rse lf w ith R om eo 's
'h a p p y d a g g er'. T h is version o f F reu d ian read in g u n d erp in s m a n y ap p roach es
to H am let, a n d can be seen n o t o n ly in critical re a d in g s b u t also in ad ap tatio n s
o f th e play su ch a s L au ren ce O liv ie r's (1948) and F ran co Z e ffirelli's (1990) film
v ersio n s. In O liv ie r's b ed ro o m sc e n e , H a m le t's reactio n to h is m o th e r's rem a r
riag e s o q u ick ly after h is fath ers d ea th is clea rly b a se d u pon an O ed ip al
stru ctu re in w h ich the so n fan tasizes taking the p lace o f h is fath er in his
m o th er's b ed . O liv ie r's stag in g o f the sc e n e ech o es F reu d 's o w n , reinforcing
its p lau sib ility a s m o re th an sim p ly a theory. B y co n tra st, K en n eth B ra n a g h 's
1996 film sh o w s a sexu al relation to O p h elia, sid estep p in g th e O ed ip al plot,
a n d d ifferen tiatin g h is v ersio n fro m e a rlie r ones.
T h ere are ce rta in ly ch aracters in S h ak esp e are's te x ts w h o b e h a v e a s if they
w ere 'F reu d ia n ' read ers (O th ello o r L eo n te s in T h e W inter's Tale m igh t b o th be
th o u gh t to su ffer from extrem e form s o f je a lo u sy th a t are fed b y th eir a b ility to

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see sex u a l sig n ifican ce in ap p aren tly in n o cen t ev e ry d a y o ccu rren ces), bu t
n ev e rth e le ss to th in k th a t su ch co n ccrn s a re th e o n ly co n trib u tio n th a t p sy
ch o a n aly tic th in kin g m ig h t m ak e to stu d ies o f Sh ak esp eare is u ltim ately
red u ctive. W hile F re u d 's e a rly w o rk ten d s to fo c u s o n q u estio n s o f sex u a lity
a n d ch ild h o o d , it d ev e lo p s in to a m u ch m o re w id e-ra n g in g se t o f con cern s.
P erh ap s m o st fru itfu lly , h e a llo w s u s to th in k ab o u t tim e and kn o w led ge in
w ays th a t p ro v id e a cle a r ch a lle n g e to th e in terests o f historicism .

Freu d a n d T ra u m a tic K n o w led g e

In a se rie s o f p ieces w ritte n betw een the end o f W orld W ar I and aroun d
1920, Freu d m o ved aw ay from his co n cern s w ith sex u a lity to w ard s a
reco gn itio n th at n o t all h u m an actio n s w ere b ased o n th e p u rsu it o f
p leasu re. D ra w in g in p a rticu lar o n th e trau m atic effects o f w artim e
e x p e rie n ce and th e p sy ch o lo g ica l (rath e r th a n p h y sica l) sym p tom s
ex h ib ited by th o se involved in accid en ts, F reu d d ev elo p ed h is m u ch -
d iscu ssed co n cep tio n o f th e d eath d riv e. In th e co u rse o f th is w o rk , he
a lso d escribed a p a rticu lar relation b etw ee n k n o w led g e and tim e th at he
called N achtrglichkeit. W h ile there is n o d irect E n g lish eq u iv a len t to this
term , it en co m p asses sen se s o f b elated n ess, a n d cru cia lly , th e id ea th at
k n o w led g e o f an e v e n t d o es n o t n ecessarily co in cid e w ith th e m o m en t
a t w h ic h th at e v e n t is 'e x p e rie n c e d '. In th e ca s e o f tra u m a - and F reu d 's
k ey ex a m p le is sh ell sh o ck - th ere is a stru ctu re o f u nw illed repetition:
th o se w h o su ffer from trau m a are co m p elled to g o b a ck o v e r w h a t has
h ap p en ed to them ev en th o u gh , each tim e they d o so, they a g a in feel
p a in an d d isco m fo rt (w h a t F reu d c a lls 'u n p le a su re'). T h is rep etitio n can
b e b o th p sy ch o lo g ica l - n ig h tm ares, in v o lu n ta ry m em o ries, a n d s o o n -
an d p h y sical, in clu d in g sh a k in g o r ro ck in g back a n d forth . W h a t Freud
su g g ests, h ow ever, is th at th is rep etitio n is n ecessa ry b ec a u se a t th e tim e
o f th e trau m atic 'e x p e rie n ce ' it w as im p o ssib le to know fully w h a t w as
h a p p e n in g , and th at sin ce th e ex ten t o f th e e v e n t is s o overw h elm in g,
the m in d effectiv ely clo se s itse lf d o w n as a fo rm o f self-p rotection . So
th e ev e n t is n o t ex p erien ced a t th e tim e o f its o ccu rren ce, it m u st b e
g ra d u a lly p ieced to g eth er th rou gh rep etitio n s in w h ich slig h tly m o re
can be seen each tim e. O u r k n o w led g e o f su ch e v e n ts is th u s in ev itab ly
b elated and h as to b e se e n n o t a s so m eth in g w h ic h h a p p e n s o n ce and
for all, b u t in stead a s a p ro cess. R efle ct u p o n the w a y s in w h ich these
co n cern s w ith b elated n ess trau m a and re v ela tio n (N ach trglich teit)
m a y illu m in ate y o u r re ad in g s o f S h ak esp e a re's te x ts su ch a s Twelfth
N ight, H am let, a n d th e so n n ets, for exam p le.

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L e t's retu rn to H am let. O n e o f th e cru cial d im en sio n s o f th e p la y 's lon gevity

h as cen tred o n th e fa ct th at it raises m o re q u estio n s th an it an sw ers. T h e play
b eg in s w ith a q u estio n - 'W h o 's th ere?' b ein g th e o p en in g lin e, bu t th ere are
sev en q u estio n s in th e first tw en ty lin es - and p ro ceed s to ta ck le a se rie s o f
p ro b lem atic issu es o f k n o w led g e, the m o st fam o u s q u estio n in the p la y o f
co u rse b e in g 'T o b e o r n o t to b e ? ' To in d icate o n ly th e m o st o b v io u s d ifficu l
ties, w e m ig h t ask: Ls th e G h o st th a t o f H a m let's fath er? W as he m u rd ered by
C la u d iu s? In o th er w o rd s, can w e tru st th e G h o s t's v ersio n o f ev e n ts? Does
G e rtru d e k n o w o f th e m u rd er? Is H am let m a d , o r o n ly p reten d in g to b e ? D id
he lo v e O p h elia? D o es O p h elia co m m it su icid e? Is th ere a d iv in ity th at shapes
o u r en d s? Frequ ently w e a re ask ed a s read ers o r au d ien ce m em b ers to ju d g e a
sp e ech o r ch aracter on th e b a sis o f ev id en ce th at is a t b e s t p a rtia l. (F o r two
d a z z lin g re ad in g s o f th e p lay th a t b rin g to g eth er F reu d a n d q u estio n s o f
k n o w in g in very d ifferen t w a y s, s e e C av ell 1987 and G a rb e r 1987). T h e play
e v e n stag es th is problem o f p ersp ectiv e and percep tio n , a n d , m o re p a rticu
larly, the d ifficu lties o f co m p ariso n , in the ex ch a n g e b etw ee n H a m let and
P o lo n iu s ab o u t w h eth er a clo u d is th e sh ap e o f a ca m el, a w ea se l o r a w hale.
It m ay b e th a t P olo n iu s, in ag reein g w ith all o f th ese p o ssib ilities, is sim p ly
tryin g to sa y w h a t H a m let w an ts to hear. B u t th en the q u estio n a rises o f how
it is p o ssib le to k n o w w h a t so m eo n e e lse h a s in m ind.
O n e o f th e tech n iq u es em p lo y ed in the play to d eep en th is sen se o f p a rtia l
ity o r p e rsp ectiv e is th e use o f rep etitio n . We m a y b e led to feel o r b elie v e at
ce rta in points in the p lay , sa y , a fte r the G h o st h a s to ld h is sto ry , th at H a m let is
ju stified in tak in g rev en g e fo r th e m u rd er o f h is father. B u t w h a t d o w e m ake
o f L a e rte s' p o sitio n o n ce H am let h a s k illed P o lo n iu s? Is h is d esire fo r revenge
eq u a lly w ell m o tiv ated ? W e m ay th in k th at C la u d iu s is a n ev il ch aracter
b ec a u se h e plots to h a v e H a m let k illed o n h is a rriv a l in E n glan d . S o h o w do
w e ju d g e H a m le t's p lan to h a v e R o sen cran tz and G u ild en stern su ffer in h is
p lace? D o w e h a v e to re th in k o u r v iew o f H am let? H a m let's 'm a d n e ss' m ust
b e co m p ared w ith th at o f O p h elia. T h e p lay -w ith in -th e-p la y m a y b e said to
're p e a t' th e m u rd er o f H a m let's fath er tw ice (o n ce w ith w o rd s a n d o n ce w ith
ou t). T h e re are m an y o th e r ex am p les o f rep etitio n in the p la y , from large
q u estio n s o f stru ctu re d o w n to sp ecific v e rb a l ech o es. T h e p la y th u s sta g es a
trau m atic stru ctu re in th e w ay th at Freu d d escrib es it.
W hen read p sy ch o an aly tically , H am let h a s in tu rn in flu en ced an ex tra
o rd in a ry essay o n M arxism b y the French p h ilo so p h er Ja cq u e s D errid a.
W orking th ro u g h th e leg acies o f M arxism in Specters o f M a rx , D errid a w ea v es
a co n sid era tio n o f H am let in to h is d iscu ssio n , find ing in th e p la y 's sta g in g s o f
id en tificatio n , m o u rn in g and h au n tin g a p o w erfu l tex tu al em b o d im en t o f the
p ro b lem s o f 'in h e ritin g ' M arxism :

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R ep etitio n an d first tim e: th is is p erh ap s the q u estio n o f the ev e n t as the

q u estio n o f th e g h o st. W hat is a g h o st? W h a t is th e effectiv ity o r th e p resen ce
o f a sp ecter, th a t is , o f w h a t see m s to rem ain a s in effectiv e, v irtu a l,
in su b stan tial a s a sim u lacru m ? Is th e re there, b etw ee n th e th in g itself and its
sim u lacru m , an o p p o sitio n th at hold s u p ? R ep e titio n an d first tim e, b u t also
rep etition a n d last tim e, sin ce the sin g u larity o f a n y fir s t tim e m a k es o f it
a lso a last tim e. E ach tim e it is the ev e n t itself, a first tim e is a last tim e.
A lto g eth er other. S ta g in g for th e e n d o f h isto ry . L e t u s c a ll it a hau n tology.
T h is lo g ic o f h au n tin g w o u ld n o t be m erely larger o r m o re p o w erfu l th an
a n o n to lo g y o r a th in k in g o f B ein g (of th e 'to b e ', a ssu m in g th at it is a
m atter o f B ein g in the 't o b e o r not to b e ', b u t n o th in g is le ss certain ). It
w ou ld h a rb o r w ith in itself, b u t like circu m scrib ed p laces o r p articu lar
effects, esch ato lo g y and teleo lo g y th em selv es. It w o u ld com p reh en d th em ,
b u t in co m p rch cn siv ely . H o w to com prehen d in fa ct th e d isco u rse o f th e en d
o r th e d isco u rse a b o u t th e en d ? C a n th e extrem ity o f th e e x trem e e v e r be
co m p reh en d ed ? A n d th e o p p o sitio n b etw een 'to b e ' and 'n o t to b e '? H am let
alread y b e g a n w ith th e ex p ected retu rn o f the d ea d K in g . A fte r th e e n d o f
h isto ry , the sp irit co m es b y com in g back [rev en an t], it fig u res both a dead
m an w h o co m es b a c k a n d a g h o st w h o se ex p e cted retu rn rep eats itself,
a g ain a n d ag ain . (D errid a 1 9 9 4 :1 0 )

D o n 't w o rry if y o u find th is p assag e d ifficu lt to u n d erstan d . H ow ev er, it is

w o rth co n sid erin g th e w ay in w h ich D errid a b rin g s to g eth er m o m en ts from
a n d featu res o f the p lay - in clu d in g referen ces to th e g h o st, the d ead K ing,
the to b e o r n o t to be sp e ech - w ith b ro ad er arg u m en ts a b o u t the d ea th o f
M a rx ism , in b o th id e o lo g ical a n d p o litical term s. D errid a w rote in resp o n se to
w riters su ch a s F ra n cis F u k u y am a, w h o h ad su g g ested th a t a s th e co n flict
b etw een (E astern ) M arxism a n d (W estern) C a p ita lism h a d b een w o n b y the
latter, th e d riv in g fo rce o f re cen t h isto ry had d isa p p ea red . T h a t p articu lar
h isto ry w as th erefo re a t an en d - h en ce D e rrid a 's co m m e n t on 'sta g in g for the
e n d o f h is to ry ', a n d h is su g g estio n th at, like H a m let's father, M arxism m ig h t
co n tin u e to h a u n t its su ccessor. D errid a also ask s fu n d a m en ta l qu estio n s
a b o u t th e n a tu re o f g h o sts and th e w a y s in w h ic h th e line b etw een life and
d ea th m ight b e d raw n . W h ile p sy ch o an aly sis is n o t ex p licitly b ro u g h t in here,
the em p h asis o n rep etitio n and id e n tifica tio n is in fo rm ed by F reu d ian n otion s
o f th e co m p u lsio n to rep eat. D errid a d o es n o t sim p ly 'u s e ' th e p la y to
rein force h is 'r e a l' co n cern w ith M arxism . H is rea d in g o f H am let a llo w s h im to
see s o m eth in g th at h e co u ld n o t h a v e g o t to in o th e r w a y s, and at th e sam e
tim e read in g H am let in th is co n te x t re v ea ls so m eth in g a b o u t th e p la y a n d its
p o litical sta tu s th at h ad n o t p rev io u sly b een seen (w h ich ex p la in s th e huge
n u m b er o f stu d ie s o f g h o sts in S h ak esp e are th at ap p eared and co n tin u e to
a p p e ar in th e w ake o f the p u b licatio n o f Specters o f M arx).

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O n e o f th e co n seq u en ces o f th e a rg u m e n t th a t D errid a m o u n ts h ere is th at

a n y n o tio n o f th e 'e n d o f h isto ry ' is u ntenable. In d eed , th ere is n o p o sitio n
w ith in h isto ry fro m w h ic h it m ig h t be p o ssib le to see h isto ry w h o le a n d co m
p leted . P art o f th e reaso n for this is the p sy ch o an a ly tic in sig h t th a t ev en ts m ay
not b e su scep tib le to b e in g fully k n o w n at th e m o m en t at w h ich they occur.
T h e p ro cess o f rep etition in v o lv ed in co m in g to know an e v e n t ca n n o t be
clo sed o ff, sin c e it b eco m es im p o ssible to k n o w w h ich w ill h a v e b een th e 'la s t'
rep etition. T h is is fu rth er co m p licated by D e rrid a 's su g g estio n , a g a in fo llo w
ing a F reu d ian p attern , th a t th e last tim e is also a first tim e, a n d v ic e versa.
T h is is p erh ap s m o st easily u nd ersto o d th rou gh th e fact th a t ea ch rep etition
rev eals so m eth in g th at has n o t b e e n seen b e fo re (a s in th e stru ctu re o f
trau m a); co n v ersely , th e first tim e th at so m eth in g is ex p erien ced is also the
last tim e th at this e x p e rie n ce w ill o ccu r f o r th e fir s t tim e. In th is co n tex t, the
id e a o f reco n stru ctin g a h isto rical m o m en t (to th e e x te n t th at su ch a th in g
is p o ssib le at a ll) ca n n o t b e seen as an e n d in itself, bu t o n ly a s p a rt o f a
m o v em en t th at m ig h t o p e n a critical reading.

S h a k e sp e a re A fte r T h eo ry

Y ou m ig h t be slig htly d isap p o in ted to h ear a t th is sta g e in th e ch a p ter th at

th ere is n o lo n g er an y n eed to w o rry ab o u t th eo ry. T h a t, a t least, is w h a t m an y
p eop le w ill b e h ap p y to tell y o u . T h e d o m in an ce o f h isto ricism h a s led a
n u m b er o f literary critics to call th em selves cu ltu ra l h isto ria n s - o r so m e such
eq u iv a le n t - o r e lse to d eclare th at w e n o w o ccu p y a tim e (or p erh ap s m ore
a ccu rately an in stitu tio n al sp ace) th a t is 'p o st-th e o ry ' o r 'a fte r th eo ry '. As
Jo n a th a n G o ld b erg - a critic w h o h a s at d iffere n t p o in ts in h is career b een
a sso ciated w ith so m e o f m o st ad v an ced th eo retical w o rk in e a rly m o d ern and
Sh a k esp e a re stu d ies, in clu d in g n ew h isto ricism , g e n d e r stu d ies and q u eer
th eo ry and w o rk o n co lo n ialism and ra ce - p u ts it in S hakespeare's H a n d :

th e d e m ise o f 'th e o ry ' - or, better, th e d em ise o f its p ro m ise, esp ecia lly in
e a rly m o d ern stu d ies - h a s p ro m p ted m o v es 'a fte r th e o ry ', w h ich is also to
sa y , b efo re th eo ry. N ew h isto ricism , in so fa r a s it is still p ractised , is
v irtu ally in d istin g u ish ab le from o ld h isto ricism ; early m o d ern cu ltu ral
stu d ie s d iv id e th e w o rld into p refab ricated b in a rism s and th in k them selves
lib erato ry in so d o in g . In Sh a k esp e a re stu d ies, p o stm o d ern ity has p assed ;
co n serv atism h as retu rn ed . (G o ld b erg 20 0 3 : x)

G o ld b erg p erfo rm s a n e a t critical m o v e h ere. T o cla im to b e p o st-th eo ry is n o t

to a d v a n ce b u t to retu rn to a p o sitio n th at rem ain s p rey to a ll o f th e problem s
th at le d to an e n g a g e m en t w ith th eo ry in th e first p lace. T h e re can b e no
w ish in g aw ay o f th eo ry, o n ly a d en ia l o f it th at is b a sica lly an a d m issio n o f

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 Cas e Studies in Reading II: From Texts to Theory

d efeat. T h e in telle ctu al ex citem en t g en erated by n ew h isto ricism h a s le d only

to a retren ch m en t o f o ld h isto ricism (w h ich n o w effectiv ely eq u als new
h isto ricism m in u s theory). E v en th o se w h o w ou ld cla im to b e follo w in g a
th eo retical p ath - a n d w h o w o u ld claim th e cred it o f p u rsu in g a critical
m od e lin ked to n o tio n s o f freedo m - h a v e regressed in to a con serv ative
p o sitio n . G o ld b erg proposed th at th ere can b e n o p u re u n - o r a-th eo retical
critical p ractice. To th is ex ten t a t least, Sh ak esp eare is alw a y s, in th e o ry , in
theory.

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and Film

Stuart Ham pton-Reeves

C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w

A Player's Hide 112

Rediscovering Shakespeare in Perform ance 11 4
Sh akespeare's Theatre 11 4
V iew ing Shakespeare 11 6
M a c b e t h W orkshop 11 7
M a c b e t h in Perform ance 122
C onclusion 12 7

A P la y e r's H ide

In 1592, aw are th a l d ea th w as near, th e p la y w rig h t R o b ert G reen e, until

recen tly o n e o f the lu m in aries o f th e E lizab eth an th eatre, w rote in h is final
b o o k a p o iso n o u s in v e ctiv e a g a in st a n ew riv al. T h is 'u p sta rt c r o w ', the o n ly
'S h a k e -scen e' in th e co u n try , w a s n o th in g m o re th an a 'tig e r's h e a rt w rapped
in a p la y e r's h id e ' (fo r fu rth er d iscu ssio n s e e N orton Shakespeare, pp. 3 3 2 1 -2 2 ).
G reen e co u ld th in k o f n o th in g m o re scath in g to call h is n ew literary riv al -
u n d o u b ted ly Sh a k esp e a re - th an play er. A ju m p ed -u p p la y e r at that. Like
m an y o f his co n tem p o rary p lay w rig h ts (M arlo w e, fo r ex a m p le), G ree n e had
a u n iv ersity back g ro u n d and , a s a good scholar, sa w h is o w n w o rk as
literatu re - p oetry . It is a s a p la y e r and a frau d th at S h a k esp e a re enters
literary h isto ry - and the relatio n sh ip b etw ee n Sh ak esp eare th e p la y e r and
Sh a k esp e a re th e lite ra ry a rtist h a s h au n ted h is recep tion e v e r since.
Sh ak esp eare h im se lf w as n o t a b o v e p layin g w ith these co n tra stin g id e n ti
ties a s p la y e r and p oet. H am let sco rn s p la y e rs w h o p erfo rm ex tem p ore - o ff
sc rip t - in w o rd s w id e ly assu m ed to reflect S h a k esp e a re's o w n th e o ry o f

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d ra m a: 'le t th o se th at p lay y o u r clo w ns sp e a k n o m o re th an is se t d o w n for

th em ' (3. 2. 3 4 -3 5 ). B u t Sh a k esp e a re w as n o t H am let, n o m a tter h o w tem p tin g
an an alo g y th at is. T h e p lay ers in M id su m m er N ight's D ream w o rry a b o u t
w h eth er they sh o u ld 'le a v e the killing o u t' o f th e ir trag ed y to av oid offen d in g
th eir au d ien ce a n d ag ree finally to m ake it cle a r at the start o f th e p erfo rm an ce
th at , P y ram u s, am n o t P yram u s, b u t B o tto m th e w e a v e r' for th is 'w ill p u t
them o u t o f fe a r' (3. 1 .1 3 -2 0 ) - b u t S h ak esp e are is n o t B o tto m either. In T he
Tem pest, Sh ak esp eare m ay b e P ro sp ero , w h o stag es scen es o n th e b a re sta g e o f
h is b arren islan d , b u t fin ally b reak s h is staff, ab ju res h is m a g ic and begs the
a u d ien ce to 'se t m e free' (E p ilo g u e lin e 20) - bu t w e k n o w th at h e w en t on
to w rite m o re p la y s in co llab o ratio n w ith Jo h n F letch er su ch a s H enri/ V III: or
A ll is T rue and T h e Tzuo N o ble Kinsm en.
In this ca s e stu d y , Sh ak esp eare w ill ag ain w e a r h is p la y e r's h id e. It is in
p la y e rs' h id e s th a t S h ak esp e are's p la y s liv e o n th e sta g es o f a m a teu r and
p ro fessio n al theatre. A nd it is a s a p layer, I w ill arg u e, th a t w e sh o u ld b e a b le
to read S h a k e sp e a re 's p lays. T h e stu d y o f S h ak esp e a re in p erfo rm a n ce and
o n film b reak s d ow n in to three related activities: read in g th e p la y s w ith an
a w a ren ess o f the stag in g co n d itio n s w h ich sh a p e d them w h en Sh ak esp eare
w as a p lay e r; ex p lo rin g th e te x ts u sin g th eatrical tech n iq u es, w h eth er this is
d o n e in o u r im ag in atio n s o r (id eally) in w o rk sh o p w ith o th e rs, in w a y s w hich
g iv e rise to an u n d erstan d in g o f th e co m p lex in terp lay o f te x t and p erfo rm
a n ce ; and , last b u t n o t least, stu d y in g the w o rk o f th e a tre p ra ctitio n e rs and
film m ak ers as an a rt form in its o w n right.
N o t ev e ry o n e a g ree s th at S h ak esp e are can b e read th eatrically . T h e assertion
th at Sh ak esp eare 'w ro te for the stag e, n o t th e p a g e ' h a s b een frequ en tly ch a l
le n g e d a n d fo r m an y y ears critica l p ra c tice d elib era tely sco rn ed the th eatre
(see H isco ck a n d L o n gstaffe, th is v o lu m e).

C h a r le s L a m b o n K in g L e a r

F am ou sly , C harles L am b scoffed a t the w ay eig h teen th - and n in eteen th -

ce n tu ry th e atre red u ced th e d a rk co m p lex ities o f K in g L ea r to m e lo
d ram a. A s h e p u t it, '[ t jo see L e a r acted , a s a n o ld m a n to tte rin g a b o u t
th e sta g e w ith a w a lk in g stick [ . . . ] h a s n o th in g in it b u t w h a t is painful
a n d d isg u stin g '. H e g o e s o n to in sist th at 'th e L ear o f Sh ak esp eare
ca n n o t b e a c te d ' for th e 'g rea tn ess o f L e a r is n o t in co rp o real d im en sio n ,
b u t in in tellectu al' (L am b 1818: II, 25).

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R e d isc o v e rin g S h a k e sp e a re in P e rfo rm a n ce

In th e tw en tieth ce n tu ry , p artly a s th eatre itse lf b eca m e m o re ad v en tu ro u s and

ex p erim en tal, criticism red iscovered the p o ten tial th a t stu d y in g Sh ak esp eare
in p e rfo rm a n ce o ffers w ith its fo cu s o n p o ssib le in terp reta tio n s rath er than
in ten d ed m ean in g s (see H isco ck a n d L o n g staffe, this v o lu m e). R esea rch into
th e p h y sical a n d cu ltu ral co n tex ts o f S h ak esp e a re's s ta g e a ls o furth ered
u n d erstan d in g o f w h a t k in d o f th e atre S h ak esp e a re's p la y s w ere w ritten for. J.
L. S ty a n w e n t s o fa r a s to an n o u n ce a 'S h ak e sp ea re re v o lu tio n ' w h ich , he
a rg u e d , d ecisiv ely m o ved aw ay from L a m b 's p o sitio n to w h at h e called
'sta g e d -cen tred ' criticism in w h ich issu es o f sta g e c ra ft a n d p erfo rm an ce
w ould be a t the forefront o f an y critical d iscu ssion .
To read S h ak esp e are th eatrically in v o lv es a ce rta in a m o u n t o f ex p erien ce
o f w h a t th e atre is, e v e n if co n tem p o rary ex p erien ces o f th eatre are w ildly
d ifferen t from an y th in g th at S h ak esp e are ev er h im se lf u n d ersto o d a s theatre.
W h ile m u ch can b e g ain ed b y g o in g to th e th eatre and w a tch in g critically,
th ere is n o su b stitu te for th e w o rk n eed ed to p u t a p la y in to p e rfo rm a n ce to
realize the ric h p o ssib ilities th a t S h a k e sp e a re 's tex t p ro vid es for th e a tre o r the
d e e p u n d e rstan d in g o f p e rfo rm a n ce - o f w h at p erfo rm a n ce d em a n d s, o f
w h at can be d em an d ed o f p erfo rm an ce. In th e reh ea rsa l ro o m , th e tex t is torn
a p a rt a s acto rs, d esig n ers and d irecto rs w o rk to g eth er to estab lish th eir v er
sio n o f the p lay , to a ctiv a te th e te x t's co m p lex ities, to turn th e w o rd s from
sc rip t into p erfo rm an ce.
In th e follo w in g sectio n s, I w ill lo o k a t p ra ctica l a n d th eo retical w ays
o f 're a d in g ' p la y s th eatrically , ta k in g into acco u n t b o th th e co n d itio n s o f
S h a k e sp e a re 's th eatre a n d th e p o ssib ilities o p en e d up b y m o d ern stagin g s,
in clu d in g film . T o an ch o r this d iscu ssio n , 1 w ill o ffer a ca s e stu d y on
M acbeth and in p articu lar o n o n e sc e n e in th e p la y , w hen M a cb e th hosts
a b a n q u e t a n d is haunted b y th e g h o st o f B an q u o , recen tly m u rd ered on
h is o rd ers. T h is scen e w ill b e ap p ro ach ed in th ree w a y s: b y reflectin g on
th e sta g in g co n d itio n s o f th e th eatre th at S h ak esp e a re w ro te for; b y w ork-
sh o p p in g th e scen e a n d ex p lo rin g so m e o f its stag in g issu es; a n d finally
b y lo o k in g at tw o p e rfo rm a n ces w h ic h have d ea lt w ith th ese issu es in
d iffere n t w ays.

S h a k e sp e a re 's T h e a tre

O n 2 0 A p ril 1611, th ree d a y s b efo re S h ak esp e are's fo rty -six th b irth d a y and
n early tw en ty y e a rs a fte r G ree n e's d eath , D r S im o n F orm an m ad e a record
o f a p e rfo rm a n ce o f M acbeth th at h e h ad seen th at a ftern o o n at th e G lo b e. His
n o te s a re a m o n g the m o st d etailed reco rd s o f th e p la y s in p e rfo rm a n ce at
th is tim e and it is lik ely th a t S h ak esp e are w a s o n e o f th e p la y e rs crow d ed

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 Shakespeare in Perform ance and Film

o n to th e stag e for th e b an q u et scen e. T h e sc e n e sto o d o u t fo r F o rm a n , w ho

record ed it in so m e detail:

T h e n ex t n ight, b ein g e at su p p er w ith h is n o b le m en w h o m h e had b id to

a feaste to th e w h ich also B an co sh o u ld h a v e com , h e b eg an to sp ea k e o f
N o b le B an co , and to w ish th at h e w e r ther. A nd a s h e th u s d id , stand in g
u p to d rin c k e a C aro u se to h im , th e g h o ste o f B an co cam e a n d sa te d ow n
in his ch e ie r (ch air 1 beh ind h im . A nd h e tu rn in g e A b o u t to sit d o w n A g ain
sa w e th e g o ste o f B an co , w h ich fro n ted h im so , th a t h e fell in to a great
passio n o f fear and fury, U tteryn g e m an y w o rd es a b o u t h is m u rd er, by
w h ich , w h en th e y hard th at Banco w as M u rd red they Su sp ected M ack bet.
(N orton S hakespeare, p. 3337)

F o rm an 's su m m ary o f th e sc e n e g iv es u s so m e v a lu a b le in fo rm atio n a b o u t

h ow S h ak esp e are and his co m p an y stag ed th e scene. From th is a cco u n t w e
k now th at th ere w as a g h o st v isib le o n stag e (as w e sh a ll see , th e scen e c a n be
p layed w ith o u t th e g h o st p h y sically ap p earin g ). We also k n o w th at M acbeth
reacted w ith p a ssio n , fear and fury, a n d th at th e p a rty a t the feast 'su sp e cte d '
M acb eth b ecau se o f h is ravings.
T h e th e atre in w h ich F o rm an saw this p e rfo rm a n ce ta k e p la ce w a s very
d iffere n t from th e m o d ern th e atre (see th is v o lu m e, C h a p te r 3 - G lo b e theatre).
Today, lig h tin g effects are s o k ey to creatin g p erfo rm a n ce th at it is hard
to im ag in e th eatre w ith ou t them : w ith ou t the d im m in g o f lig h ts a t th e start
o f th e p lay , w ith o u t lig h ts d iv id in g the stag e, settin g atm o sp h ere and tone,
sp o tlig h tin g k ey ch aracters an d risin g at th e e n d to sig n ify th a t it is tim e
to go h o m e. F o r S h a k e sp e a re 's G lo b e, th e o n ly ligh t w a s th e su n , s o p la y s in
the G lo b e w ere stag ed in m id -aftern o o n . T h is m a y h ave m e a n t, in B ritish
w in tertim e , th at th e p lays ran in to d u sk w ith in terestin g effects, e sp ecia lly for
the tragedies.

F u rth e r A n a ly sis : D a rk n e s s V isib le in S h a k e sp e a re 's D ra m a

M acbeth see m s to g e t literally d a rk er a s th e story p ro g resses a s if

ca u g h t in a p e rp etu al n igh t. H ow ever, F orm an sa w th e p la y in A pril
in bro ad d ay lig h t a n d h ad n o d ifficu lty in reco g n izin g th e scen e's
im agined d ark ness, for h e b eg in s h is acco u n t o f this scen e w ith the
w o rd s, 'th e n e x t n ig h t'. M an y critics h a v e n oticed the d isju n ctio n
b etw ee n th e p la y 's d ark settin g and its d ay lig h t p erfo rm a n ce a t the
G lo b e (see K lim an 2004: 1). In th is co n tex t, y o u m ay like to reflect
u pon th e w a y s in w h ic h th e ch a ra cte rs a t the b eg in n in g o f H am let
rep eated ly d raw o u r a tten tio n v erb ally to 'th is tim e o f n ig h t', o r th o se at

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the b eg in n in g o f T h e Tem pest m a k e u s e x p e rie n ce th e sto rm ('th e se

ro a re rs') in th e ir d esp erate exch an ges.

V ie w in g S h a k e sp e a re

S h a k e sp e a re 's th e atre w as also le ss sp e cta cu la r - a lth o u g h w e h a v e to b e ca re

ful h ere ab o u t im p o rtin g m o d ern e x p e rie n ce o f sp e cta cle in to o u r ju d g em en t
o f w h a t co u n ts a s 'sp ecta cu la r'. A lth o u g h Sh a k esp e a re w o u ld m o d estly d raw
a tten tio n to th e lim itatio n s o f th eatrical rep resen tatio n , frequ en tly to u rists (we
k now fro m su rv iv in g acco u n ts) w ere often im pressed b y w h a t they saw . It w as
n o t the co n v en tio n to co n stru c t realistic scen ery , a lth o u g h p ro p s w ere u sed to
crea te a sen se o f p lace a n d o n e su rv iv in g p ro p lis t in clu d es an in trig u in g refer
e n c e to th e 'sittie o f R o m e ' (H en slo w e 2 0 0 2 :3 1 9 ). Y et p la y s lik e T h e T em pest and
M acbeth a re clearly sp e cta cu la r plays. T h e Tem pest in clu d es o n e th e a trica l trick
w h ich rem ain s a ch a lle n g e tod ay. P rosp ero lay s o u t a fea st to tem p t th e sh ip
w recked sailo rs, a n d then m akes the fea st d isap pear. M acbeth is fu ll o f g hosts,
a p p a ritio n s a n d d em o n s. As G ab rie l E gan n o tes (see C h a p ter 9 , th is volu m e),
m o st ch aracters w ore th e sam e k in d o f clo th es a s th e au d ien ce, e v e n if the
p lays w ere se t in o th e r p laces o r tim es. S o m e co stu m e s, in d e ed , w ere sourced
from co u rtiers. F o r m an y E lizab eth an s, th e se w ere a s clo se as th e y co u ld get to
the high fa sh io n s o f th e co u rt, e v e n if they w ere la st se a s o n 's fash io n s. A s w ell
a s co stu m es, th e th eatre also u sed liv e an im als. Sh ak esp eare em p lo y ed a dog
in T h e G en tlem an o f V erona, for ex am p le. H o w ev er, so m etim es realism
co u ld go too far, a s in th e 1613 p ro d u ctio n o f H en ry V III (kn o w n th en a s A ll is
True). T h e sc rip t calls for a ca n n o n to b e fired. T h e p lay ers u sed a real can n on
for th e scen e, w h ich m u st h a v e b een an im p ressiv e sp e cta cle for an au d ien ce
in a relativ ely con fined sp ace. U n fo rtu n ately , th e d isch arge sp ark ed a fire in
the G lo b e 's th atch ed roof, the au d ien ce w as ev acu ated a n d th e th eatre bu rn t
to th e g roun d (tw o acco u n ts o f th is a re in N orton Shakespeare, p p . 3 3 3 8 -4 0 ). T h e
s c e n e th at F o rm an saw w as likely th en to h a v e b een a s realistic and sp e cta cu
lar as S h ak esp e are's co m p an y co u ld m an age. T h e n o b le s w o u ld h a v e w orn
ex p en siv e co stu m es, the g h o st w o u ld h a v e looked terrify in g , a n d M acb eth 's
h y sterical reactio n o b v io u sly had an im p act o n the o th e r ch a ra cters o n the
s ta g e - a n d o n F o rm an in th e au dien ce.
T h e p erfo rm an ce th at F orm an saw in 1611 w a s p ro b a b ly q u ite d ifferen t to
the o n e stag ed in 1606 w h en M acbeth w as p rem iered . S ch o la rs h av e lo n g been
fascin ated b y th e clear d ifferences betw een w h a t F o rm a n sa w a n d th e p er
form an ce th a t th e tex t records. F o r ex a m p le, F orm an re m em b e rs M acbeth
sta n d in g up fro m h is se a t, follo w in g w h ich the g h o st 'ca m e and s a t d o w n '
b eh in d him , w h ereas in th e text M acb e th is re tu rn in g from h is cla n d estin e talk
w ith B a n q u o 's m u rd erers w h en this h ap p e n s. M acbeth w a s n o t a n ew p la y in

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1611 (Sh ak esp eare h ad w ritten it, w e believ e, in 1606, aro u n d the tim e o f the
G u n p o w d er P lo t); so , it is q u ite p o ssib le th at th e co m p a n y m ad e chan ges
in p e rfo rm a n ce th at d id n o t su rv iv e in to th e prin ted text. T h e first p rin tin g o f
the p lay , in 1623, is n o w g en erally th o u g h t to b e T h o m a s M id d le to n 's abrid ged
a n d revised version o f S h a k e sp e a re 's p lay . B row n rig h tly arg u es that
S h a k e sp e a re 's texts are and h a v e a lw a y s b een 'o p e n ' to altern a tiv e w a y s o f
d eliv ery , b u t th e ch o ice s m ad e in d eliv ery h a v e critical co n se q u e n ce s for b o th
th e p a rt p e rfo rm ed and th e a u d ien ce's u nd erstan d in g o f th e p la y a s a w h o le
(Brow n 2002: 71). B y u nd erstan d in g th e co n te x t o f M acb eth 's early p erfo rm
a n ce s, w e a re b ette r ab le to ap p reciate the sh ap in g arch itectu re o f the te x ts -
b u t sev en teen th -cen tu ry p erfo rm an ces a re n o m o re d efin itiv e th an an y other.
In th e n e x t sectio n , I w ill su g g est so m e w ays in w h ich w e can b eg in to open
up the sc e n e to o u r o w n co n tem p o ra ry e x p lo ra tio n o f th e s c e n e in practice.

M a c b e th W o rk sh o p

T h e m o st p ro d u ctiv e w ay to b eg in to d ev e lo p a critica l im a g in a tio n in flected ,

e v e n in fected , b y p e rfo rm a n ce is to ju s t g e t u p and d o it. I h a v e tau g ht m a n y
stu d en ts w ith o u t a ctin g a b ility in w o rk sh o p s w h ich h a v e o p en ed u p im p o rtan t
in sights in to a tex t w h ich w o u ld o th erw ise be sta tic o n th e p a g e. Sh ak esp eare
d id n o t need a ligh tin g rig o r a p u b lic ad d ress s y ste m for h is p lays in 1611,
n o r a re they are n ee d ed now . In stead , a su itab le sp a ce, en o u g h p eop le to form
a g ro u p , a little b it o f co u rag e , a lo t o f im ag in atio n a n d s o m e p a tie n ce a re all
th at is required to sta rt ex p lo rin g Sh ak esp eare in p erfo rm an ce.
T h is w o rk sh o p su p p o se s a n o p p o rtu n ity to w o rk in g ro u p s o n th e sc e n e -
b u t th e step s ta k en here c a n b e im ag in ed a s w ell. In a w ritten chap ter, the
sh ared e x p e rie n ce o f a w o rk sh o p can n o t b e created - bu t w ith p ra ctice, and
im ag in atio n , it is q u ite p o ssib le to start to read texts th ea trica lly so lo n g as
the w o rk sh o p in o u r m in d s id en tifies th e k in d s o f p ro b lem s and qu estio n s
en co u n tered in the theatre.

T h e G ro u n d R u le s
1 T h e Space. A w o rk sh o p c a n ta k e p la ce an yw h ere. B u t o f a ll th e an yw h eres
th at th e y co u ld tak e p lace, th e trad itio n al classro o m is th e lea st attractive:
clu ttered w ith d esk s and ch airs, m an y h ie ra rch ica lly facing o n e w ay,
d esig n ed for sag es to lectu re to d iscip les rath er than for g ro u p s to
e m b a rk o n a sh ared exp lo ratio n o f a p ro b lem . S o if th is is w h ere y o u find
y o u rself, sta rt b y m o v in g ta b les o u t o f th e w ay and d o in g w h a t y o u can
to m a k e th e ro o m flexib le in th e w ays it c a n be u sed . It w ill n eed to be
flexib le, b ecau se w e d o n o t k n o w w h a t w e a re g o in g to d o w ith it yet.
2 T h e Tim e. T h e tim e m ay b e o u t o f jo in t in H am let and it p ro b ab ly is in
M acbeth a s w ell, b u t m o st ed u catio n al in stitu tio n s w ill rig o ro u sly p o lice

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tim e, a n d y o u a re p ro b a b ly n o t too s o rry a b o u t th at either. B u t tim e

q u ick ly d isap p ears in w o rk sh o p s. Sp eech es w h ich a re sk ip p e d o v er
in read in g can tak e a co u p le o f h o u rs to u n p a ck in th e k in d o f d etail
th at w ill se rv e o u r p u rp o ses. A ssu m in g th at y o u a re b o u n d w ith in the
tw o -h o u r traffic (m ay b e o n e!) o f a se m in a r o r sch o o l cla ss, ch o o se scen es
carefu lly . O n e h u nd red lines is m o re th an en o u g h for an h o u r's w ork,
s o lo n g a s th e co n te x t o f th o se lines is tak en in to account.
3 T h e R ead-through. T h e read-th rou gh is n o t strictly co m p u lso ry b u t it
is u seful. T h e w o rd s a re d ifficu lt w h e n sp o k en for th e first tim e, the
rh y th m s are stran g e , and it's n o t cle a r wTh ere th e stresses sh o u ld b e, o r
w h y w h a t is b e in g said is b ein g said . So , m o st o f th e rea d -th ro u g h s w ill
b e ju s t th at - a b lan d read in g , p e rh ap s e x cru cia tin g ly so. L o n g sp eech es
w ill ta k e a n ag e to g e t th rou gh , b u t at least you w ill b e a b le to m easure
how far y o u h a v e co m e la ter w h en read in g sta rts to b eco m e p erfo rm an ce.
T h e re a re v ario u s stra te g ies for read -th ro u g h s - so m e p refer to allocate
p a rts from the ou tset, o th e rs to ro ta te p a rts aro u n d the ro o m so that
ev e ry o n e is read ing. B ecau se I w a n t to m ove fo rw a rd s and b ackw ard s
aro u n d th e scen e, w e w ill read it in its en tire ty , th o u gh in w o rksh o p
w e w ill fo cu s o n a few lines.
4 T he W ork. A w o rksh o p is a p la ce w h ere th in g s g e t m a d e, w h ere w ork
g e ts d o n e. N o t ev e ry o n e d o es th e sam e w o rk a n d it w ill b e en o rm o u sly
h elp fu l if there are m o re p eop le in th e w o rk sh o p than th ere a re p arts to
p lay . S o m e o n e w ill h a v e to b e b ra v e a n d sta n d in the m id d le o f the circle.
O th ers w ill h a v e to b e tactfu l sp e ctato rs, co n fid e n t en o u g h to d irect the
acto rs, b u llish en o u g h to p u sh th em w h en n eed ed , d ip lo m a tic to reco g
n iz e th at it tak es co u rag e to sta n d u p a n d en a ct a script.
5 T he M ethod. H e re is a sim p le m eth o d , u sefu l for n o n -a cto rs (in clu d in g
teach ers). T h e 'd ire c to rs', th o se w h o h a v e n o t sto o d u p to sp eak parts,
tak e the resp o n sib ility to se t th e scen e, to o rg a n iz e the sp a ce, to position
acto rs and to d e c id e o n in terp retation . E ach lin e w ill h a v e to b e thought-
throu gh. A cto rs can jo in in th e d iscu ssio n , m a k e su g g estio n s, try d ifferen t
id e a s, b u t it is th e class a s a w h o le th at m ak es d ecisio n s. T h e s c e n e m u st
first o f all be set. N o ela b o ra te p ro p s o r co stu m es a re n eed ed , b u t the
b asic sk eleto n o f th e scen e sh o u ld b e ag reed : ta b le a n d ch a irs for the
b an q u et tab le an d a cle a r sen se o f w h ere the ex its and en tra n ce s are.
O n ce th e sc e n e is in p lay , th e d irecto rs w ill h a v e ce rta in p riv ileg es. T h ey
c a n sh o u t 'fre e z e ' and th e actio n m u st sto p . T h is w ill allo w sp a ce for new
id e a s to b e aired , fresh d o u bts to b e co n fesse d a n d d iscu ssed . T h e actio n
c a n b e sp o o led b a ck , p lay ed ag ain , tried a d iffere n t w ay. A n y o n e in the
class can d o this. A lso , the d irecto r h a s th e p o w er to retire a n a cto r if
they think they can d o better. If there is a te a ch e r in th e ro o m they
(or so m eo n e else) m u st tak e resp o n sib ility for m a k in g su re th at these

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p riv ileg es a re u sed . T h e o b ject o f the w o rk sh o p is n o t to g e t from the

sta rt o f th e scen e to its end a s q u ick ly a s p o ssib le. T h e o b ject is to g e t to
the en d a s slow ly a s p o ssib le, w ith u nd erstan d in g a ccru in g . If the group
is larg e, th en the sc e n e can be b ro k en d o w n in to p arts w ith d ifferent
g ro u p s w o rkin g on d ifferent asp e cts o f the scen e, p la y in g a t d ifferent
sp e ed s, ex p e rim e n tin g w ith d iffere n t ch a ra cte r v iew p o in ts a n d s o on.
(If th e g rou p is larg e th en sev era l ta b les c a n b e s e t - see T ib b ets 2 0 0 4 :4 3 ).
6 The O bject. T h o u g h there is n o o n e right w a y to p la y a scen e - th e re are
n o e n d o f w rong w ays. T h e o b je ct is to u n d erstan d w h a t the problem s
a re , to fo rm u late q u estio n s ra th er th a n a rriv e at d efin itiv e an sw ers. T h e
w o rst p e rfo rm a n ce o f Sh a k esp e a re is th at ex ecu ted w ith ou t u n d erstan d
in g, w ith o u t g rap p lin g w ith the text, a s if sim p ly sa y in g th e w o rd s is
en o u g h . P eter B ro o k h as a g o o d n a m e fo r th is k in d o f theatre: D eadly
T h e a tre (see B ro o k 1968). N ev erth eless, a fin al p erfo rm a n ce w ill focus
the w o rk . T h is is wTh a t w e are a im in g for, a sh o rt p erfo rm a n ce to the
class w h ic h m ak es sen se o f the scen e a n d ren d ers it in th ree d im en sion s.
7 T h e P roblem s. S h ak esp e are's scrip ts a re fu ll o f en d less p ro b lem s for those
p erfo rm in g th em . C ru cial in fo rm atio n is m issin g , o r at lea st ap p ears to
be. T h e g ro u p w ill n eed to m a k e so m e early d ecisio n s. W h ere d o ch a r
acters e n te r fro m and w h ere d o th e y g o to? W h o d o th e y sp eak to , who
h ea rs them a n d h o w d o th e y react? T h e se a re n o t q u estio n s w h ic h the
text d ire ctly an sw ers, b u t th e tex t is fu ll o f cu es - a n d clues.

P ractice
A cto rs a re p o sitio n ed , th e sc e n e is run, q u estio n s are ask ed and a s the group
p au ses o v e r a lin e, d iscu sse s a n actio n , th e tex t w ill g rad u ally b eco m e a p e r
form an ce. T h e g ro u p sh o u ld p ay a tten tio n to th e d ram a o f th e scen e - w h a t is
b ein g co n tested (b eca u se d ram a is alw a y s a co n flict), w h o is co n testin g it and
w h y ? A n d they sh o u ld atten d to th e p erso n al a n d p o litical d y n a m ics ev id en t
in the stag e p ictu re s th at they create a s th e tex t is b u ilt u p , lay er b y layer, into
a p erfo rm an ce. D iscu ssio n can ran g e b a ck a n d forth acro ss th e p la y ; it is ev en
p o ssib le (w ith co n fid en ce) to su g g est a n o th e r p a rt o f th e play to lo o k at to
help illu m in ate th e scene. (F o r a d etailed and th ea trica lly focu sed an alysis
o f this scen e see B ro w n 200 5 : 5 1 - 5 6 and W orster 2002.)
T h e sc e n e is d ecep tiv ely sim p le. T h e o ccasio n is a b a n q u e t in h o n o u r o f the
n ew k in g M acbeth , a m an w h o h as seized p o w e r u n ex p ected ly , violen tly ,
secre tly a n d w ith o u t rig h t. B u t M acb e th is b alan cin g tw o d ifferen t p a rtie s -
th e o n e in th e o p en , w ith th o se h e is n o w su b ju g a tin g , w h o reco gn ize th a t the
p o litics o f ty ran n y is to go alo n g w ith th e flow ; a n d th e o n e in th e sh ad o w s,
fo r n o t lo n g into th e scen e, M acbeth sk u lk s into th e corn er, a n x io u s for new s
from the m en h e sen t to m u rd er h is fo rm er ally B an qu o. T h is is a strikin g
scen e. M acb e th is m eant to b e th e triu m p h an t h ost: a s C h ris M ea d s p o in ts out,

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the b an q u et is th e cu lm in atio n o f M acb e th 's d isp la y o f n ew p o w e r (M eads

2001: 144). T h e o ccasio n is aw k w ard en o u g h fo r th o se a t th e fea st, all terrified
b y th e w ay M acbeth h a s seized pow er. T h is is the m o m en t for M a cb e th to
im p ose h is co m m an d , to sh o w he is a k in g - a n d in stea d , a lm o st at the earliest
o p p o rtu n ity , M acb e th a b se n ts h im se lf from th e m a in p arty. It is w o rth sp e n d
ing so m e tim e o v e r this - th e tex t o n ly gives u s th e m u rd ere rs' w o rd s, b u t the
p a rt)' is still th ere a n d , ev id en t from their re m a rk s w h en M acb eth returns,
in ten sely cu riou s a b o u t h is absence.
M acbeth retu rn s fro m h is secret m eetin g w ith th e m u rd erers, trou bled by
the n ew s o f Ile a n c e 's escap e, n erv o u sly rejo in in g the p arty. M a cb e th say s
n o th in g, for it is L ad y M a cb e th w h o has th e n ex t lin es a n d they are all d irected
a t m ak in g him sp e a k , m ak in g h im p erfo rm th e role o f h o st, o f K in g . 'M y royal
lo rd ', sh e say s, stressin g th at h e is 'ro y a l' a s if he n eed ed rem in d in g , 'Y ou do
n o t g iv e th e ch e e r' - y o u arc n o t to astin g th e feast, b u t also y o u a re n o t creatin g
a h o sp itable atm osp h ere. Sh e g o e s o n , fo r so m e lin es, to ch id e him for this. T h e
su b seq u en t sta g e d irectio n 'E n te r th e G h o st o f B a n q u o , and sits in M acb eth 's
p la ce' now g o v e rn s th e w h o le d ra m a tic situ a tio n . W h ile M a cb e th p o n d ers a
'S w e e t re m em b ran cer', L en n o x n erv o u sly a sk s 'M a y 't p lea se y o u r h ig h n ess
s it', g estu rin g to th e regal se a t from w h ich M acb eth still sta n d s b a ck . A t this
p o in t B an q u o 's g h o st ap p ears, b u t M acbeth d o es n o t see it. R ather, h e ignores
L en n o x a n d co n tin u es w ith h is toast. T h is is su p erficia l co rd iality , an ov er-th e-
to p eag ern ess to be the h o st w h ic h ig n o res h o w u n co m fo rtab le h is g u ests are
th at h e w ill n o t sim p ly tak e h is p lace. But h e can n o t - it is n o t h is p la ce to take.
R oss h a s a n o th er g o: 'P le a s e 't y o u r h ig h n ess', h e say s, 'T o g ra ce u s writh
y o u r ro y al co m p a n y ?' It is tem p tin g to p lay R oss a n d L en n o x in m u ch the
s a m e w ay , b u t B ro w n p o in ts o u t in terestin g d ifferen ces b etw ee n th e tw o
ch a ra cters. L ennox, y o u n g a n d am b itio u s, is sim p ly try in g to co v e r up an
aw kw ard m o m en t; bu t R oss 'h a s so u g h t h elp in co p in g w ith th e "u n n a tu ra l"
a fterm a th o f D u n ca n 's d eath and so h is w o rd s w ill b e m o re carefu lly ch o se n '
(Brow n 2005: 52). E x p lo rin g the scen e from a m in o r c h a ra cte r's p o in t o f v iew
c a n b e an illu m in atin g w ay o f o p en in g o u t its co m p lex ity . B u t M a cb e th is n o t
p a y in g a tten tio n to th em , for h e is lo o k in g at th e ta b le, p u z z le d , fo r n o w h e
say s, p erh ap s a little too casu ally , 'T h e ta b le 's fu ll'. M a cb e th sees th a t there
a re n o p laces b efo re h e see s the g ho st. L en n o x tries ag ain : 'H e re is a place
reserv e d , sir'. 'W h e re?' sa y s M acbeth , d u m b fo u n d e d . T h is tim e certa in ly g es
tu rin g, L en n o x say s, 'H ere, m y good lo rd '. T h is is the p o in t at w h ich M acbeth
sees th e g h o st. W e know th at M a cb e th m u st react - th ere a re n o stag e d irec
tio n s, n o lin es, bu t L en n o x 's n e x t lin e tells u s - and th e a cto r - a ll th a t is
n eed ed to esta b lish w h a t has hap p en ed : 'W h a t is 't th at m o v es y o u r h ig h n ess?'
W hat is it th at m o v es M acbeth?
To an sw er this qu estio n , w e n eed to step b a ck a b it and co n sid er th e stage
p ictu re th at Sh a k esp e a re h a s created for this actio n . A t the start, M acbeth

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 Shakespeare in Perform ance and Film

a d d resses h is g u ests w ith th e o p en in g lin e o f th e scen e, 'Y o u k n o w y ou r

o w n d eg ree s'. M acbeth is sim p ly say in g , y o u know w h ere to s it at th e table,
b ec a u se y o u know y ou r statio n . In o th e r w o rd s, th e g u ests sea ted at th e ta b le
rep resen t a so cia l a n d p o litical o rd e r o f th in g s, w ith th e K in g (on e presum es)
in the ce n tre o f the table, th e m o st p o w erfu l L o rd s eith e r sid e o f h im , a n d the
lesser L o rd s fu rth est aw ay. T h ere are p ro b ab ly m a n y o f them as w ell: the
s ta g e d ire ctio n s call for 'L o rd s an d a tten d a n ts', b u t B ro w n assu m es th a t a ll
'th e actors th at th e co m p an y can su p p ly w ill cro w d o n to th e stag e, m a rk in g a
m ajo r n ew e v e n t a fte r a seq u e n ce o f scen es th a t, fo r th e m o st p art, in v olv ed
v ery few p erso n s' (B ro w n 20 0 5 : 52). T h e p lay sh ifts gear, th e stag e is b u sier
th an e v e r b efo re, b u t rath er th an risin g to the o cca sio n (th is is, after a ll, w hat
he h a s killed for), M acbeth b eco m es u tterly isolated from th e m o m en t h e step s
a sid e to ta lk to the m u rd erers. G iv e n th e la y o u t o f th e G lo b e, a stra ig h t table
w ith M a cb e th 's se a t in th e ce n tre and ev e ry o n e sa t fa cin g th e au d ien ce w ould
have m ad e m o st sen se - e sp ecia lly if M a cb e th 's seat w ere p laced o v e r a tra p
d o o r to allo w fo r a g ho st to ap p e ar m ag ically . S o M a cb e th 's relu cta n ce to sit at
the table, ev en b efo re B a n q u o 's g h o st ap p ears, sig n ifies m o re th an h is unease;
it also p o in ts to w ard s h is in ab ility to a ssu m e th at p la ce in so ciety w h ich he
has u su rp ed . It is fo r this reason th a t th e sc e n e is n o t p riv a te b u t p u b lic for, as
R ich ard M cC o y arg u e s, th e u nfu lfilled b a n q u e t d em o n stra te s th e 'b reak d o w n
o f so cia l co m m u n io n ' in th e w o rld o f th e p lay (M cC o y 2 0 0 4 : 29).
T h is lin e o f th in kin g throw s u p an in trig u in g p erfo rm a n ce cru x , o n e w ell
w o rth ex p lo rin g in a w orkshop.

D o e s B an q u o A c tu a lly A p p ea r, a n d H o w d o e s M a c b e th R eact?

T h e tex t, a t least, is cle a r ab o u t th is: 'E n te r the G h o st o f B an q u o '. Yet the

s c e n e 's d ram a lies in th e d iffere n t p ercep tio n s o f th o se o n stag e. M acb eth
s ee s th e g h o st. L ad y M acb e th and th e rest d o n o t see it. If the g h o st is
o n stag e, M a cb e th 's terrified , d eran g ed sh o u ts m a k e sen se ; w ithou t
B an q u o 's g h o st o n stag e, h e rails at air, and the o th e rs' p u zzled a n x ie ty is
p lain . S u d d e n ly , th e sta g e d irectio n see m s less tru stw o rth y . T h e scene
c a n b e p lay ed eith e r w ay b ec a u se there are tw o sc e n e s, tw o plays:
M acb e th 's p lay , in w h ic h B an qu o, g o ry lo ck s a n d a ll, a p p e a rs; and
e v e ry b o d y e ls e 's p lay , for w h o m M a cb e th 's b eh a v io u r is n o t o n ly strange
b u t d eep ly w o rryin g g iv en th e p revailin g p o litica l in sta b ility , for w hich
the feast w as su p p o sed to b e resolving . F o r D avid G a rrick , the lead ing
a cto r o f th e eig h teen th ce n tu ry , th e scen e w as a b o u t M a cb e th 's reactio n
ra th er th an th e g h o st's ap p earan ce. W h en h e sta g ed th e sc e n e , M acbeth
held a glass o f w in e, w h ich , o n th e g h o st's seco n d a p p e a ra n ce , slipped
g e n tly fro m h is h an d w ith ou t h im realizin g it: 'h e sh o u ld not d isco v er the

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least C o n scio u sn ess o f h av in g su ch a V ehicle in h is H a n d , h is M em ory

b ein g q u ite lo st in th e p resen t G u ilt a n d H orror o f h is Im ag in atio n '
(qtd in V ickers 1975: 132). C o n tem p o rary attem p ts to em u la te such
p a ssio n tend to be p o o rly received : for ex am p le, P eter H o llan d w ittily
ru b b ish ed A lan H o w ard , w h o se lines w ere 'screa m ed and ch an ted ,
tw isted an d fragm en ted, stretch ed and g a b b le d ' (H o lla n d 1 9 9 7 :1 5 6 ).

In the re st o f this case stu d y , I w ill lo o k at tw o w a y s in wh ich a cto rs and

d irecto rs h a v e g rap p led w ith this p ro b lem b y u sin g th e reso u rces o f theatre
an d film .

M a c b e th in P e rfo rm a n ce

To co n clu d e this ca s e stu d y , I am g o in g to d iscu ss tw o co n tem p o ra ry staging s

o f th e b a n q u e t sc e n e w h ich b ro u g h t o u t v ery d ifferen t p ersp ectiv es o n the
p la y . M y a im in both cases is to d em o n strate h o w th e th eatrical and film ic
in terp retation o f th is scen e d ecisiv ely in flu en ces th e w h o le p ro d u ctio n 's
a p p ro ach to th e play.

T h e B B C M a c b e t h (1982)
D irected b y Ja c k G o ld , th is 1982 film w as co m m issio n e d and b ro a d ca st b y the
B B C C om plete W orks series. T h e B B C M acbeth d elib era tely sh ied aw ay from
rep resentin g th e su p ern atu ral a s an y th in g o th e r th an a fig m en t o f M acb eth 's
o b sessiv e m ad n ess. T h e o n ly g h o sts here w ere in M a cb e th 's m in d . T h e
b a n q u e t sc e n e h ad n o p a rt for B a n q u o 's gory lo cks. M a cb e th railed o v e r the
ta b le, b u t o n ly at a n em p ty chair. T h ere w as n o g h o st o u tsid e h is m in d , no
w a y for th e a u d ien ce to see into th at m in d , a n d so n o a m b ig u ity about
w h eth er B an qu o is really th e re o r n o t. T h e cam era k e p t retu rn in g to th e chair,
a s if strain in g to see th e g h o st, and then b a ck to M a cb e th , sta rin g , h is sh akin g
arm p o in tin g a t a b se n t sp ace. Instead o f situ atin g th e su p rem acy o f fate, the
s c e n e w as a tip p in g p o in t in rep resen tin g how u n h in g ed M a cb e th w as. So m e
critics h a v e b een u ncon vin ced by N icol W illiam so n 's h y sterics w h ich B ern ice
K lim an (for ex am p le) d escrib ed a s 'w e a riso m e ' (K lim a n 2004: 101). T h is is
a lw a y s a risk y strateg y for an acto r d eterm in ed to ex p lo re M a cb e th a s a ch a r
a c te r full o f sou nd a n d fury - or, a s F orm an p u t it, 'a g rea t p assio n o f fea r and
fu ry '. W illiam so n 's M acb e th w as teeterin g o n th e ed g e o f m a d n ess e v e n in his
first ap p earan ce. Faced w ith th e w itch es, h e sto o d b a ck , a p p aren tly proud,
secre tly afra id . B an q u o tau nted the w itch e s, ap p ro ach ed th em , exam in ed
th em , bu t M acbeth stood b a ck , d u m b fo u n d ed . P ro p h ecies w h ich am u sed
B an qu o u n settled M acbeth . H is relatio n sh ip w ith Lad y M acbeth , su p erbly
p lay ed b y a sn ak e-lik e Ja n e L ap otaire, w as b o th sex u a l and v io len t. R ead in g

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 Shakespeare in Perform ance and Film

h is letter, L ad y M acbeth ro lled o n a sto n e b ed (recallin g th e w itch e s' d o lm en

o r ston e tab le m ad e from u n h ew n sto n es su g g estin g a p reh istoric setting)
sp e a k in g h e r so lilo q u y faster a n d faster u n til reach in g o rg asm , a t w h ic h p o in t
M acb eth en tered and sh e ju m p ed o n h im , k issin g h im w ith in ten se p assion .
B u t this kind o f p assio n w as o b v io u sly u n stab le. N o t m u ch la ter M acbeth ,
su d d en ly e n ra g e d , started to stra n g le her. T h e ir relatio n sh ip co u ld easily
flip o v e r in to v io le n t m ad n ess, its d y n am ics too ea sily p erv erted . A s Jam es
L usardi a n d Ju n e S ch lu eter p o in t o u t, th is M acbeth to w ers o v e r L ad y M acbeth ,
b u t after m u rd erin g D u n can h e to o ea sily falls in to h y sterics fro m w hich
'sh e m u st d esp erately see k to re co v er h im ' (L u sard i and S ch lu eter 2003: 82).
T h e b a n q u e t b u ilt o n th is relatio n sh ip . L ad y M acb eth p lay ed th e p erfect
h o st, calm in g h er h u sb an d , trying to co n tain h is o u tb u rsts, tryin g to settle
the tab le in to so m e kind o f co n v iv ia l h o sp itality . It b eg a n w ith su ch a note,
M acb eth w elco m in g h is g u ests, sittin g them a t a sm a ll ta b le o f steel and stone.
B u t a fte r h is b rief d ialo g u e a sid e w ith B an q u o 's m u rd ered g h o st he b ecam e
m o re ag itated . B efore th at, L ad y M a cb e th h ad alrea d y seem ed ill at ea se w ith
the table. E v ery o n e sa t, there w ere three p la ce s vacan t: M a cb e th 's at the head
o f th e tab le, h er se a t o p p o site and a se a t w ith the o th er n o b le s th at th e y w ere
en tertain in g . O ffered h er se a t o p p o site th e h e a d o f th e table, sh e h esitated ,
d eclin ed to sit in it and instead jo in ed th e o th e rs - sittin g , in fact, in B an qu o's
seat. M acb e th to o k h is p o sitio n and it w a s at th is p o in t th at h e rav ed at the
se a t o p p o site, w h ich b e c a m e D u n ca n 's p la ce , L ad y M a cb e th 's p la ce , h is ow n
p lace p erh ap s, all tak en by B a n q u o 's in v isib le ghost.
Su ch strateg ies created a sen se o f p sy ch o lo g ica l clau stro p h o b ia w hich
ca m e to a h ead a t th e p la y 's co n clu sio n . W ith b a ttles fig h tin g ou tsid e,
M a cb e th stay ed in h is sh a d o w y throne room . W h en M a cd u ff a p p ea red , sil
h o u etted a g a in st a p o rtcu llis a t th e end o f a corrid or, M a cb e th at first h id like
a frig h ten ed ch ild b eh in d h is th ron e, b efo re co m in g o u t to fa ce h is n em esis.
W illiam so n 's M acbeth w as alw ay s frig h ten ed a n d h au n ted , h is w id e-eyed
sp eech es, his slo w b itte r ru m in atio n s, w ere all rooted in a fea r o f h im self.
W illia m so n 's p e rfo rm a n ce b rillia n tly cap tu red th is co m p lex ity . O n e o f the
h ig h ligh ts w as h is d eliv ery o f p erh ap s M a cb e th 's m o st fam ou s lin es. Told
n ew s o f his w ife 's d ea th , he w as a t first good h u m o u red , e v e n san guine,
sa y in g 'th ere w ou ld h a v e b een tim e for su ch a w ord . /T o m o rro w ' b u t as soon
a s h e said the w ord , a terrible th o u gh t stru ck h im . Tom orrow . . . the w eight
o f th e w ord seem ed to d iso rien tate h im . H e said the w ord ag ain d ifferen tly
a n d w ith each u tteran ce o f the w ord in th e lin e, ch a n g ed in to n atio n and
ex p ressio n , a s if b e in g stru ck w ith new th o u g h ts, n ew h o rro rs, ea ch tim e.

T h e 'P a tr ic k S te w a rt' M a c b e t h (2007)

R u p ert G o o ld 's critically acclaim ed 20 0 7 p ro d u ctio n , in w'hich P atrick Stew art
p lay ed M acb e th , o p en ed in C h ich e ste r and a fte r a su ccessfu l run tran sferred

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to th e G ielg u d T h eatre o n S h afte sb u ry A venue in L o n d o n . In this pro d u ctio n ,

th e b a n q u e t sc e n e w as th e to u ch sto n e for the p ro d u ctio n 's in terp retation
o f th e p lay: so im p o rta n t w as it th a t, u n iq u ely , th e co m p a n y p lay ed it tw ice, in
tw o d ifferent w a y s, d u rin g th e sa m e p erfo rm an ce. T h e p ro d u ctio n w a s full o f
in n o v atio n s like this. G o old w an ted to g iv e M acb eth a co n tem p o ra ry feel
w ith o u t a ls o lo sin g a s e n se th at the p lay takes p la ce in a n o th er w o rld , a recen t
p a s t fam iliar a n d d ifferen t, can n y and u n can n y . T h e p e rm a n en t s e t su ggested
a w retched h o sp ital b asem en t, a m o rg u e p erh ap s, a to rtu re ch a m b er m a y b e -
o n e review er, Jo h n Lahr, g u essed a t a 'd in g y field w ard ' (N ew Yorker, 3 M arch
20 0 8 ), o th e rs n o ted its g rim y , in stitu tio n al ste rility ' (B e n B ran tley , T h e N ew
York T im es, 15 F ebru ary 2008). T o the left o f th e stag e, a tap and b a sin sto o d for
ch a ra cters to w ash their h an d s in . In a p lay fam ou sly u nclean , the b asin w a s a
sta rk o b ject h o ld in g o u t th e p o ssib ility o f clean lin ess, o f red em p tio n , b u t this
p o ssib ility w o u ld , o f co u rse, tu rn o u t to b e an em p ty on e. In h er la s t scen e in
the play, Lad y M acbeth (p lay ed by K ate Fleetw o o d ) w ou ld d esp era tely try to
scru b o u t in v isib le b loo d m a rk s o n h e r a rm , try in g to a b so lv e h e rse lf o f guilt.
B u t m o re strik in g th an th is a n d the d irty w h ite b a se m e n t w alls u pon w h ich , at
tim es, G o old p ro jected u n in te llig ib le p o stm o d ern im ages o f e lectricity jerkin g
w ild ly like a card io m eter h o o ked u p to a m an in h is d y in g sp a sm , w a s a large
ce n tral door. T h is w as g ated lik e a n o ld -fash io n ed in d u strial lift a n d th e ch a r
a cters w h o entered it d id so a s if to rise to th e lev el ab ov e. B rig h t electric ligh t
flood ed th e sta g e fro m the lift w h en it ap p eared , em p h a siz in g th e cla u stro
ph o b ic w o rld created b y th e set. In this w ay, M a cb e th 's w o rld w a s m u n d an e
and fun ctio n al, b u t co u ld su d d en ly b e tran sfo rm ed b y su ch in terven tion s
in to an u n settled , te rrify in g w o rld p aran o iacally o b sessed b y a fea r o f w h at
lie s bey o n d a n d above. F ear a n d th e m u n d an e in term in g led , a s M ichael
B illin g to n n o ted in h is rev iew for T h e G u ardian : 'E v e n w h en d ressin g for d in
n er w ith h is w ife, h e [M acbeth ] see m s h au n ted b y fe a r' (4 Ju n e 2007).
In a k ey n o te o p en in g, th e set to o k o n th e ro le o f a w a rtim e em ergen cy
h o sp ital, a ro le it n ev e r q u ite lost. G oold rearran g ed the tex t s o th at th e play
started w ith th e C a p ta in 's m essag e to D u n can w h ich is a g rap h ic ren d erin g
o f w ar in a play th a t is o th erw ise p reo ccu p ied w ith p o liticiz ed d o m estic v io
len ce. In th is p ro d u ctio n , th a t m essag e b ecam e in stead a d e sp era te d eath -b ed
story . C h an g in g S h ak esp e are's tex t still h a s so m e cap a city to p ro v o k e co n tro
v e rsy a n d G oold to o k a risk b y rem o v in g o n e o f S h a k esp e a re's m o st fam ous
o p en in g scen es from its co n tex t, b u t th is allo w ed him to o p en w ith a scene
full o f e n e rg y a n d d esp erate p an ic. T h e sta g e crack ed w ith a n ex p lo sio n and
g u n fire, so ld iers, g en erals and n u rses ran o n to th e stag e p u sh in g a w oun d ed
m an o n a m ak esh ift h o sp ita l bed. (T h is m ood o f n ea r-d ea th terro r w as
su sta in ed th rou gh th e w h o le, ex h au stin g p ro d u ctio n .) B leed in g , h is lim bs
q u iv e rin g , h is sh irt b lo o d y , clearly h o rrib ly m u tilated , th e so ld ie r p a n ted his
sto ry to D u n can , w h o listen ed co n cerned a s th e n u rse s b u stled aro u n d the

24
 Shakespeare in Perform ance and Film

sold ier, co n n e ctin g h im to E C G m a ch in es a n d m o rp h in e d rip s, p re p a rin g him

for su rg ery . If G o o ld h a d started w ith th e w itch es, h e w o u ld h a v e had a
d iffere n t p erfo rm an ce ch a lle n g e a n d a d ifferen t p la y to d ea l w ith . Instead ,
th is o p en in g w a s d elib e ra te ly v io len t b o th in w h at it sta g ed and h o w it w as
sta g ed . H ow ever, th e w itch e s w ere there. T h e y w ere n o t o b v io u s at first in the
fran tic b u stle o f th e o p en in g , b u t D u n can sign alled th at the C ap tain sh o u ld be
le ft a lo n e n o w h e h a d g o t cru cial in tellig en ce from h im , a n d ev e ry o n e le ft the
s ta g e e x c e p t th ree n u rses. A s they qu ietly settled th e C a p ta in and finished
co n n e ctin g h im to w ires and tu bes, s o th e au d ien ce, a b le to d raw breadth,
m a y h a v e realized w h o th ese three n u rses really w ere. O n e d ep ressed the
m o rp h in e d rip to se ttle the sold ier, b u t q u ick ly it w a s cle a r th at w h a tev er w as
in th e sa c it w a s n o t m o rp h in e. T h e cap tain started to stru g g le in p ain , the
o th e r n u rses h o ld in g h im d o w n , h is legs q u iv e rin g v io len tly b efo re cra sh in g
in to d eath , th e E C G flatlin in g b eh in d . O n ly n o w d id o n e o f th e n u rses start,
'w h e n sh all w e th ree m e e t a g a in ', s o sig n a llin g G o o ld 's w a y in to th e play.
T h e se w e re effectiv e w a y s to d iso rien tate a n a u d ien ce o v er-fa m ilia r w ith
the p lay (an d , for th at m atter, w ith S te w a rt's h ig h -p ro file ro le s in H ollyw ood )
a n d to se t th e ton e for the pro d u ctio n . N o n eth eless, the b a n q u et s c e n e w as
literally th e ce n tre o f th e p ro d u ctio n , a s th e in terv a l w a s p laced a t the m o m en t
th a t M a cb e th see s B an q u o 's g ho st; th is w as rep lay ed from th e b eg in n in g
w h en th e a u d ien ce resum ed th e ir seats. T h is w a s a v ery effectiv e tech n ique,
for th e sc e n e w a s p lay ed from tw o d iffere n t p o in ts o f view . In th e first
v ersio n , b e fo re th e in terv al, G o old p resen ted th e scen e from M a cb e th 's point
o f view . In the seco n d , the a u d ien ce saw th e sam e scen e, th e sam e a ctio n , b u t
from the p o in t o f v iew o f the o th e r g u ests a t the b a n q u et. T o a ch iev e this,
G o o ld and h is co m p an y had to ch o reo g rap h th e sc e n e carefu lly in o rd er to
m ak e it cle a r th a t the sam e actio n s w ere b ein g rep eated in b o th v ersio n s.
T h ere w ere g a in s a n d lo sses. T h e g a p b etw een M a cb e th 's reality a n d ev ery on e
e ls e 's w as b rillia n tly th eatricalized .
Yet so m e o f S h a k e sp e a re 's stru ctu re w as lo st in th is rev ision . F irst o f all,
the clear p o litical o rd er w h ich M acbeth in v o k es w h en h e in v ite s ev ery on e
to sit acco rd in g to th e ir d eg ree w as m u d d ied , for th e ta b le w a s p o sitio n ed so
th a t th e au d ien ce w as seated behin d th e h ead o f th e table, th e rest o f w h ich
stretch ed b a ck to the e le v a to r door. T h is m ad e it hard to see th e p o litica l gap
in M a cb e th 's w orld . T h e table w as n o t g ran d , th e o cca sio n n o t sta tely . Rather,
G o old c h o se to m ak e the 'b a n q u e t' an in tim ate fam ily dinner. T h e M acbeth
fam ily w as tw o -faced . W hen alo n e, M acbeth a n d h is w ife h issed at ea ch other,
a rg u e d , fou gh t. Lad y M a cb e th w o u ld h ack a t bread a n d m e a t w ith a ca rv in g
k n ife and th en w a v e th e sam e k n ife a t h e r h u sb a n d , u n aw are o f the ironic
a sso ciatio n s w ith th e ir earlier bu tch ery . Food, g u ests a n d m u rd er textured the
fam ily scen e. H ow ever, a s so o n a s g u ests arriv ed , b o th a ssu m ed the m anners
o f e n th u siastic h o sts. L ad y M acbeth d an ced g aily, M acb eth teased h is guests,

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The Shakespeare H andbook

ch a rm ed th em , m a d e su re th a t they w ere sea ted and fu ssed o v e r th em . Y et all

th is to o k p la ce in th e sa m e d a n k k itch en ce lla r a s th e re st o f the p lay, th ere w as
n o th in g k in g ly ab o u t M acbeth s ce le b ra tio n feast. S p y in g th e cro o k s h e had
hired to m u rd er B an q u o sk u lk in g at th e o th er sid e o f th e stag e, M a cb e th m ade
h is ex cu ses and w alk ed o v e r to them , sp eak in g to b o th in w h isp ers. A s he
d id s o , th e p arty co n tin u ed silen tly in the back g ro u n d . B ack a t the table,
M a cb e th 's ch e erfu ln ess seem ed d isp ro p ortion ate, b o rd erin g o n th e m anic.
T h e tab le w as w aited u pon b y th e n u rses, w h om M a cb e th had h ard ly n oticed
a t a ll a s th e y p u t o u t p lates and refilled g la sse s w ith w in e . B u t a s h e started
to w ard s h is seat, th e y su d d en ly sto o d to g eth er at th e to p o f th e table, blocking
h is w ay. M acbeth sta rte d , at la s t realizin g w h o they w ere. T h e w itch e s are
n o t in S h ak esp e are's v ersio n o f th e sc e n e ; it is B a n q u o w h o , fam ou sly , stop s
M acb eth fro m sittin g in th e ch air th at h e h a s m u rd ered D u n ca n for.
In th is stag in g , M acbeth d oes ev en tu ally ta k e h is p la ce a t th e h ead o f the
ta b le, so this a sp ect o f S h a k e sp e a re 's p lay w as lost. H ow ever, it w a s a brief
v icto ry , fo r n o t lo n g after he had sa t d o w n the sta g e tu rned in to a h o rro r
show . B an q u o su d d en ly a p p eared sta n d in g on the ta b le a s if h e w ere p a rt o f
the feast b ein g eaten , h is d ead e y es starin g , h is sh irt co vered in b lo o d . T h e
o th e r g u ests ig n o red th e g ho st, starin g rig h t th rou gh it, b u t M acb eth started
b a ck , stu m b lin g from h is ch air in terror. A t th is p o in t th ere w as a blackou t,
a n d th en th e h o u selig h ts w ere p u t o n to sig n al th e in terval.
G o o ld 's ex cessiv e th eatricality ro bbed th e scen e o f so m e o f its th em atic
sig n ifican ce b u t g a v e to it a p iv otal sta tu s for h is p ro d u ctio n . It w a s th e b a n
q u e t w h ere ev ery th in g w as m e an t to b e m ad e rig h t, w h ere D u n ca n 's sacrifice
co u ld b e fin ally b u ried . By m a k in g th e scen e in to a d o m estic h o u se party
rath er th an a so v e re ig n 's form al b an q u et, G o o ld su g g ested th a t the b a n q u et
w a s M acb e th 's w a y to m ak e th in gs n o rm a l, ord in ary. T h is w a s th e ir strategy
all th rou gh th e p lay , to o ffse t th e g ro tesq u e w ith th e m u n d an e. W ash in g th eir
h a n d s, g ettin g read y fo r g u ests, p rep arin g m e als w ere all d o m estic routines
w h ich b ecam e p ro g ressiv ely co rru p ted b y th e ex tra o rd in a ry actio n s th at both
M acb eth s u nd erto o k to g a in pow er.
B u t this w as o n ly th e sc e n e as M acbeth sa w it. A fte r th e in terv al, th e play
picked up fro m th e sta rt o f th e b an q u et, as if tim e had b een sp o o le d b ack
w ard s. O n ce a g a in , M acbeth m e t h is g u ests, o n ce a g a in h e teased them ,
ch arm ed them , o n ce a g a in h e d an ced o n the table. O n ly w h en th e m u rd erers
arriv ed a t the sid e o f the stag e did G o o ld 's in ten t b eco m e clearer. M acbeth
sid led o v e r to th em , b u t this tim e the au d ien ce h eard n o th in g o f h is co n v ersa
tion . T h e y saw him n o d a n d w o rry a n d ch id e th e m u rd erers a s h e realized
th at F lean ce h ad escap ed , bu t w o rd s w ere o n ly m im ed , n o t sp o k en . A s this
d u m b sh o w w en t on the p a rty , w h ich h ad b een silen t u n til th is p o in t, w a s this
tim e stag ed w ith au d ible ch atter. It w as o n odd m o m en t, a risk y d ep artu re
from the text. T h is w as the b a n q u e t a s so m e o n e o th e r th an M acb eth w ould

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 Shakespeare in Perform ance and Film

rem em b er it: they m ig h t h a v e se e n M a cb e th talk in g w ith stra n g e rs, b u t

w o u ld n o t h a v e h ea rd h im . M a cb e th retu rn ed to th e ta b le a n d o n ce a g a in h is
w a y to his ch air w as a t first b lo ck ed b y th e w itch e s. H e s a t a n d su d d en ly
sta rte d , fallin g o ff h is ch air a s before, rav in g to th e g h o st - b u t th e g h o st did
not appear. In stead , the d o m estic sc e n e rem ained d o m estic, and th e guests
sim p ly looked a t M acbeth w ith alarm . T h e g h o st w a s in M a cb e th 's m ind all
a lo n g . F o r Jo h n L ahr, this w as 'a clev er d em o n stra tio n o f M a cb e th 's sp littin g
o ff o f h is g u ilt-rid d en p a n ic' (N eio Yorker, 3 M arch 20 0 8 ). N o n eth eless, n o t
all rev iew ers a p p reciated th e in n o vatio n : B en e d ict N ig h tin g a le w o rried th at
G o o ld 's th eatrical in v en tiv en ess w as 'b u sy and so m etim es d istra ctin g ly fu ssy '
(T h e T im es, 2 7 Se p te m b er 2007).

F u rth e r A n a ly sis: First E n c o u n te rs w ith S h a k e sp e a re 's

D r a m a tic W o rld s

B y in tro d u cin g th e g ho st, Sh a k esp e a re effectiv ely en d o rse s M acb eth 's
m ad n ess, for th is is a play w o rld in w h ich g h o sts d o ex ist a n d w itches
d o sh ap e th e u n iv erse in a p la ce th at is so m eh o w bey o n d tim e. M odern
p ro d u ctio n s often p re fe r to k eep M acbeth in the m aterial w orld and
re n d e r this sc e n e a s a d em o n stratio n o f h is m ad n ess. B y sta g in g the
s c e n e tw ice, o n ce w ith th e g h o st a n d o n ce w ith ou t, G o o ld k ep t open
b o th p o ssib ilities an d th e p e rfo rm a n ce n ev e r fin ally resolv ed w h eth er
M acbeth w as m ad , h au n ted o r b o th . C o n sid er th e im p lica tio n s o f
rev ersin g a p la y 's o p en in g scen es. In Tw elfth N ight a n d 1 H en ry IV , this
w o u ld rad ically affect o u r in tro d u ctio n s in to the d ra m a tic w o rld s and
the n a tu re o f th e b o n d s w e forge w ith th e ch aracters.

C o n c lu sio n

S o m e critics a re su sp icio u s o f p erfo rm an ce criticism b ec a u se it see m s to b e , o n

th e fa ce o f it, a n o th er w ay o f d eterm in in g 'm e a n in g ' and b lo ck in g ind iv id u al
in terp retation. B u t in truth, p u ttin g Sh a k esp e a re in to p erfo rm a n ce - w h eth er
in o u r classro o m , reh earsal ro o m , in p ro fessio n al p ro d u ctio n o r ju s t in the
m in d 's ey e - is a p o w erfu l w ay to en a b le the tex t to b re a th the a ir o f the
p resen t and cap tu re th e fu tu re in th e instant. In th is ca s e stu d y , I h av e tracked
a scen e th ro u g h o u r o w n p erfo rm an ce (real o r im agin ed ) a n d th rou gh tw o
co n trastin g p erfo rm an ces, on e stag ed , a n o th er film ed for telev isio n . In each
case, I h o p e I h a v e d em o n strated th e ce n tra lity o f th at sce n e 's in terp reta tio n to
the o v era ll p ro d u ctio n log ic. In each ca se , d ifferen t read in gs h a v e im p ortan t
ra m ificatio n s for the p lay a s a w h o le. T h e ch o ice s m ad e in p erfo rm in g the

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b a n q u e t scen e sh a p e w h a t h ap p e n s afterw ard s and h elp u s to u n d erstan d

w h at w en t b efo re. U n lik e a tex t o n th e p ag e, a sc rip t in p e rfo rm a n ce is alw ays
for an au d ien ce, h o w ev er sm all o r larg e, and it is for a n a u d ien ce o f m od erns,
not e a rly m o d ern s. In sh o rt, G ree n e got it w rong. Sh a k esp e a re w a s n o su p er
ficia l player p ran cin g ab o u t fan cy in g h im se lf a p o et. H e h a d a p la y e r's heart,
w rap p ed in a tig e r's hid e.

2 8
 Key Critical Concepts
and Topics

Adrian Streete

C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w

Setting the S cen e 12 9

Key C on cep t O n e: Authority 13 0
Key C on cep t Two: C arnivalesque 13 4
Key C oncept Three: C olonialism and R ace 13 6
Key C on cep t Four: Desire 13 7
Key C on cep t Five: Religion 14 0
Key C oncept Six: Textuality 141
C onclusion 143

Settin g the S c e n e

W h a t d o y o u n eed to know in o rd er to g e t th e m o st fro m stu d yin g Sh ak esp eare

a t u n iv ersity lev el? T h e re is n o e a sy a n sw er to th is qu estio n . H ow ev er, a s a
w a y o f d ev elo p in g y o u r co n fid en ce in co m in g to te rm s w ith Sh ak esp earean
stu d ies, it w ill first b e u sefu l to co n sid er th e follo w in g th ree poin ts:

L ik e any a cad e m ic d iscip lin e, Sh ak esp eare Stu d ies h a s its o w n critical
v o cab u lary w ith its o w n k ey critical co n cep ts a n d topics.
Sh ak esp earean critics u se this v o cab u lary a n d th ese k e y co n c e p ts and
to p ics in o rd e r to d iscu ss S h ak esp e are's te x ts in a ran ge o f co n texts,
in clu d in g S h a k e sp e a re 's e a rly m o d e m context.
T h is v o cab u lary and th ese co n cep ts and to p ics m ay see m d a u n tin g and
im p en etrab le a t first. B u t like a n y v o cab u lary , w ith so m e e ffo rt o n y ou r
p art, its co n cep ts a n d to p ics c a n b e le a rn t and u se d su ccessfully.

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E lsew h ere in this book, y o u w ill find ch ap ters th at d ea l w ith p a st and cu rren t
critica l ap p ro ach es to Sh ak esp eare. T h e se sh o w th a t th e critica l co n cep ts and
to p ics w h ich Sh ak esp earean critics use to d iscu ss th e p la y s a n d poem s
a re co n stan tly ch an g in g . Stu d en ts so m etim es a ssu m e th at a n y b o o k in the
lib ra ry - o r w o rse, an y d o cu m en t on the in tern e t - o n Sh ak esp eare w ill help
them w h en trying to p re p a re fo r a class o r w rite an essay. F o r exam p le,
a lth o u g h still in terestin g and w ell w o rth read in g, a b o o k su ch as M . C.
B ra d b ro o k 's T he G row th a n d S tru ctu re o f E lizabethan C om ed y, w h ich w as first
p u blished in 19 5 5 , is a p ro d u ct o f its tim e (see H isco ck a n d L o n gstaffe, this
v o lu m e). M an y o f its critical co n cep ts m a y still b e v a lid : o th ers w ill h a v e been
critiq u ed o r lo n g rejected . So , w h en y o u are try in g to m ak e sen se o f th e term s
th at Sh ak esp earean critics u se, y o u also need to b e a w a re that:

T h e term in o lo g y o f S h ak esp e arean criticism h a s a h isto ry , h a s ch an ged

o v e r tim e and is still ch an g in g .
Sh ak esp earean critics a re aw are o f th at h isto ry a n d w o rk w ith in it.

In w h a t follo w s, I w ill o u tlin e and exp lain six k e y critical co n cep ts and topics
co m m o n ly u sed b y Sh ak esp earean critics w ritin g to d ay . T h e se co n cep ts and
to p ics rep resen t a sn ap sh o t o f so m e im p o rta n t cu rre n t co n cern s and interests
w ith in Sh ak esp earean sch o la rsh ip in 20 0 8 . A s su ch , th e y o ffer n eith e r an
ex h a u stiv e list, n o r sh o u ld th e y b e read u ncritically. M y aim is n o t to give
y o u a serie s o f 'rea d in g s o r p ro v id e y o u w ith failsafe 'm e th o d s' th a t you
c a n 'a p p ly ' to an y Sh ak esp earean text. Rather, m y aim is to en co u ra g e you
to re flect critically o n how th ese k ey co n cep ts and to p ics m ig h t en a b le y o u to
b eg in to ex p lo re o th e r S h ak esp e arean te x ts n o t co v e red elsew h ere in this
b o o k . B y d ev elo p in g a critical v o ca b u la ry o f y ou r o w n , I h o p e th a t y o u w ill
feel m o re co n fid en t in ad d in g to th at v o ca b u la ry a n d ex p a n d in g y o u r u n d er
sta n d in g o f it th rou gh in d ep en d en t research.

K e y C o n c e p t O n e : A u th o rity

T h e relig io u s R eform ation th a t sw e p t sixteen th -cen tu ry E urope h a s b een

u n d ersto o d in a v ariety o f w a y s b u t o n e en d u rin g critical a p p ro a ch to the
R eform ation is to sa y th at it rep resen ted a crisis o f au th o rity . U p until the
1 960s, the R eform ation in E n glan d w as often u n d ersto o d a s a p ro cess o f
in ev itable ch an g e: th e au th o rity o f th e m ed iev a l C ath o lic C h u rch and the
P a p a cy h a d d im in ish ed to su ch an ex ten t th a t R efo rm a tio n w a s u nav oid ab le.
H a rn essin g th e n ew p rin t te ch n o lo g y , P ro te sta n t id eas sw e p t acro ss N orth ern
E urope a n d ch an g ed forev er p e o p le 's a ttitu d e to k in g sh ip , ch u rch pow er,
w orsh ip a n d id en tity . H ow ever, sin ce th e 1970s, th is p ictu re o f the R efo rm a
tion has b e e n su b je ct to qu estion . Inspired b y so -ca lled rev isio n ist h isto rian s,

1 30
 K e y C ritical Concepts and Topics

a n a ltern a tiv e v ie w h a s b e e n p ro p o sed . S c h o la rs h a v e arg u ed for a v igorou s

a n d w ell resp ected late m ed iev al C a th o lic C hu rch , w id esp read ex p ressio n s o f
relig iou s a n d la y p iety, and n o p articu lar d esire fo r ch an g e. It h a s b een su g
g este d th at a serie s o f R efo rm atio n s w ere im p o sed o n E n g la n d for political
reasons. T h e se w ere clo sely co n n ected to th e p o litica l co n tex ts o f the various
T u d or m o n arch s (see E n g e l, th is v o lu m e, C h ap ter 2). H en ry V III's d ivorce,
E d w ard V i's a rd en t P ro testan tism , M ary I 's eq u a lly ard en t C a th o licism and
E lizab eth I's ad h eren ce to a p rag m atic fo rm o f P ro testan tism w ere, it is
a rg u e d , th e m ain d eterm in ers o f w h a t p eop le believ ed .
T h is b rief su m m ary sh o w s th at there is n o sim p le w a y o f u n d erstan d in g the
R eform ation in early m o d e m E n g lan d . S o m e sch o la rs m ain tain th at th e rev i
sio n ists o v erstate th e ir case, th at th e late m ed iev al C a th o lic C h u rch w a s n o t as
v ib ra n t a s is claim ed , th at the R efo rm atio n ca n n o t b e red u ced to w h a t in d i
v id u al m o n arch s en acted , a n d th at th is ap p ro ach u n d erp la y s th e th eo lo gical
im p act o f th e R e fo rm ers' id eas o n d o m in an t m o d es o f th o u gh t. R ev isio n ists,
o n th e o th e r h an d , w ill o ften p o in t o u t th at in E n glan d at least, th e refu sal o f
C ath o licism to d ie o u t co m p letely co m p licates th is picture. D eb ate o n this
issu e is on go in g, b u t it is clear th at au th o rity , o r m o re p recisely, th e qu estion
o f w h ere au th o rity resid es, is ce n tral to b o th ap p ro ach es (see R o b so n , this
v o lu m e, C h a p te r 5).
In term s o f S h ak esp e arean stu d y , a n u m b er o f critics h a v e d eb ated the
q u estio n o f au th o rity . In th is sectio n , I am g o in g to in tro d u ce th e w o rk o f one,
R obert W eim an n and m e n tio n briefly the w o rk o f an oth er, A n d rew H adfield.
I w ill o ffe r a b rief o u tlin e o f th e ir w o rk as w ell a s so m e o f th e ce n tra l qu estio n s
th at th e y d ea l w ith , su ch as:

W h ere d o es au th o rity resid e? W ith th e P op e; w ith th e m o n arch ; w ith

p arliam e n t; in b o o ks?
W h at p o litical p o w er (if an y ) d o th e p e o p le have?
W h a t is the b e s t w ay to g ov ern a state?

I w ill also su g g est so m e S h ak esp e arean te x ts th a t y o u m ig h t ex a m in e in

relation to th ese qu estio n s.
In h is b o o k A u th ority a n d R epresen tation in E arly M od ern D iscou rse, R obert
W eim ann a d o p ts an an ti-rev isio n ist p o sitio n , arg u in g that the p ro liferatio n o f
p rin t in the early m o d ern period p ro fo u n d ly ch an g ed a ttitu d e s to w ard s p o lit
ical au th o rity . H e arg u es th at b efo re th e R efo rm a tio n 'tra d itio n a l lo cation s o f
p re m o d e m au th o rity p ersisted in [ . . . ] th e ecclesia stica l h o ld o v e r religious
w ritin g s' (1996: 5). B u t w ith th e in v en tio n o f th e p rin tin g p ress and the
e v e r in creasin g p ro d u ctio n o f b o o k s, a n e w a ttitu d e to au th o rity w a s born ,
'o n e resid in g in the stren g th o f p erso n al b e lie fs a n d co n v ictio n s, in the d if
feren tiatin g u ses o f kno w led ge, d iscu ssio n , and a b u sie r ex ch a n g e o f signs

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a n d m e a n in g s' (5). W ith su ch a sh ift, a rg u es W eim an n , and a s d iffere n t w ays

o f represen tin g au th o rity b ecam e p o ssib le, 'th e re resu lted an in ten se circu la
tion , allo w in g fo r m u tu al in terro g atio n a m o n g d iv e rse lo cation s, o f a u th o rity
(18). W eim ann fo cu se s o n R eform ers lik e L u th er and C a lv in in h is d iscu ssion ,
su g g estin g th at P rotestan tism h a s a fu n d am en tally an ta g o n istic a ttitu d e to
secu la r au th o rity . T h is an tag o n ism m a y n o t a lw a y s b e o n sh ow , b u t n o n eth e
less, W eim ann e n a b les u s to u n d erstan d th at th e R eform ation crisis in a u th o r
ity w as a s m u ch a p o litical issu e a s it w as a relig iou s on e. A s y o u c a n see,
W eim an n 's w ritin g can be d en se a n d is n o t alw ay s e a s y to co m p reh en d . But,
like a n u m b er o f Sh ak esp earean critics, o n ce you g e t p ast th e so m etim es co m
p lex la n g u a g e, th e re is m u ch to b e g lean ed . H o w m ig h t w e rela te W eim ann's
id eas to S h a k e sp e a re 's w ritings?
First, w e m ig h t th in k o f th e w ay in w h ich n u m ero u s Sh ak esp earean figures
read , in terp ret a n d ch a lle n g e v ariou s fo rm s o f w ritin g . T h e se o ften ta k e the
form o f letters and b o o k s, and th e y d em o n strate h o w o ften th e w ritten w ord
is o p en to in terrog atio n in th e plays.

F u rth e r A n a ly sis: S h a k e sp e a re a n d W ritin g

For ex a m p le, L ove's L ab ou rs Lost is a p lay satu ra ted w ith b o o k s, letters,

s ch o la rs good and b a d , and is d ee p ly co n cern ed w ith q u estio n in g the
a u th o rity o f w ritin g . H ere a re so m e sectio n s th at you m ig h t exam in e:

In A ct O n e, sc e n e o n e , th e K in g o f N av a rre and h is co u rt sign an

'e d ic t' (1. 1. 11) co m m ittin g th em to th ree y ears so lita ry stu d y. In
w h a t w a y s is the o ath th a t the co u rt tak es co m p rom ised in th e play?
T h e ed ict fo rb id s w o m en to co m e w ith in a m ile o f the co u rt
( 1 .1 .1 1 9 - 2 0 ) . In w h at w ay d o th e w o m en in th e play read, interpret,
a n d n eg o tiate this edict?
You m ig h t ex a m in e the im p o rtan ce o f le tte r w ritin g , rea d in g and
in terp retin g letters, fo r ex am p le th e letters th a t th e b ra g g a rt A rm ad o
w rites a s h e trie s to w oo Ja cq u cn e tta . S e c 1. 1. 1 7 9 -2 9 2 a n d 4 . 1.
5 3 -1 2 0 . Y ou m ig h t also lik e to co n sid er th e w ays in w h ic h d ifferen t
form s o f w ritin g a sk u s to q u estio n th e n atu re o f ero tic desire,
ju d icial au th o rity and in tellectu al am b itio n in p la y s su ch as H en ry
IV, Tzoelfth N ight, H am let and T h e Tem pest.

A n o th e r w ay o f u tilizin g W eim an n 's w o rk is w ith regard to m o n arch ical

au th o rity . S h ak esp e are's h isto ry p lays ex p lo re th is q u estio n rem orselessly. In
h isto rical te rm s, th e W ars o f the R o ses sta rt w ith the d ep o sitio n o f a rightfu l

32
 K e y C ritical Concepts and Topics

king, R ich ard II, and end w ith th e assu m p tio n o f th e first T u d or m on arch
H en ry V II. Trad itionally , critics h a v e read this n a rra tiv e a s im p ly in g the res
to ra tio n o f m o n arch ical au th o rity in th e Tu d ors. H ow ev er, s in c e th e 1970s
sch o la rs h a v e fou n d a m u ch m o re co m p lex se t o f a ttitu d e s to w ard s m o n a r
ch ica l au th o rity at w o rk in the h isto ries. H e re are so m e in terestin g sectio n s to
ex p lo re further:

You m ig h t co m p are A ct T h re e, scen e th ree o f R ichard II w h en R ichard

su b m its to B o lin g b ro k e, w ith th e d ep o sitio n sc e n e in A c t Four, sc e n e one.
Is m o n arch ical au th o rity g iv en b y d iv in e rig h t'? O r d o es au th o rity d eriv e
from th e ap p licatio n o f p o litical m igh t?
In R ich ard III w e see a m o n arch w h o is a m u rd erer and usurper. Yet the
p lay p re sen ts u s w ith a t least six K in g s o r Q u een s, a s w ell a s a n y n u m b er
o f p o te n tia l m onarchs. W h a t d o es th is re v eal to u s a b o u t th e id e a o f d iv in e
rig h t? H ow d o es 'G o d 's n a m e ' (5. 2 . 22) o p era te in th is play?
H o w d o es S h a k e sp e a re 's last h isto ry p lay (w ritten in co lla b o ra tio n w ith
Jo h n F letch er), A ll Is True {H en ri/ V III) d eb a te the relatio n sh ip betw een
P ap al and m o n arch ical p o w er? L o o k at the trial o f the P ro testan t
A rch b ish o p C ra n m er in A ct F iv e, scen e tw o , a n d in p a rticu la r th e accu sa
tions m ad e a g a in st h im b y th e C a th o lic G ard in e r (5. 2 . 3 5 -2 1 4 ). H ow d oes
E n g la n d 's o p p o sitio n to R om e in fo rm th is p la y 's politics?

F in ally , th ese q u estio n s ab o u t th e lo cation o f au th o rity m igh t en co u ra g e u s to

th in k fu rth er a b o u t altern ativ e p o litical stru ctu res th a t m a y h av e b een av a il
a b le in S h ak esp e are's tim e. T h e m o n arch w as th e m o st p o w erfu l sin g le figure
in early m o d ern E ngland . H ow ever, a s A nd rew H ad field h a s sh o w n in his
b o o k S hakespeare an d R epu blican ism (2005), altern a tiv e s to th is fo rm o f g ov ern
a n ce w ere also d eb ated . B y th e sixteen th ce n tu ry E n g la n d had d ev elo p ed a
co m p lex co n stitu tio n al system o f ch e ck s a n d b ala n ces co m b in in g the a u th o r
ities o f m o n arch and n atio n al rep resen tatio n - th is stru ctu re is frequ en tly
d iscu sse d in te rm s o f th e p o w e r o f 'K in g -in -P a rlia m e n t'. P a rlia m en t (a g rou p
in g o f p e ers in th e L o rd s a n d m o stly g en try in th e C o m m o n s) p a rticip a ted in
th e m o n arch s law -m ak in g a n d tax atio n in itiativ es a s w ell as v o icin g op in ion s
o n m o re d iv isiv e issu es su ch a s relig iou s refo rm , foreig n p o licy a n d royal
m arriage. If this form o f 'm ix ed g o v e rn m e n t' w a s celeb ra ted b y m an y p o lit
ical w riters o f th e tim e, this w as n o t u n iv ersally th e case. R ep u b lican thou ght,
w h ic h d rew u p o n classical so u rces a s w ell a s co n tem p o ra ry p o litica l w riting,
w as a co m p lex p h en o m en o n . H ow ever, b ro ad ly sp ea k in g , it referred to 'th e
in tellectu al co n v ictio n th at it w as n ecessary to co n tro l th e p ow ers o f the
crow n by estab lish in g a m eans o f en su rin g th at a co terie o f v irtu o u s ad visors
a n d serv a n ts w ou ld a lw a y s h a v e th e co n stitu tio n a l rig h t to co u n sel th e m o n
arch , and s o in flu en ce a n d co n tro l his o r h e r actio n s w ith in the lim its o f the

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la w ' (H ad field 2005: 17). T h is 'c o n v ic tio n ' m ig h t ta k e a v a riety o f fo rm s, ran

g in g from th e asse rtio n th at citizen s sh o u ld h a v e righ ts a n d th a t p arliam en t
sh o u ld b e a m o re p o w erfu l fo rce, to th e p ro m o tio n o f d o ctrin es o f law fu l
resistan ce ag ain st a m onarch . W e m igh t th erefo re ask:

In w h at w a y s m ig h t S h ak esp e are's texts ex p lo re 'a lte rn a tiv e ' fo rm s o f g ov

ern m en t? T h ere a re a n u m b er o f te x ts th a t d ra w d irectly u p o n rep u b lican
h isto ry , su ch a s T h e R a p e o f L u crece a n d Ju liu s C aesar, a s w ell a s m an y o th ers
th a t d ea l w ith d e p o sitio n , rebellio n a n d civ il w a r - d o th ese te x ts critiqu e,
reject o r a d v a n ce altern ativ e fo rm s o f g o v ern m en t? Is Sh ak esp eare a
're p u b lica n '?

K e y C o n c e p t Tw o : C a rn iv a le s q u e

If th e p revio u s sectio n o n au th o rity d ealt w ith q u estio n s su rro u n d in g the

m ain ten an ce o f pow er, this sectio n d eals w ith th o se m o m en ts in e a rly m od ern
cu ltu re a n d literatu re w h en th e p o w e r o f the ru lin g cla sse s is d elib erately
m o ck ed , rid icu led a n d (tem p o rarily a t least) o v ertu rn ed . M an y Sh ak esp earean
critics call th ese m o m en ts carn iv alesq u e. In o rd er to u n d erstan d w h a t this
term m eans and h o w it m ig h t a p p ly to S h ak esp e a re's w ritin g s, w e n eed first
to co n sid er w h ere th e term co m es fro m a n d h o w it m ig h t o p era te w ith in early
m o d ern cu ltu re.
T h e term carn iv alesq u e d raw s u pon th e w o rk o f th e R u ssian critic M ik h ail
B akhtin. In h is influ ential b o o k R abelais a n d H is W orld, B a k h tin exam in es the
im p o rtan ce o f the fea st d ay s and festiv a ls th a t stru ctu red th e p a ssa g e o f
th e y e a r acro ss m ed iev al and early m o d e m E urope. In p articular, h e argued
th at th ese 'o fficia l' ev en ts w ere o ffse t by the carn iv al. A s h e n o te s (1 9 8 4 :1 0 ):

T h e su sp en sio n o f all hierarch ical p reced en ce d u rin g ca rn iv a l tim e w a s of

p a rticu lar sig n ifican ce. R an k w as esp ecially ev id en t d u rin g official feasts;
ev e ry o n e w as ex p e cted to ap p e ar in the fu ll regalia o f h is ca llin g , ran k , and
m erits and to ta k e th e p la ce co rresp o n d in g to h is p o sitio n . It w a s a
co n se cra tio n o n in equ ality . O n th e co n trary , all w ere co n sid ered eq u al
d u rin g th e ca rn iv a l. [ . . . ] T h is led to the creatio n o f sp ecia l fo rm s of
m ark etp lace sp e ech and g estu re , fran k and free, p erm ittin g n o d istan ce
b etw ee n th o se w h o ca m e into co n tact w ith each o th e r and lib eratin g from
n o rm s o f e tiq u e tte and d ecen cy im p o sed at o th e r tim es.

T h e ca rn iv a l w as a p lace w h ere, fo r a w h ile , th e o v ertu rn in g o f rig id so cial

h iera rch ies co u ld be celeb rated . A d ifferen t fo rm o f sp eech w a s p erm issib le
d u rin g th e ca rn iv a l. R ath er th an th e m o n o lo g ic sp e ech a sso cia ted w ith official
ru ling id eo lo g y th a t w as sin g u lar and d o m in an t, the sp e ech o f the carn ival

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w as d ialo g ic, th at is to say , m u ltip le, p lu ral a n d 'lib e ra tin g '. T h o u g h the car
n iv al w as in v ariably a tem p o rary state, it co u ld n o n eth eless g iv e rise to a ll
k in d s o f su b v ersiv e b eh av io u rs. T h e carn iv alesq u e celeb ra ted w h a t B akhtin
term s seco n d life [ . . . ] a "w o rld in sid e o u t" ' (1 9 8 4 :1 1 ). A s su ch , it rejoices
in p a ro d y , satire, in v ersion , trav esty, p ro fan ity and a ce le b ra tio n o f bod ily
ex cess, w h at B akh tin term s th e 'g ro te sq u e b o d y ' (1984: 317). H ere, B akh tin is
n o t sim p ly referrin g to ex trao rd in ary sp e cim en s o f th e h u m a n b o d y w h ich
o fte n a ttracted crow d s to th e c a rn iv a l, b u t to a m o m en t w h ich sig n a lled a
co lla p se in h u m an and self-g o v ern m e n t - a p ro v isio n al tim e in w h ic h a ll
k in d s o f a p p e tite m ight b e u n leash ed and u nd erm in e th e d a y -to -d a y p o w er
stru ctu res w h ich u su ally h eld th at w o rld in ch eck .
In term s o f Sh ak esp earean criticism , B a k h tin 's w o rk on the ca rn iv a l has
p ro ved fru itfu l for a n u m b er o f critics. O n e su ch is N ao m i C o n n L iebler,
w h o se b o o k S hakespeare's F estiv e Tragedy: T h e R itu al F ou n d ation s o f G en re (1995)
u ses B ah ktin and o th ers to ex a m in e th e w ays in w h ich th e g en re o f traged y
d ra w s u pon m u ch o ld e r ritu als su ch a s carn iv al. A n o th e r critic w h o has
u tilized B akh tin is M ich ael B risto l. In h is d iscu ssio n o f O thello, B risto l arg u es
th at th e carn iv alesq u e en v iro n m en t w h ich is g en erated d u rin g th e cou rse
o f th e trag ed y releases a 'la te n t so cia l v io len ce' (1996: 18 0 ) w h ic h had
h ith erto b e e n rep ressed b y th e rig o ro u s p o litical o rd er o f th e V enetian w orld .
In this ch alle n g in g essay , Bristol also attem p ts to recover, v ia B akh tin , a
read in g o f O th ello n o t a s tragic h ero , b u t a s a 'co m ica lly m o n stro u s' figure,
an 'a b je ct clo w n ' w h o se h u m iliatio n an d d ea th e x p o se s the 'in v id iou s
racial sen tim e n ts' o f the p erio d th a t it w as w ritten in (1986: 181, 187, 186).
T h is essay sh o w s th e w ay in w h ich critics can u se th e in v ersion im p lied b y the
ca rn iv alesq u e to read th e p lays a n d , in s o d o in g , d isru p t d o m in an t critical
read in gs o f th e S h ak esp e arean text, w h ich all too frequ en tly h a v e co n cen
trated u pon the p sy ch o lo g ica l a n g u ish o f the p ro ta g o n ist, th e cataly tic role o f
the tem p ter Iag o, and th e p ath o s g en erated b y the d ra m a tiz a tio n o f victim
exp erien ce.
W h a t o th er S h ak esp e arean texts m ig h t b e read in relation to th e ca m iv a -
lcsq u e? H e re a re so m e su gg estions:

F alstaff h as a d ra m a tic life o u tsid e th e h isto ry p la y s a n d in the b ro ad farce

o f S h ak esp e are's T h e M erry W ives o f W indsor h e co u ld b e seen as an
em b o d im en t o f the carn iv alesq u e. Howr m ig h t y o u read th e a tten tio n p aid
to h is 'g ro te sq u e b o d y '? L ook in p a rticu la r at the ex ch a n g es betw een
F alstaff and F ord in A c t T w o , scen e tw o (esp ecially F o rd 's 'jealo u sy
sp e e c h ' a t 2. 2. 2 5 3 -7 4 ) and A c t T h ree, scen e fiv e (3. 5 . 5 4 -1 3 0 ). W h at do
y o u m ak e o f F alstaff's d isg u ise as an old w o m a n in A ct Four, sc e n e tw o?
D oes F alstaff's w o o in g re p resen t a 'w o rld in sid e o u t'? Is the carn iv alesq u e
u sed ag ain st F alstaff a s a p u n ish m e n t in A ct Five, sc e n e five?

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L o o k at the u se o f h o lid ay s and fea st d ay s in Ju liu s C aesar, sta rtin g w ith

A c t O n e, scen e on e - h o w d o es th is sc e n e in tro d u ce th e relation sh ip
b etw een ca rn iv a l a n d p o litical u p h eaval? You m ig h t th en co n tra st Brutus
a n d C a ssiu s's d iscu ssio n o f w h en to k ill C a e s a r in A ct T w o , scen e o n e w ith
C a e sa r's co n cern s ab o u t th e ca len d a r in A ct Tw o, sc e n e tw o - h o w are
ritu al an d ca rn iv a l co n n e cte d ? L astly , w h a t o f th e ro le o f the p leb e ia n s in
th e p lay - d o th e y em b o d y th e carn iv al o r its w o rst ex cesses?

K e y C o n c e p t T h re e : C o lo n ia lis m a n d R a ce

A ttitu d es to w ard s race in the e a rly m o d ern p erio d w ere co m p lex and
w ere in v ariably relig io u sly in flected . O n e im p o rta n t p o st-R efo rm a tio n stran d
o f th o u gh t, w h ich w as so m etim e s articu lated b u t in o th er p laces sim ply
a ssu m ed , h eld th at to b e E n glish w as also to b e P ro testan t a n d th u s su p e
rior to a ll o th e r ra ces a n d religion s. H ow ever, w h ile th ese a ttitu d e s could
o ften b e jin g o istic a n d /o r stere o ty p ical, they d id n o t p re clu d e serio u s and
(in e a rly m o d ern term s) resp ectfu l stu d y o f a n d ex ch a n g e b etw een foreign
nations.
T h e exam in atio n o f ra ce - a n d in d eed , th e q u estio n in g o f th e se v ery te rm s -
is a n extrem ely v ib ran t o n e w ith in Sh ak esp earean stu d ies. S ch o la rs su ch as
S tep h e n G reen b latt, A n ia L o om ba, K im H a ll, D an iel V itku s and Jy o tsn a Singh
h av e ad v an ced o u r u nd erstan d in g o f this area in im p o rta n t w ays. For
ex am p le, and d ev elo p in g a p o in t 1 m ad e earlier, A nia L o om ba h a s p o in ted out
th at th e w a y s in religion and ra ce are in tertw in ed in the early m o d ern period .
W riting o f E n glish attitu d e s to w ard s Islam , sh e notes:

L iterary te x ts are cru cial in d ices o f cu ltu ral co m p lex ities, ra th er th an

fictio n s su p erim p o sed u pon them [ . . . ] o u r a n a ly sis o f racial id eo lo g ies and
stereo ty p in g h as to go b ey o n d id e n tify in g 'p o s itiv e ' o r 'n e g a tiv e ' im ages
and tak in g th ese at face valu e. E nglish w riters ack n o w led g e Turkish
m ilitary su p erio rity , c iv ic o rg an isatio n , and p atriarch al co n tro l. T h e y en v y
and e v e n w a n t to em u late th ese a ttrib u tes, b u t at th e sa m e tim e, th e y see
th ese a s e v id en ce o f an alien a n d th reate n in g cu ltu re. E v id en ce o f M uslim
p o w er o n ly feed s in to th e co n stru ctio n o f M u slim a lterity in th e period.
(2002: 73)

L o om ba h ere p o in ts o u t th at literary texts th e m selv es are a w a y in to the

co m p lex ities o f cu ltu re. Sh e u rg es critics to m o v e b ey o n d lo o k in g for
sim p le 'p o s itiv e /n e g a tiv e ' p o rtrayals, an d reco gn ize th e co m p lex ities o f, for
ex am p le, E n glish im a g e s o f Turkish p eop le. 'A lterity ' h ere m ean s 'o th e r
n ess' (as in a lle r ego). L o om ba h elp s u s to see th at rep resen tatio n s o f o th e r
races in S h ak esp e arean texts need to b e exam in ed for the v a rio u s cu ltu ral

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 K e y C ritical Concepts and Topics

assu m p tio n s th at th e y m ig h t m ak e. A ltern ativ ely , w e m ig h t a sk o u rselv e s to

w h at ex ten t S h ak esp e arean te x ts accep t th o se assu m p tio n s: to w h at d eg ree
a re fig u res o f d iffere n t ra ces also fig u res o f 'a lte rity ' in S h a k esp e a re's w ork?
H ere a re so m e id eas fo r fu rth er study:

L o o k a t th e co n stru ctio n o f ra ce in O thello. L o o k at th e racia liz ed la n

g u a g e o f Ia g o and R od erig o in A c t O n e, a n d also o f D esd em o n a 's fath er
B raban tio - w h a t d o es th is re v eal to u s a b o u t racial stere o ty p e s? To w h at
ex ten t is O th ello a w are o f th ese stere o ty p e s, e.g. a t 3 . 3. 2 6 2 -8 1 ? Is O th ello
seen a s a C h ristian , a M u slim , a co n v e rt o r an am a lg a m o f each ?
H o w m ig h t w e read A aron in Titus A n dron icu s? Is he a s im p le 'v illa in '? Is
h e co m p lex ? L o o k in p a rticu lar a t A ct F iv e, scen e one.
W h at ab o u t th e co n stru ctio n o f th e Jew , S h y lo ck , in T h e M erch an t o f V enice?
Is th is a n a n ti-S em itic p lay ? D o es it in terro g a te an ti-S em itism ? L ook at
S h y lo ck 's v ariou s sp eech es in A c t O n e, sc e n e th ree, A c t T h ree, sc e n e one,
a s w ell a s at th e 'trial sce n e ' in A ct Four, sc e n e on e. D o w e u nd erstan d
S h y lo ck 's 'co n v ersio n '?

K e y C o n c e p t Fo u r: D e s ire

W h en ap p ro ach in g the issu e o f d esire in th e w o rk o f Sh ak esp earean text,

it m ig h t b e tem p tin g to th in k th at h u m a n im p u lses d o n o t ch a n g e m uch
o v e r tim e, and th at sex u a l d esire is m u ch th e s a m e now as it w a s in the
six tee n th and sev en teen th cen tu rie s. In d eed , so m e p sy ch o a n a ly tic ap p roach es
to S h ak esp e are b e g in from th at v ery assu m p tio n . W h ile th e b io lo g ica l ap p a r
a tu s th ro u g h w h ich h u m a n s en act sex u a l d esire m ig h t h a v e rem ain ed the
sam e, th e cu ltu ral m e a n in g s h ave ch a n g ed rad ically s in c e S h a k e sp e a re 's day.
T h erefo re, co m in g to te rm s w ith h o w d esire o p era tes in S h a k esp e a re's texts
w ill first in v o lv e so m e co n sid eratio n o f w h a t k in d o f cu ltu ra l m e a n in g s sexual
d esire had in early m o d ern culture.
In o rd e r to d o th is, w e first n eed to c o n sid e r early m o d ern u n d erstan d in gs
o f th e h u m an b o d y . A ttitu d es d rew h eav ily u p o n relig iou s d o ctrin e. A cco rd in g
to th e b ib lical b o o k o f G en e sis, 'G o d created m an in h is ow n im a g e ' (1:27). The
e m p h a sis o n 'm a n ' p o in ts to th e fa ct th at w o m an is n o t created in d ep en d en tly
in G en e sis as A d am is, b u t ra th er from o n e o f A d a m 's rib s. W o m an is an
a d ju n ct o f m an and, a s su ch , su b o rd in ate to h im . W h en E v e is b eg u iled b y
S a ta n and p ersu ad es A d am to e a t o f th e tree o f kno w led ge, th e co n seq u en ces
a re q u ite specific: A d am an d E v e b eco m e aw are o f th e ir n a k e d n ess a s a m a rk
o f th e ir tran sg ressio n ; E v e is co n d em n e d to brin g forth ch ild ren 'in so rro w '
a n d h a v e A d am 'ru le o v e r' h e r (3:16); A d am w ill h a v e to w o rk for th eir food;
b o th w ill su ffer d ea th ; and b o th a re c a s t o u t o f E d en. T h is b ib lica l n a rra tiv e
u n d erp inn ed early m o d e m attitu d e s to th e b o d y a s a m a rk er o f original

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sin. M oreover, a s A d am and E v e w ere th e 'fir s t fa m ily ', th e ir n a rra tiv e also
u n d erw ro te th e patriarch al attitu d e s th at d o m in a te early m o d ern sex u a l and
fam ilial relatio n sh ip s, su b o rd in atin g w o m en to m en.
E arly m o d ern attitu d e s to the b o d y w ere also d ee p ly in fo rm ed b y th e w rit
in g s o f th e a n cien t G reek p h y sician G alen , w h o se th e o rie s w ere w id ely
a ccep ted acro ss E urope. T h e G alen ic sy stem w a s b a se d on th e id ea th at the
b o d y co n tain ed fou r p rin cip a l h u m ou rs. T h e se h u m o u rs w ere P h legm , B lood ,
C h o ler and B lack B ile. If an in d iv id u a l's body m ain tain ed ea ch h u m o u r in
b a la n ce w ith th e o th e rs, all w o u ld be w ell. B u t if o n e h u m o u r p red om in ated ,
the im b alan ce w o u ld ca u se a n ill hum our. F o r ex am p le, too m u ch B lack B ile
w ould lead to m elan ch o ly (see B rad ley o n H a m le t's m e la n ch o ly in H iscock
and L o n gstaffe, th is v o lu m e). C entral to this sy stem w a s th e id ea o f h ea t. M en,
it w a s b elie v ed , sh o u ld b e a ctiv e , en e rg etic and v ig o ro u s, a n d a ll th ese states
required th e ex e rtio n a n d p ro d u ctio n o f h eat. M a scu lin ity , in o th e r w ord s,
w as asso ciated w ith w arm th . F em ales, o n th e o th e r h a n d , sh o u ld be passive,
in a ctiv e and reserv ed . F em in in ity , therefore, w a s d efin ed in relation to
cold n ess.
B oth relig io u s a n d m ed ical th eo ry in th e early m o d ern p erio d serv ed to
m a in tain th e p atriarch al o rd er th a t p laced w o m en in a su b o rd in a te p o sitio n to
m en. W h ere, th en , d o es th is le a v e u s w ith resp ect to d esire? Is it th e ca s e th at
th e ex p ressio n o f h u m an d esire m ig h t p ro b lem atize th ese d isco u rse s? T h e
a n sw er is y es. F o r on e, to d esire a n o th e r h u m a n b ein g is to p o ten tia lly put
o n e s e lf in to an activ e p o sitio n , and as w e h a v e seen , a ctiv ity is traditionally
a sso ciated w ith m ascu lin ity. D u rin g th e early m o d ern p e rio d , it w a s believed
th at o n e h u m a n 's d esire for a n o th er w as co n v e y e d th ro u g h th e ey es. A m an
w o u ld lo o k at a w o m an , and via h is 'e y e b e a m s' h is g aze w o u ld co n v e y his
d esire for th at w o m a n , via h er ey es, into h er so u l. A s th e h isto rian Stu art
C la rk w rites: 'T h e d o m in an t role o f th e e y e in lo v e im a g ery w a s also m atched
b y th e th em es o f "p o sse ssio n w ith the e y e " and v o yeu rism th at flo u rish ed
m o re d a rk ly in co n tem p o rary m iso g y n y ' (2007: 23).

F u rth e r A n a ly sis: W h ic h ro le fo r th e a u d ie n c e ?

In T h e R ape o f L u crece, th e n arrato r d escrib es the sleep in g L u crece before

h e r rap e b y Tarquin. A re th e 'lew d u nh allo w ed e y e s' (392) som eon e
e ls e 's o r o u rs? T o w h a t ex ten t a re w e a s re ad ers im p lica ted in th is scen e?
Is the d escrip tio n o f the sleep in g L u crece intend ed to m irro r T arq u in's
d esire or, m o re p ro b lem atically , to in v o k e d esire in u s a s read ers?

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 K e y C ritical Concepts and Topics

H ow ever, th e re are also n u m ero u s in stan ces w h ere Sh ak esp eare o v ertu rn s the
'co n tem p o rary m iso g y n y ' o f su ch d isco u rse s, in v o k in g in stead d esire as
e n a b lin g fem ale self-assertio n . In a n u m b er o f th e co m ed ies, fo r ex am p le, the
role o f m e n 's p o etry in co n stru ctin g w o m en as o b jects to b e look ed at is
su b je cted to scru tin y . F o r exam p le:

In A c t T h re e , sc e n e tw o o f A s You L ike It, y o u m igh t e x a m in e h o w R osalin d

q u estio n s th e patriarch al a ssu m p tio n s in h eren t in O rla n d o 's lo v e p oetry.
You m ig h t also lo o k a t A ct T h ree, sc e n e th ree w h ere th e C lo w n Touchstone
and A u d rey 's d iscu ssio n o f th e v alu e o f O v id 's M etam orp h oses. T h is
w as o n e o f th e m o st im p o rtan t 'c la ssica l' texts fo r literary w riters in
S h ak esp e are's tim e, so think ab o u t th e re sp o n ses o f Ja q u e s w h o ov erh ears
th is d iscu ssio n - w h at d o th e y reveal ab o u t d ifferen t so cia l attitud es
to w ard s p o etry a n d d esire?
T h in k too ab o u t th e E p ilo gu e to A s You L ike It. H o w d o es it qu estio n the
ro le o f lo o k in g in co n stru ctin g g en d er roles? W hat m ig h t it rev eal to us
ab o u t th e ro le o f d esire in th eatrical p erfo rm a n ce and lookin g?
A n o th er p lay w o rth ex a m in in g is A M id su m m er N ight's D ream . H ow does
O b e ro n 's 'ju ic e ' ( 2 .1 .1 7 0 ) facilitate th e p la y 's e x p lo ra tio n o f co n tem p o rary
a ttitu d e s to th e g a z e a n d sexu al d esire? T itan ia th e fa iry q u een , th e u p p er
class lovers a n d th e lo w e r class 'm e ch a n ica ls' are all en tan gled b y the
a p p licatio n o f th e ju ice to th eir ey es - w h at m ig h t th is rev eal to u s about
d esire a n d class?

To finish th is sectio n , I w a n t to d raw b riefly u p o n th e w o rk o f o n e critic,

C a th erin e B elsey. M u ch o f B e lse y 's w o rk o n d esire is h ea v ily in d ebted to the
w o rk o f th e French p sy ch o a n a ly st Ja cq u e s Lacan. D esire, for L acan , fa r from
b ein g a p o sitiv e ex p erien ce, is in e v ita b ly ab o u t la c k - as the co n n o ta tio n s o f
the E n glish w ord 'w a n t' show . A s th e s e n se o f lack is p ro d u ced b y th e split
b etw een co n scio u s and u n co n scio u s th at takes p la ce d u rin g e v e ry ch ild 's
d ev e lo p m e n t, it c a n n ev e r b e satisfied for long.
T h e se L acan ian p rin cip le s u nd erp in an essay b y B elsey en titled 'C le o p a t
ra 's S e d u ctio n ', p u blish ed in A ltern ativ e S hakespeares, Vol. 2 . In this essa y , Bel
s e y sets o u t to ex am in e 'th e d ram atic rep resen tatio n o f se d u ctio n ' by C leo
patra in S h ak esp e are's A n ton y an d C leop atra (1 9 9 6 : 41). Sh e lo o k s at how ,
th ro u g h o u t th e p lay , C leo p atra re p eated ly refu ses to b e lo cated w h e re others
e x p e ct h er to be. W riting o f E n o b arb u s's fam o u s d escrip tio n o f th e Q ueen
a b o ard h e r barg e in A c t T w o , sc e n e tw o , B elsey o b serv es th a t th is is a reco l
lected acco u n t o f an ev e n t th a t h as alread y tak en p lace. In th is w a y , th e play
d escrib es b u t at the sa m e tim e refu ses to sh o w us h o w th e v ery a ir 'h a d gone
to g aze on C leo p atra to o ' (2. 2. 223). A s B elsey pu ts it: 'C le o p a tra 's erotic
p o w e r is seen a s m y sterio u sly elsew h ere, d eferred , in d efin ab le, irred u cib le to

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la n g u ag e, id en tified o n ly a s a tran scen d e n t and th u s in e v ita b ly ab sen t p res

e n t' (1 9 9 6 :4 4 ) - a p rin cip le th a t y o u m ig h t u sefu lly ex p lo re in rela tio n to o th e r
S h a k esp e arean plays.

L o o k a t A c t F iv e o f T h e W inters Tale. In w h a t w a y s d o es th e seem in g ly

dead H erm io n e still co m m u n icate e ro tic and p o litica l m e a n in g s for
L eo n te s a n d o th e rs? H ow d o w o rk s o f art rep resen t ero tic d esire? H ow
d o es th e fin a l scen e te st th e relatio n sh ip b etw een d esire a n d lookin g?
C o n sid er th e fu n ctio n o f th e 'n a m e ' in A c t T w o , scen e o n e o f R om eo an d
Ju liet. C a n lan g u ag e e v e r em b od y e ro tic d esire, o r is it a lw a y s d o o m ed to
fail in this task?

K e y C o n c e p t Fiv e : R elig io n

In te rm s o f the literary cu ltu re o f early m o d ern E n g la n d , m a n y sch o la rs h av e

su g g ested th at P ro testan tism g a v e w riters new w a y s o f th in kin g about
a w h o le ran g e o f to p ics, su ch a s m o n arch ical a u th o rity , th e relation sh ip
b etw een su b je ct and ruler, attitu d es to w ard s the fam ily, o r a ttitu d es tow ards
m o n e y a n d trad e. B u t p erh ap s th e m o st p e rv a siv e featu re o f P ro te sta n tism for
m an y critics is th e w ay it sh ap e d e a rly m o d ern th in k in g a b o u t su b jectiv ity .
S in field a rg u es th a t P ro testan t th e o lo g y w a s a h arsh a n d u n y ield in g system
th at ask ed in d iv id u a ls to scru tin ize th em selves in w ard ly for sig n s o f th eir
sp iritu al statu s. H e calls th is 'a self-co n scio u s d ep lo y m en t and cu ltiv a tio n o f
self-aw aren ess; it is p a rt o f a p ro ject for actu alizin g in terio rity. [ . . . ] E n v is
a g in g o n e 's fate a t th e h an d s o f th e R efo rm atio n g o d o f in co m p reh en sib le love
and arb itrary d a m n a tio n m u st h a v e been a g rea t p ro v o k er o f self-
co n scio u sn e ss' (1992: 1 5 9 -6 0 ). S in fie ld 's term 'in te rio rity ' re fe rs to H am let's
'th a t w ith in w h ich p asseth sh o w ' (1. 2. 85), his p riv a te in n er b ein g ; for Sin
fie ld , P rotestan tism is ab o u t p ro d u cin g a ce rtain k in d o f (in n er) self. W h ile
th is is n o t to sa y th a t in d iv id u als did n o t e x p e rie n ce in w a rd n ess in the m e d i
ev a l p erio d o r earlier, it is to sa y th a t P ro testan t th eo lo g y h a s a p a rtic u la r kind
o f in v e stm e n t in th e p ractice o f in w ard n ess a n d its co n se q u e n ce s for th e in d i
v id u al. It is also im p o rta n t to rem em b er th a t b o th Sin field a n d D o llim o re are
o p eratin g w ith in a B ritish v ersio n o f M arxism k n o w n a s C u ltu ra l M aterialism
a n d th at they arg u e th at su ch religiou s p ractices also h a d a b ro a d e r political
p u rp o se, n am ely in D o llim o re's w o rd s to 'p ro v id e th e b a se s for a m aterialist
u n d e rstan d in g o f th e in terrelatio n s betw een th e so cial, the p o litical and the
su b je ctiv e ' (2n d ed . 1989: 174). B oth D ollim o re a n d S in field th u s h o ld th at
P ro testan tism w as a cru cial p o litical to o l d u rin g th e early m o d ern p erio d , for
the in d ivid u al, a n d h is o r h e r relatio n sh ip to sta te pow er.
In term s o f S h a k e sp e a re 's texts, y o u m ig h t b eg in b y th in kin g o f the relation
sh ip b etw ee n the so lilo q u y and P ro testan tism . It is a th eatrical co n v en tion

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 K e y C ritical Concepts and Topics

th at ch aracters tell th e tru th in so lilo qu y. W h en ch a ra cte rs sp e a k d irectly to

th em selv es a n d / o r to the au d ien ce, d o they scru tin iz e th e in n e r s e lf they
d isp lay ? H ow aw are a re th e y o f w h a t th e ir w o rd s rev eal? You m ig h t lo o k at
the follow ing:

M a cb e th 's 'd a g g e r' so lilo q u y a t 2. 1. 3 3 - 6 4 in M acbeth.

C o m p are R ich a rd 's o p en in g so lilo q u y a t 1. 1. 1 -4 0 w ith h is 'd rea m '
so lilo q u y b efo re th e b attle o f B o sw o rth a t 5. 5 .1 3 1 - 6 0 in R ich ard III.
A d ria n a 's sp e ech (n ot a so lilo q u y , b u t n o n eth eless co n cern e d w ith inw ard
scru tin y and th e se lf in relation to an O th er) at 2 .2 .1 1 0 - 4 6 in T h e C om ed y o f
E rrors. A re in n e r selv es d ifferent in a co m e d y a s o p p o sed to a tra g ed y ? Can
w e d istin g u ish b etw een d ifferent k in d s o f in w ard n ess and in teriority?

K e y C o n c e p t S ix : T extu ality

W h en y o u stu d y a Sh ak esp earean tex t at u n iv ersity , in all likelih o od th at text

w ill b e a sch o larly ed itio n th at y o u r tu tor h a s reco m m en d ed . B u t w h a t ex actly
d o w e m ean b y a 'sch o la rly e d itio n '? A n d w hy m ig h t it b e im p o rta n t for y o u to
b e in terested in h o w th e tex t y o u cam e to b e ho ld in g g o t th ere in th e first place?
Su ch q u estio n s relate to w h a t sch o lars call th e te x tu a lity o f th e e a rly m odern
b o o k . W e m igh t th in k ab o u t th e p ro d u ctio n o f early m o d ern b o o k s, exam in in g
how , b y w h o m and w here they w ere p rin ted , m a rk eted and so ld . W e could
th in k a b o u t the d issem in atio n o f literary te x ts lik e p la y s a n d p o em s. W h at
cu ltu ral statu s did su ch b o o k s h a v e re la tiv e to o th e r b o o k s? H ow m u ch did
they co st? W h o m ig h t h a v e b o u g h t them ? We co u ld also th in k a b o u t th e rela
tio n sh ip b etw een the stag ed p lay and th e w ritten p lay. H o w d id a play text
co m e to b e p rin ted ? W h o o w n ed the text: the p layw righ t, the p layin g co m
p a n y , the p rin te r o r th e b o o k seller? A n d , g iv en all o f th is, h o w m ig h t w e ed it a
S h a k esp e arean p lay? T h e se issu es ce n trin g aroun d th e e a rly m o d ern b o o k -
a n d y o u r S h ak esp e are e d itio n - co m e u n d er th e ca tch -a ll term 'tex tu a lity '.
A g en eratio n o r so ag o, su ch q u estio n s w ere n o t w id e ly a sk ed , e x c e p t p er
h a p s b y ed ito rs a n d h isto rian s o f th e b o o k . H ow ev er, su ch q u estio n s are now
p a rt o f the m ain stream w ith in Sh ak esp earean stu d ies. It is n o lo n g e r good
en o u g h to sim p ly a ssu m e th at w h a t y o u a re p resen ted w ith in a sch o la rly
ed itio n sim p ly reflects 'w h a t a n au th o r w ro te'. In th e first p la ce , m an y
S h a k esp e arean te x ts co m e d o w n to u s in a v ariety o f v ersio n s. Take the
ex a m p le o f H am let. T h e e a rliest v ersio n s o f this p la y a re th e first q u a rto o f
1603, the seco n d q u arto o f 1 6 0 4 -5 an d th e first folio ed itio n o f 1623 (see
G lo ssary ).

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Ed itin g the S h a k e sp e a re a n Text

F o r an ed ito r o f this p lay , th e in terestin g if p ro b lem a tic fact is th at each

o f th ese v ersio n s d iffers fro m the other. In th e ca s e o f the first qu arto,
th e se d ifferen ces a re extrem ely w id e. F o r ex am p le, P o lo n iu s is called
C o ram b is, O p h elia is O felia and G ertru d e is G ertred . A s an ed itor, how
m igh t you d ea l w ith th ese d iffere n ces? D o y o u ign ore th em , in corp orate
them o r find a m ean b etw ee n th e tw o ? U p u n til fairly recen tly, the
a n sw er to this qu estio n w as th o u g h t to b e a rela tiv ely sim p le on e. An
e d ito r's jo b w as to recover, a s nearly a s p o ssib le , an a u th en tic tex t th at
w as a clo se as p o ssib le to th e a u th o r's o rig in al. S o m e ed ito rs w ere
e x p licit a b o u t this aim : o th ers sim p ly assu m ed th at th is w as th eir job.

H ow ever, sin ce the 1980s, ed ito rs a n d sch o lars h a v e b eg u n to qu estio n rad ic

a lly this assu m p tio n . T h e m ajo rity o f e a rly m o d ern p la y texts w ere n o t w ritten
b y a sing le author, b u t in stead in co lla b o ra tio n (see E gan , th is volu m e,
C h a p ter 9). B u t w h a t th e N orton Shakespeare (1 9 9 7 :6 5 ) te rm s 'T h e D ream o f the
M aster T ext' - th a t is, th e tex t faithfu lly reco rd in g th e reco v era b le in ten tio n s o f
a sin g le au th o r - is n o lo n g er v iab le, th en h o w are ed ito rs to p ro ceed ? In term s
o f H am let, th e m o st re cen t a n sw er h as also b een o n e o f the m o st rad ical. O ne
o f th e p re m ie r sch o larly ed itio n s o f S h ak esp e a re is the A rden Shakespeare.
W h en the sch o lars A nn T h o m p so n a n d N eil T aylor ca m e to ed it th is H am let
for th is serie s, they n o ted that:

F o r a s lo n g a s ed ito rs a re seek in g to estab lish a sin g le tex t o f H am let, they

are d riv en to regard each o f th e th ree e a rly texts, Q l , Q 2 and F, a s im p erfect
to so m e d eg ree a n d , w ith ex trem e ly few ex cep tio n s, h a v e prod uced
a fou rth, im p ro ved , ecle ctic text. (S h ak e sp eare 2006: 91)

In stead o f d o in g th e sa m e a s p re v io u s ed ito rs, T h o m p so n a n d T a y lo r's so lu

tio n w as th e lo g ic a l co n clu sio n o f th e sh ift in ed ito ria l p ra c tice th a t I h a v e b een
o u tlin in g . A s they explain:

W e are n o t assu m in g th at W illiam Sh ak esp eare w a s n ecessa rily th e so le

au th o r o f ev ery w ord in th o se early sev en teen th -cen tu ry texts, n o r th at w e
know th e d eg ree to w h ich a n y o f them rep resen t the a u th o r's o r a u th o rs'
in ten tio n s, n o r h o w it w a s th at th e y ca m e to b e in prin t. W e d o know ,
h o w ev er, th a t th e y h a v e a claim to b e regard ed a s sep a ra te p la y s a s w ell as
sep arate v ersio n s o f th e sam e p lay. O u r ap p ro a ch to e d itin g them

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u ltim ately lack s in tellectu al p u rity , sin ce th e 'd re a m o f th e o rig in a l text'

in v ariably in fo rm s ev ery e d ito r's m in d a n d , th erefore, p ra ctice. B u t we
n ev erth eless o ffer three H am lets rath er th a n on e. (Sh ak esp eare 2006: 93)

S o w h ile th e A rden S hakespeare o ffers a sin g le v o lu m e o f the p la y b a se d o n the

seco n d q u arto , it a ls o o ffers a co m p an io n v o lu m e th a t rep rin ts th e first qu arto
a n d first fo lio ed itio n s o f th e play.

F u rth e r A n a ly sis: S h a k e sp e a re 's C o m p e tin g Texts

H ow m igh t o u r read ing o f H am let a s a series o f 'v e rsio n s' a lter o u r

th in kin g ab o u t the p lay?
You m ig h t u sefu lly co m p are H a m let's so lilo q u ie s in Q l and Q 2 , for
ex a m p le th e ' b e o r n o t to b e ' sp e ech a t 3 . 1. 5 5 - 8 7 a n d 7. 1 1 5 -3 6
(in th e A rden ). T h e se a re v ery d ifferent 'v e rsio n s ' o f th is sp e ech -
w h at are th ese d ifferences a n d d o th e y a lter y o u r rea d in g o f the
p lay?
L u k as E rn e has a rg u ed in his b o o k S hakesp eare as L iterary D ram atist
th at th e d ifferen ce b etw ee n Q l a n d Q 2 is d o w n to the fact th a t the
fo rm e r w as a tex t th a t w as p erfo rm ed a n d th e la tte r an exp an d ed
tex t d esig n ed n o t for p erfo rm an ce b u t fo r rea d in g (2003: 1 9 2 -2 1 9 ).
D o y o u ag ree? W h at d ifferen ce d oes th is a rg u m e n t m ak e to o u r
u nd erstan d in g o f th e p lay? H a v e a look at th e early p u blish in g
h isto ry o f the Sh ak esp earean tex t y o u are stu d y in g . A re th ere very
d iffere n t v ersio n s o f th e p lay circu latin g in the e a rly m o d ern period ?
W ould y o u h a v e ad o p ted th e sa m e d ecisio n s th at y o u r ed ition
h as tak en ? To ex p lo re th is p ro cess in d etail, lo o k a t the w a y in w hich
T he N orton Shakespeare rep ro d u ces q u arto , fo lio and co n fla ted texts
o f K in g L ea r (23 0 7 -2 5 5 3 ).

C o n c lu sio n

T h ro u g h o u t this ch ap ter, I h a v e in tro d u ced y o u to so m e o f th e k ey critical

co n cep ts and to p ics an im a tin g S h ak esp e arean stu d ies tod ay. T h is is by no
m ean s an exh au stiv e list, and th ere a re m an y o th e r a re a s th a t y o u m a y w ish to
in v estig ate w ith th e aid o f o th e r ch ap ters in th is b o o k . H ow ever, I h o p e you
h av e seen so m e o f the p o ssib le a p p lica tio n s o f th ese term s a s w ell a s how you
m igh t d ev e lo p y o u r o w n research in relation to th em . I h o p e y o u h av e also
s e e n th e w ays in w h ich th e u se o f k ey critica l co n cep ts and to p ics is n o t
d iv o rced from a b ro a d e r co n sid era tio n o f e a rly m o d ern cu ltu ra l and so cial

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co n tex t. To m y m in d , th e m o st su cce ssfu l stu d en ts in S h a k esp e a rea n stu d ies

a re th e o n es w h o m a n a g e to in teg rate clo se critical a n a ly sis o f th e texts,
ju d icio u s a n d self-reflectiv e use o f a p p ro p riate critica l term in o lo g y , and
an u nd erstan d in g o f th ese b ro ad er co n tex ts th at I h a v e b een referrin g to
th rou gh o u t. T h is ch ap ter th erefo re o ffers y o u a s ta rt in d ev e lo p in g y ou r ow n
critical v o cab u lary : th e re st is up to you.

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This p a g e intentionally left blank
 Recent Critical Responses
and Approaches

Lisa H opkins

C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w

Psychoanalysis 14 7
Feminist Criticism 15 0
N ew Historicism 153
Bakhtin 15 4
Cultural M aterialism 15 7
Q u e er Theory 15 8
Presentism 16 0
Postcolonialism 162
British Studies 163
Ecocriticism 16 6
Perform ance Studies 16 8
Beyond Theory? 171

S in ce the m id -1980s, Sh ak esp eare stu d ies h as seen an ex p lo sio n in both

the n u m b er and th e im p a ct o f 'th e o riz e d ' ap p ro ach es, w ith a b ew ild erin g
a rra y o f th eo retical ap p ro ach es bro u g h t to b e a r o n S h a k esp e a re's p la y s and
p o em s. T h is se c tio n w ill briefly su rv ey a n u m b er o f these: p sy ch o an aly sis,
fem in ist criticism and q u ee r th eo ry, N ew H isto ricism , cu ltu ral m aterialism ,
a n d B akh tinian ap p ro ach es, p o stco lo n ialism and B ritish S tu d ies, and presen t-
ism , eco criticism , p e rfo rm a n ce criticism , and 'p o st-th eo re tica l' ap p roach es.

P sy ch o a n a ly sis

P sy ch o an aly sis h a s b e e n a force in S h ak esp e area n criticism sin c e at le a s t the

1 920s, w h en E rn est Jo n e s offered a co n tro v ersial F reu d ian a n a ly sis o f H am let's

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b eh av io u r, b u t it is fa ir to sa y th at th e n ew p ro m in en ce g iv e n to 'th eo riz ed '

a n a ly sis o f Sh ak esp eare h as g iv en fresh im p u lse to p sy ch o a n a ly tic criticism .
It is n o t su rp risin g th a t H am let, w ith its fam ou sly co m p lex h ero, should
h a v e a ttracted the lio n 's sh are o f th e atten tio n (see H isco c k /L o n g s ta ffe , this
volu m e). A good ex a m p le is Ja cq u elin e R o se 's essa y 'S ex u a lity in the R ead in g
o f Sh ak esp eare: H am let an d M easu re f o r M easure'. In th e essay, R ose p o se s as
h er ce n tra l qu estion

W h at fan tasy o f th e w o m an has fig u red in read in gs - p sy ch o a n a ly tic and

o th er - o f H am let and M easu re f o r M easu re, p la y s w h ic h h a v e repeated ly
b e e n d efin ed a s a 'p ro b lem ', a s requ irin g an in terp reta tio n w h ich goes
b ey o n d their ex p licit, o r m a n ife st, co n ten t? (1985: 95)

R ose h ere u n u su ally co u p le s tw o p lays o f d iffere n t g en res o n the g ro u n d s th at

e v e n if o n ly o n e o f them is u su ally classed a s a 'p ro b le m p la y ', both h a v e in
fact b een p erceiv ed a s p ro b lem s, a n d th e reason for th is, sh e im p lies, is to be
so u g h t in th e w ay th e y rep resen t w o m en , th e co v e rt su g g estio n b e in g th at it
is w o m en and th e ir rep resen tatio n s th at o u r cu ltu re is m o st lik ely to find p ro b
lem atic. In o rd er to a n sw e r h er o w n q u estio n , R o se su g g ests th a t 'p sy ch o
a n a ly tic a n d literary criticism sh a re w ith th e literatu re they a d d ress a terrain
o f la n g u a g e, fan tasy and sex u ality - a terrain in w h ic h th e w o m a n o ccu p ies a
cru cial, b u t d ifficu lt, p la ce ': R ose is, in effect, h ere p erfo rm in g so m e p sy ch o
a n a ly sis o f h e r o w n n o t o n ly o n the p la y s b u t also o n the critics w h o h av e
a p p a ren tly stru g gled w ith them , a n d a s alw ay s in cla ssic F reu d ian analysis,
the m o th er is a t the h e a rt o f the p ro b lem . T h erefo re,

th e fact th a t H am let co n stan tly u nleash es a n a n x ie ty w h ich retu rn s to the

qu estio n o f fem in in ity te lls us a b o v e all so m eth in g a b o u t the relatio n sh ip o f
aesth etic form and sex u a l d ifference, a b o u t the fa n ta sies they sh a re -
fa n tasies o f co h eren ce and id en tity in w h ich th e w om an a p p e a rs rep eated ly
as b o th w ag e r and threat. (1 9 8 5 :1 1 5 )

It is in stru ctiv e to m easu re th e d ifferen ce b etw een R o se 's a p p ro a ch h ere and

th at o f E rn est Jo n e s, w h o offered th e first serio u s a n d su sta in ed p sy ch o a n a ly tic
rea d in g o f H am let (see R o bso n , this v o lu m e, C h a p ter 5). F o r Jo n e s, p sy ch o
a n a ly sis w as so le ly an d sim p ly a w ay to u n d erstan d the ch a ra cte r o f H am let
him self, and h e w rites ab o u t S h a k e sp e a re 's fictio n a l P rin ce o f D en m a rk in
ex actly th e sa m e term s a s h e m ig h t w rite a b o u t a real p erso n , say in g for
in stan ce th at 'T h is co n clu sio n , th a t H am let a t h e a rt d o es n o t w a n t to carry
o u t the task, see m s s o o b v io u s th at it is h ard to see h o w an y o p en -m in d ed
read er o f the p lay co u ld avoid m ak in g it' (1949: 45). F o r R ose, m u ch m ore
critically so p h isticate d , th e ch aracters in a d ram a are n o t in an y sen se the

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 R ecent C ritical Responses an d Approaches

eq u iv ale n ts o f real p e o p le , b u t ra th er in d iv id u al co m p o n e n ts in a n a rtistic

d esig n ; th u s h er u se o f p sy ch o an aly sis, u n lik e Jo n e s's , te lls h er n o t so m u ch
a b o u t th e 'c h a ra cte r o f H a m le t' b u t ra th er a b o u t the n a tu re o f d ra m a tic n a rra
tiv e and sex u a l d ifference.
H am let also o ccu p ies ab o u t h alf o f P h ilip A rm stro n g 's b o o k Shakespeare
in P sychoan alysis in th e im p o rta n t N ew A ccen ts se rie s, and h e too is atten tive
to gender. F o r A rm stro n g , th e b ig n am es o f p sy ch o a n a ly tic h isto ry are
ex p licitly treated n o t a s g u ru s b u t a s o b jects o f en q u iry in th e ir o w n rig h t. His
a rg u m e n t is th at

S h ak esp e are p reced ed p sy ch o an aly sis ep istem o lo g ically [th at is, in

term s o f kno w led ge], ju st as h e d o es h isto rically : th at is, the m o d es of
n arrative, rh eto ric, im ag ery and ch a ra cte risa tio n th a t Freud, R an k and
Jo n e s en co u n ter in Sh ak esp earean d ram a h elp to sh a p e th e d ev elo p m en t
o f p sy ch o an aly tic n o tio n s ab o u t d ream w o rk , th e o p eratio n s o f the
u n co n sciou s, a n d the n a tu re o f the self. (2001: 4 0 -4 1 )

A rm strong focu ses o n 'w h a t hap p en s if th e av o w ed p sy ch o an aly tical fascin

a tio n w ith the p erip h eral, th e scarcely m e n tio n e d o r th e silen ced is tu rned
b a ck o n [the] th ree p sy ch o critical fo refath ers [Freud , R an k, Jo n e s] th em selv es.
O n e n o tio n th at em erg es a s a result is th a t o f an u n d erly in g fem in in ity in
H am let o r - m o re d istu rb in g ly - in S h a k esp e a re' (2 0 0 1 : 4 9 ), and h e su gg ests
th at this is b ec a u se th o se three e a rly p sy ch o a n a ly tic th eo rists' shared
e m p h a sis o n th e O ed ip al m ak es them all u n co m fo rta b le w ith a n y su gg estio n
eith e r o f h o m o sex u ality o r o f effem in acy , w h ich th e y eq u a te w ith h o m o
sex u a lity (2001: 50). (A ch arg e recu rrin g ly b ro u g h t a g ain st p sy ch o an aly tic
ap p ro ach es is th at they a re p o w erless to a cco u n t for an y p a tte rn s o f d esire
w h ich d o n o t acco rd w ith F re u d 's h etero sexu a lly -o rien ted O ed ip al theory,
a n d are forced to treat them a s ab erratio n al o r d ev ian t.) A rm stro n g h im self
d o es n o t p u rsu e this lin e o f e n q u iry v ery far; for h im , w h a t p sy ch o an aly sis
ca lls a tten tio n to in H am let is a b o v e a ll its in tere st in m em ory (2001: 148), and
th is certain ly is a cru cial facu lty in F reu d ian th eory and so m eth in g g iv en
m u ch p ro m in en ce in th e p lay , a s is ev id en ced b y th e fact th a t th e re a re m ore
en trie s in th e in d ex o f P eter H o lla n d 's recen t ed ited co lle ctio n o n Shakespeare,
M em ory an d P erform an ce f o r H am let (2006) th an for an y o th er Sh ak esp eare p lay,
[see R o bso n , this v o lu m e, C h ap ter 5]

F u rth e r A n a ly sis: H a m le t a n d Fe m in in ity

D o you ag ree th a t th e fem in in e is in so m e sen se a t th e ro o t o f the

p ro b lem in H am let? If so , is th e fem in in e so m eth in g w h ic h proves

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p ro b lem atic for H a m let th e ch a ra cte r o r fo r H am let th e p la y , o r in fact for

b o th ? A n d is th is a 'p ro b le m ' really m o re p ro m in en t in H am let th a n in
o th e r p lays, o r is th e a tten tio n paid to it a fu n ctio n o f the h ig h statu s th at
H am let h a s b e e n acco rd ed in th e critical trad ition ?

F e m in ist C ritic is m

A su rp risin g ly s im ila r co n clu sio n to Ja cq u elin e R o s e 's o n H am let a n d M easu re

f o r M easu re em erg es in a n o th e r essay rep rin ted in th e sa m e v o lu m e a s R ose's,
C a th erin e B e lse y 's 'D isru p tin g sex u a l d ifference: m ean in g a n d g en d er in the
co m e d ie s', b u t B elsey tu rn s h e r atten tio n to v ery d ifferen t texts, and u ses a
m eth o d olo g y w h ich sh e ex p licitly id en tifies a s fem in ist, d ecla rin g th at w an t
to su g g est th at S h ak esp e arean co m e d y c a n b e read a s d isru p tin g sex u a l d if
feren ce, callin g in q u estio n th at se t o f relatio n s betw een te rm s w h ic h proposes
a s in ev itab le an a n tith e sis b etw een m a scu lin e a n d fem in in e, m e n and w o m en '
(1985: 167) (see S tree te , th is v o lu m e, C h ap ter 7). F o r B elsey , Sh ak esp eare's
co n cep tio n o f g en d er roles is fluid ra th er th an fixed, p articu la rly in Twelfth
N ight. Sh e o b serv es that

O f all S h a k e sp e a re 's co m e d ie s it is p e rh ap s Tw elfth N ight w h ic h tak es the

m o st re m ark ab le risk s w ith th e id en tity o f its ce n tra l figure . . . it is only
in Tw elfth N ight th a t the p ro tag o n ist sp e cifica lly sa y s, a m n o t w h a t I am '
( 3 .1 .1 4 3 ) w h ere 'se em ' w o u ld h a v e scan n ed ju s t a s w ell a n d preserved
th e u nity o f th e su b je ct. (1985: 185)

T h e im p licatio n , it see m s, is th at V io la 's ad o p tio n o f m a le clo th in g is m ore

th an m erely a m atter o f o utw ard d isg u ise. Ind eed , o n e v iew w h ich w a s cu l
tu rally av ailab le in th e R en aissan ce, e v e n if w e ca n n o t know h o w w id ely it
w as su b scrib ed to , su g g ested th at th e b o u n d a ries o f g en d er w ere in fact
p o ten tially so p erm eable th a t cro ss-d ressin g , o r ev en p e rh a p s a m em b er o f
o n e sex b eh a v in g in a w a y co n sid ered a p p ro p ria te o n ly for m e m b ers o f the
o th e r sex, m ig h t actu ally be en o u g h to tip y o u from o n e g en d er to the other.
T h is id ea, know n a s th e 'o n e -se x m o d el', o rig in ated w ith th e G ree k ph ysician
G a le n and p ro p o sed th at m ale and fem ale w ere in fa ct o n ly sep a ra te o utw ard
m an ifestatio n s o f th e sam e u n d erly in g stru ctu re. It lie s b eh in d a rem ark ab le
sto ry reco u n ted b y S tep h e n G reen blatt:

In S e p te m b e r 1580, a s h e p assed th ro u g h a sm a ll F ren ch to w n o n h is w a y to

S w itzerlan d and Italy, M o n taig n e w as told a n u n u su a l sto ry th at he d uly
record ed in his travel jo u rn al. It see m s th a t sev en o r e ig h t g irls from a place

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 R ecent C ritical Responses an d Approaches

called C h au m o n t-en -B assig n i p lo tte d to g eth er 't o d ress u p a s m ales and

th u s co n tin u e th eir life in th e w o rld '. O n e o f them s e t u p a s a w eaver, 'a
w ell-d isp o se d y o u n g m an w h o m ad e frie n d s w ith e v e ry b o d y ', and m oved
to a v illag e called M on tier-en -D er. T h e re the w ea v e r fell in lo v e w ith a
w om an, cou rted her, a n d m arried . T h e co u p le liv ed to g eth er fo r fou r o r five
m on th s, to the w ife 's satisfactio n , 's o they sa y '. B u t then, M o n ta ig n e
rep orts, th e tran sv estite w as reco g n ized b y so m eo n e fro m C h a u m o n t; 'th e
m atter w as b ro u g h t to ju stice, and sh e w as co n d em n e d to b e h an g ed ,
w h ich sh e said sh e w o u ld rath er u n d ergo th a n retu rn to a g irl's status;
and sh e w as h a n g e d fo r u sing illicit d ev ices to su p p ly h er d efect in sex'.
T h e ex ecu tio n , M o n taig n e w as told, had tak en p la ce o n ly a few d ays
before.
I b eg in w ith th is s to ry b ecau se in Tw elfth N ig h t S h a k esp e a re a lm o st, bu t
n o t qu ite, re tells it. (1988: 66)

G reen b latt follo w s th is up w ith an e v e n m o re su rp risin g a n ecd o te, te llin g o f

h ow the six tee n th -cen tu ry F ren ch p h y sician A m b ro ise Par

reco u n ts th e sto ry o f 'a fifteen -year-o ld p e a sa n t g irl w h o o n e d a y w as

"ra th e r ro b u stly " ch a sin g h er sw in e , w h ich w ere g o in g in to a w h ea t field.
A s M arie in m id p u rsu it leap ed o v e r a d itch , " a t th e v ery m om en t
th e g en italia a n d m ale rod ca m e to b e d ev e lo p e d ." A fte r con su ltin g
w ith p h y sician s a n d th e b ish o p , M a rie ch a n g ed h er n a m e to
G erm ain . (1988: 81)

F or G reen b latt, aw aren ess o f this m o d el h elp ed to m a k e sen se o f th e p a ra

d o x ica l jo u rn e y o f S h a k e sp e a re 's cross-d ressed h eroin es, w h o h a v e to
'b e co m e ' m en to b eco m e w om en.
M y seco n d ex am p le, D y m p n a C allag h an , also focu ses o n T w elfth N ig h t, bu t
to ra th er d iffere n t effect. A n n o u n cin g h e r in ten tio n a s b ein g 'to fo cu s on the
a b sen t-p resen ce o f fem ale g en ita ls in T w elfth N ight' (2000: 3 0), w h ic h sh e sees
a s b e in g ev o k ed by a lew d p u n im p licit in M alv o lio 's fa n ta sy o f h im self a s a
co u n t, C allag h an a rg u es that

th e m o n stro u s fem ale g en italia in the p la y 's rep resen tatio n al reg ister are
n o t m erely a lo calized 'th e m e ' b u t rath er depen d o n and p ro d u ce the
e x clu sio n and d en ig ratio n o f w o m en and the rid icu le a n d p u n ish m en t
o f m en w ho a ttem p t to ch an g e th e ir statu s in th e so cial hierarch y.
T h is is n o th in g le ss th an th e m ain ten an ce a n d rep ro d u ctio n o f
patriarch y . (2 0 0 0 :3 5 )

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It m a y see m su rp risin g to a sso cia te th e p u n ish m en t o f m en w ith an o v ert focus

o n fe m a le g en italia, b u t for C a lla g h a n , th e tw o issu es a rc lin ked b y th e fa ct th at
Sh a k esp e a re created roles su ch a s V iola and O liv ia fo r p erfo rm a n ce by boy
acto rs:

in th e carn iv alesq u e w o rld o f Tw elfth N ight th e fem a le b o d y 's ca p a city

for resistan ce a n d d isru p tio n is sev erely cu rtailed b y th e fact th a t the
tra n sv estite acto r is 'a s lik ely to b e p o rtray in g w o m en w ith co n tcm p t
as w ith re sp e c t' a n d th e fa ct th at th e m ale b o d y , 'th e very in stru m en t
o f th e a rt o f th e th eatre' (G ib b o n s 1980: 64), re p ea ted ly a n d ritu ally
en a cts the d isp lace m en t, e x clu sio n , and d iscip lin e o f its fem ale
co u n terp art. (2000: 32)

S h e th erefo re a rg u es th at 'In acco rd an ce w ith its ca rn iv a l th em e, Tw elfth N ight

p laces fem ale g en ita ls at the h eart o f M alv o lio 's g u llin g , th e p la y 's m o st fam
o u s sce n e ' (36), in th at sh e e x p o u n d s the referen ce to 'c u t' as a p la y o n a
stan d ard term for th e fem ale g en italia and to arg u e th a t co u n t and cu n t w ere
probably p ro n o u n ced in the sam e m a n n e r in E lizab eth an E n g lish , s o th at
M a lv o lio 's d esire to b e a co u n t fu rth er eq u a tes h im w ith th e d isp la ce d fem i
nin e elem e n t o f th e p lay . C alla g h a n see s th is a s also o p era tin g o n a n o th er
level: sh e a rg u es th a t th e strictn ess o f R en aissan ce 'su m p tu a ry la w s m eans
th at 'M a lv o lio 's cross-g arterin g , h is "tra n sv e stis m ", is [ . . . ] stru ctu ra lly and
sy m b o lically related to g e n d e r in v ersio n ' (33) (see L o n gstaffe, this volu m e,
C h a p ter 3). T h is is an a rg u m e n t d ev elo p ed b y M ih o k o S u z u k i: p o stu latin g
th at 'th e co m ic fo rm w o rk s to rep ress an x ieties a b o u t u nru ly w o m en to d is
p lace th em o n to m a le sc a p e g o a ts' (2 0 0 0 :1 3 0 ), sh e arg u e s th a t in Tw elfth N ig h t
'th e co m e d y m an ag es resid u al a n x ie ties ab o u t u n ru ly w o m en by d isp lacin g
them o n to the "e ffe m in a te " so cial clim b er M alvo lio , w h o is ex clu d ed fro m the
co n clu d in g m arriag es a s a co n v en ien t sca p eg o a t - m ark ed a s su ch b y the
tellin g prefix " M a i" - fo r th e o th e r o ffen d e rs' (2000: 140) and that

T h e p lay d isp laces its d isap p ro v al o f a ll th e tra n sgresso rs o n to M alvo lio ,

w h o is p u n ish ed n o t o n ly a s th e o b n o xio u s so cia l clim b er in th e p lace o f
m o re in n o cu o u s S eb astian , b u t also in th e p la ce o f O liv ia , w h o su cceed s
in ev ad in g p a tria rch y 's co n tro l, and o f V io la, w h o tran sg resses g en d er
d iv isio n s th rou gh h er cross-d ressin g . (2000: 139)

In terestin gly, C alla g h a n n o tes th at 'th e o n ly record w e h a v e o f a R en a issa n ce

p erfo rm an ce o f the p lay d o es n o t s o m u ch a s m e n tio n V io la 's tra n sv estism '
(33), a n d su g g ests that th is is b ecau se 'c la ss tran sv estism is m o re th reaten in g
th an th at o f g en d er, w h ich can b e resolved ra th er m o re re a d ily ' (34).
In th e co u rse o f h e r arg u m en t, C allag h an cites a n u m b er o f a n ecd o tes and

52
 R ecent C ritical Responses an d Approaches

legal ca s e s ab o u t m e n d isp lay in g w o m e n 's g en ita ls in th e six tee n th century

(2000: 4 0 -4 1 ). H ere, as so o ften elsew h ere, fem in ism is lin ked to h isto ricism : it
is in terested n o t so m u ch - o r o n ly seco n d arily - in th e co n d itio n s o f w om en
n ow a n d p rim arily in the co n d itio n s o f w o m en then. M o re b ro a d ly , the h isto ri-
c ist em p h asis in fem in ist stu d ies b e a rs w itn ess to the m a ssiv e in flu en ce that
N ew H isto ricism h ad o n R en aissan ce stu d ies in th e la s t d ecad es o f th e tw en
tieth centu ry.

N e w H isto ric is m

N ew H isto ricism is in terested a b o v e a ll in p o w er; in d eed it is so m etim es

a ccu sed o f fetish izin g pow er, and o f fosterin g p o litical q u ietism b y su gg estin g
th at th e estab lish ed o rd er w ill a lw a y s fend o ff an y ch a lle n g e s and w ill in fact
u se them to b o lster its au th o rity , so th a t it is n o t w o rth the trou b le o f reb ellin g
a g a in st it (see R o b so n s C h ap ter 5 a n d S tre e te 's C h a p te r 7 , th is v o lu m e). Thus
D avid Sco tt K a sta n strik es a n o te ty p ical o f N ew H isto ricism w h e n h e argues
th at 'If H enri/ I V can b e said to b e "a b o u t" an yth in g , it is a b o u t the p ro d u c
tion o f pow er, an issu e a s a cu te in the early y e a rs o f the reig n o f H en ry IV a s in
the fin al y ears o f th e ag in g E lizab eth w h en the p la y w as w ritte n ' (1991: 241),
a n d b y im p licatio n still o f in terest to u s in o u r o w n h isto rica l m o m en t. K astan
d o es find a c ra ck in th e h eg em o n ic su rface:

T h e p lay [ . . . ] in sists th at h isto ry is n o t id en tical w ith sta te p o litics, ind eed

th at the h isto ry o f sta te p o litics in ev itab ly and p u rp o sefu lly era ses oth er
h isto ries - h isto rie s o f w o m en o r th e poor, for ex a m p le - h isto ries w hose
very ex iste n ce co n tests th e story th at th e h eg em o n ic sta te w o u ld tell o f
itself. (1991: 245)

In co n trast, S tep h e n G ree n b la tt's ex trem e ly in flu en tial rea d in g o f th e play

see s th e d ram atic n a rrativ e in te rm s o f

th e o d d b a la n c e in this play o f sp acio u sn ess - th e co n sta n t m u ltip lica tio n o f

sep arate , v iv id ly realised realm s - and clau stro p h o b ia - th e a b so rp tio n of
all o f th ese realm s b y a p o w e r at o n ce v ita l and im p o v erish ed . T h e balance
is a lm o st eerily p e rfe ct, as if Sh ak esp eare h ad so m eh o w reach ed through
in H en ry I V to the v ery ce n tre o f th e sy stem o f o pposed and in terlock in g
forces th a t h eld T u d or so ciety together. ([1985] 1992: 98)

F or G ree n b la tt, 1 H en ry I V is n o t a n e x p lo ra tio n o f ch a ra cte r o r ev en o f a

sp e cific m o m en t in E nglish h isto ry , b u t an in v estig a tio n o f a p h en om en on
w hich - ironically in view o f h is self-lab ellin g a s a 'h isto ricist' - h e essen tially
co n ceiv es o f a s e ssen tially the sa m e throu gh o u t h isto ry , ev en th o u gh the

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sp ecifics o f its m o d es o f o p era tio n m a y v ary at d ifferen t tim es a n d in d ifferen t

p laces (se c R o bso n , th is v o lu m e, C h ap ter 5).
N ew H isto ricist an aly ses a ls o o ften in v o lv e rea d in g a g a in st th e g ra in ; thus
L eo n ard T en n en h o u se d eclares th at 'O n e m ig h t b e tem p ted to d eclare a g en
e ric d ifferen ce b etw ee n H am let, a trag ed y , an d th e h isto ry p la y s [ . . . ] b u t I w ill
a rg u e a g a in st the w isd o m o f d o in g s o for th o se w h o w a n t to u nd erstan d
S h a k e sp e a re 's g en res a s p o litical stra te g ie s' (1986: 93), w h ile F ran cis B ark er
a sk s o f th e g iv in g to L aertes leave to go to P aris: 'd o e s th is ep iso d e n o t serv e
to refo rm u late th e sc e n e , and to m a n a g e a tran sitio n fro m th e p u b lic sp a ce to
the p erso n al and d o m estic arg u m en t w ith H am let th at is to fo llo w ? T o think
s o w o u ld b e to co m m it a sig n al h isto rical m istak e' (11984] 1992: 158). H aving
d elib e ra te ly u sed th e co n stru ctio n 'd o e s this [ . . . ] n o t' to trick u s in to thinking
th at th e a n sw er w ill b e y es, B a rk er th en u nco m p ro m isin g ly sw itch e s ta ck to
in fo rm u s th a t this ap p aren tly p la u sib le su p p o sitio n is in fa ct com p letely
erro n eo u s. R ath er h e a rg u es th at T h e p u b lic and th e p riv a te as stro n g , m u tu
a lly d efin in g , m u tu ally ex clu siv e categ o ries, each d escrib in g sep a ra te terrains
w ith d istin ct co n ten ts, p ractice s a n d d isco u rses, are n o t y e t e x ta n t' ([1984]
1992: 161) and that

A t th e ce n tre o f H am let, in th e in terio r o f his m y stery , th e re is, in sh ort,

n o th in g . T h e p ro m ised e ssen ce rem ain s bey o n d th e sco p e o f th e tex t's
sig n ificatio n : o r rath er, sig n a ls th e lim it o f the sig n ificatio n o f th is w o rld by
m ark in g o u t th e s ite o f an ab se n ce it can n o t fill. It g estu res tow ard s a p lace
for su b jectiv ity , b u t b o th a re an ach ro n istic and belo n g to a h isto rical order
w h o se o u tlin e h a s s o far o n ly b een sk etch ed o u t. ([1984] 1992: 1 6 3 -6 4 )

H ere, a n u m b er o f factors w h ic h p revio u s critics w o u ld g en erally h a v e co n

sid ered im p o rtan t - g en re, the ap p aren tly m u lti-faceted ch aracter o f H a m let -
a re su m m arily d ism issed a s at b est illu sio n s and at w o rst d istra ctio n s from
m o re a p p ro p riate m o d es o f read ing. T h is is ty p ical o f N ew H isto ricism , w hich
is ch aracterized b y its in g en u ity a n d a b o v e all b y its c la im s fo r its o w n
in n o v ativ en ess a s m u ch as by its in tere st in sp ecific h isto rica l circu m stan ces.

B a k h tin

T h e R u ssian p h ilo so p h er and lan g u ag e th eo rist M ik h ail B akh tin (1 8 9 5 -1 9 7 5 )

h as b een influ ential in tw o in terrelated resp ects. O n e o f B a k h tin 's tw o key
co n cep ts is th at o f h etcro g lo ssia, a w ord d eriv ed from a n cien t G ree k and
m ean in g lite ra lly 'm a n y -v o ice d n ess'. O f co u rse, th e b a sic stru ctu rin g prin
cip le o f d ram a is th e in teractio n o f d ifferen t v o ices, b u t n ev e rth e le ss N ew
H isto ricism , a s w e h a v e ju s t seen , h a s b een a b le to see R en a issa n ce d ram a a s a
w h o le a s articu latin g a seam less d isco u rse o f p ow er. A B ak h tin ian approach,

54
 R ecent C ritical Responses an d Approaches

h ow ever, is lik ely to find so m eth in g v ery d ifferen t; th u s R on ald R . M acd on ald
(2 001), read in g 7 H en ry I V in term s o f h etcro g lo ssia , fin d s th a t it 're v e a ls a
w o rld th at see m s to h a v e m an y m o re m ean in g s th an an y sin g le , m o n o glot
la n g u ag e c a n read ily d isp o se o f' (81). A lth o u g h not ex p licitly u sin g Bakhtinian
term in o lo g y a t this p o in t, D a v id S c o tt K astan d ra w s o n its fu n d am en tal
assu m p tio n s w h en h e w rites o f 7 H en ry I V that

C riticism h as d elig h ted in d em o n stratin g the p la y 's a esth etic unity

b y sh o w in g h o w th e co m ic p lo t 'se rv e s ' the h isto rical p lo t, fu n ction s
as a su bp lo t cla rify in g the 'm a in ' plot. B u t th e p la y see m s to m e less
c o h e re n t - n o t th erefo re le ss in terestin g o r g o o d , b u t le ss w illin g to
org anize its d isp arate v o ices in to h ierarch ies - th an su ch d em o n stratio n s
o f its p u ta tiv e u nity w o u ld allow . T h e form al co h eren ce th at critics have
d em and ed from th e p lay can b e ach iev ed o n ly b y su b o rd in a tin g su b p lo t
to m ain p lo t, co m m o n ers to aristo crats, co m e d y to h isto ry - b y im p o sin g ,
th at is , the sa m e h ierarch ies o f p riv ileg e an d p o w e r th at ex ist in the
sta te u p o n th e p lay. B u t th e p lay d o es n o t so read ily su b o rd in a te its
co m ed y. (1991: 244)

K a s ta n 's re fe ren ce to th e 'd isp a ra te v o ices' o f th e p la y leav es u s in n o d ou b t

th at w h at h e is talk in g ab o u t is e ssen tially h etero g lo ssia, th o u gh in a so p h isti
cated fu rth er d ev elo p m en t o f th e id e a h e p o sits a ch o ru s o f d iffere n t voices
fro m n o t o n ly th e in d iv id u al ch aracters b u t fro m the d ifferen t p lo t stra n d s o f
the play: ind eed h e su g g ests that 'th e v ery ex iste n ce o f a co m ic p lo t serv es to
co u n te r th e to talizin g fan tasies o f pow er, to e x p o se and d isru p t the h ierarch ies
u p o n w h ich th e y d e p e n d ' (245). K a sta n is ce rta in ly n o t th e first critic to n ote
th at th e su b p lo t o f 7 H en ry I V d o es stro n g ly co m p ete w ith th e m ain p lo t for
a tten tio n : in d eed a s h e o b serv es, 'th ro u g h o u t th e sev en te en th ce n tu ry , th e play
w a s a s lik ely to b e ca lle d F a lsta ff a s H en ry IV ' (244), and ev en w h en F a lsta ff is
not b u sy attractin g th e lio n 's sh a re o f th e a u d ie n c e 's in terest, they a re alm ost
ce rta in ly g o in g to find the n o m in al h ero o f the p la y , H en ry IV, le ss interesting
th an his so n P rin ce H a l (see H isco ck and L o n gstaffe, th is volu m e).

's u b ' p lot

T h is ra ises th e larger qu estio n o f th e relatio n sh ip b etw ee n su b p lo t and

m ain p lo t in S h a k e sp e a re 's p lays. T h e m o st fam ou s ex a m p le o f a play
w ith a p ro m in en t su b p lo t is a rg u ab ly K in g L ear, w h ere th e w a y in w h ich
the su b p lo t rep eats th e ev en ts o f th e m ain p lo t h a s often b een seen as
in v itin g u s to read a sen se o f in ev itab ility in to the play. B u t so m etim es
su b p lo ts m a y actu a lly seem to p u ll in th e o p p o site d irectio n to th e m ain

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p lo t ra th er th a n ec h o o r ch im e w ith it: thin k, fo r in stan ce, o f th e w ay

C a lib a n 's co n sp iracy in terru p ts P ro sp ero 's m asq u e, o r th e ind ifferen ce
o f th e g rav ed ig g ers in H am let to th e co n cern s o f th e ch a ra cters in th e
m ain plot.

A llied to B a k h tin 's th eory o f h etero g lo ssia is h is in terest in th e p h en om en on

o f carn iv al (see Streete, th is v o lu m e, C h ap ter 7). In B a k h tin 's h an d s, th e idea
o f carn iv al tak es o n a reso n an ce fa r g rea ter th an th e m e re id e a o f a p erio d o f
feastin g a n d m erry m ak in g p reced in g th e fo rty d a y s o f L en t. It a cq u ires co n n o
ta tio n s o f th e p o p u lar a s o p p o sed to th e aristo cratic, h o lid a y a s o p p o sed to
w o rk tim e, and lice n ce a s o p p o sed to co n tro l (alth o u g h N ew H istoricism
w ould h a v e it th at the 'licen ce' is , p recisely, 'lic e n se d ', th at is d elib erately
allo w ed to h ap p en b ecau se d o in g so u ltim ately serv es th e in terests o f a u th o r
ity ), sin c e it o ffers a sa fe a n d co n tain ed d efu sio n o f en erg ies w h ich m ig h t
o th erw ise b u ild u p a m u ch m o re d an g ero u s h ead o f steam . T h u s F ran ois
L aro q u e d eclares in h is im p o rtan t b o o k S hakespeare's F estiv e W orld, w h ich
d ra w s ex p licitly o n B akh tin ian id eas a n d term in olo gy , th at 'T h e clo w n is one
o f the forem ost rep resen tativ es and sp o k esm en o f p o p u la r cu ltu re ' (1988: 42),
and p ro ceed s to p a y atten tio n to th e 'lo w ' rath er th an th e 'h ig h ' ch a ra cters o f
the p lays, w h ile Terence H aw k es reads Tw elfth N ig h t in term s o f ca rn iv a l and
see s it a s ex em p lify in g N o rth ro p F ry e 's th ree-sta g e stru ctu re o f p ro h ib itio n /
co n fu sio n /e m e rg e n c e o f a n ew so ciety . F o r H aw k es, too, this lead s to an a tten
tion to th e low ra th er th an the high : 'T h e m o st o b v io u s effect o f th is stru ctu re is
to fo cu s a tten tio n u pon M a lv o lio and to m a k e him a ce n tra l figure at every
sta g e. As a resu lt, h is p red om in an t an ticarn iv al, a n tip la y in g sta n ce serv es to
foreground th e p la y in g / ca rn iv a l d im en sio n s o f th e p la y ' (1 9 9 1 :1 7 2 ).
In th e h an d s o f N ew H isto ricists, th is id ea tak es a fu rth er tw ist. In th eir
ch a racte ristic w ay o f in v ariably fin d in g co n tain m e n t ra th er th an su b v ersio n
in S h a k e sp e a re 's p la y s, they p ro p o se th at th e a p p a ren t lice n ce afford ed by
ca rn iv a l u ltim ately serv es o n ly to rein force th e stran g leh o ld o f au th ority. Thus
L eonard T en n en h o u se arg u es th at in the lo g ic o f th e H en riad, 'h isto ry is
n o th in g else b u t th e h isto ry o f fo rm s o f d isord er, o v e r w h ic h H en ry tem p o rar
ily triu m p h s', and that

S u ch a rh eto rical stra te g y g u aran tees th e fig u res o f ca rn iv a l w ill p la y a

p articu larly in stru m en tal ro le in th e id e alizin g p ro cess th at p ro v e s so
cru cial in le g itim izin g p o litical pow er. It can n o t be a ccid e n ta l th at the
H en riad, w hich p ro d u ces S h a k e sp e a re 's m o st acco m p lish ed E lizabeth an
m o n arch , sh o u ld also p ro d u ce h is m o st m em o rab le figure o f m isrule.
(1986: 8 2 -8 3 )

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T h e u n d erly in g lo g ic o f su ch a co u p lin g in ev itab ly d icta tes th a t h o w ev er m uch

th e y ap p e ar to em b od y o p p o sitio n al v alu es, in fact 'T h e fig u re s o f carn ival
u ltim ately au th o rize th e state'.

C u ltu ra l M a te ria lism

C u ltu ral m a teria lism is in so m e w a y s s o like N ew H isto ricism th at it is so m e

tim e s co n fu se d o r am alg am ated w ith it, b u t in o th e r w ays th e tw o a re sig n ifi
ca n tly d ifferent. W h ereas N ew H isto ricism ty p ica lly fin d s p lays w o rkin g to
p rod u ce an ap p aren t su b v ersio n w h ich is u ltim a tely co -o p te d to serv e the
e n d s o f p o w e r a n d th u s co n tain ed , cu ltu ral m aterialism ty p ica lly fin d s an
a u th en tic form o f su b v ersio n . K iern an Ryan arg u es th a t the H en ry I V plays
'a re d esig n ed to w ith d raw th rou gh form al im p lica tio n w h a t th e y avow
th ro u g h o v ert sta tem e n t and a ctio n '; co n se q u e n tly , h e arg u e s th at th e 'lo w '
scen es co m m e n t o n th e 'h ig h ' scen es in w a y s w h ich h a v e n o t really been
o b serv ed , in th at 'T h e sp e ctato rs a re en co u rag ed to re co g n iz e m a jesty as a
rehearsed p ro d u ctio n an d rem in d ed o f th e g u lf b etw een th e p erfo rm ed events
b efo re th eir ey es and the rem ote p a st realities they p resu p p o se' (1995: 121,
1 0 6 -7 and 110). A s can b e se e n from th e lin k s b etw een th is p o in t a n d D avid
K a sta n 's q u o ted o n 155, B ak h tin ian th o u g h t h a s b e e n a n o ta b le in flu en ce o n
m u ch cu ltu ral m a teria list w o rk , a s w h en G ra h a m H o ld ern ess a rg u es o f
1 H en ry I V th at 'T h e kin g is su p rem e ly co n tem p tu o u s o f p eop le, th in gs and
v a lu e s w h ich in ev itab ly co n stitu te an elem e n t o f h is state: h e ex p resses an
a risto cra tic sco rn for "v u lg a r co m p a n y ", "th e co m m o n s tre e ts ", "p o p u la rity ",
"c o m m u n ity ", "p a rtic ip a tio n " ' (1992: 100) a n d th at b y co n tra st 'F a lsta ff is at
th e ce n tre o f a p o p u lar co m ic h isto ry , lo cated w ith in th e d eterm in istic fra m e
w ork o f th e ch ro n icle-h isto ry p lay , w h ich ch allen g es and su b v erts th e im p era
tives o f n ecessitaria n h isto rio g ra p h y ' (1992: 130). F o r H o ld ern ess, 'F a lsta ff is
B a h k tin 's "m a te ria l b o d ily p rin c ip le " w rit larg e: h is en o rm o u s siz e and
u n co n tro lled ap p etite ch aracterize h im as a co lle ctiv e rath er th an an in d i
v id u al b e in g ' (1992: 139). O n e m ig h t in fa ct o b ject to th is asse rtio n o n the
g ro u n d s o f F a lsta ff's ru th less selfish n ess, a tra it co m m en ted u p o n b y m an y
ea rly -tw e n tieth -cen tu ry critics (see H isco ck an d L o n gstaffe, th is v o lu m e), bu t
H o ld ern ess h a s an in g en io u s co u n ter-arg u m en t to that:

F a lstaff is o ften asso ciated w ith the in d iv id u alism o f so lilo q u y , s in c e so m e

o f h is m o st m e m o ra b le u tteran ces b elo n g to the m od e. It is w o rth p o in tin g
ou t th a t in H en ry I V P art O n e h e h ard ly u ses it at a ll. In th is p a rticu la r scene,
for th e first six ty lin es h e d o es n o t ev en use th e p ro n o u n T : bu t sp eak s o f
'w e ' a n d 'u s ', in v o k in g his id en tity a s m e m b er o f a co lle ctiv e. T h e P rince
co n sisten tly em p lo y s th e first p erso n sing u lar, and w ith th e d ep artu re o f
F a lstaff and P oin s h e is a b le to turn a sid e from th e a ctio n and a d d ress the

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au d ien ce d irectly , d isp la y in g h is cap acity for d eta ch m e n t and eg o istic

self-assertio n . (1 9 9 2 :1 5 0 )

C u ltu ral m aterialism is on the w h o le m o re likely to p ay a tten tio n to h isto rical

sp ecifics an d also to q u estio n s o f form th an N ew H isto ricism ; th u s H o ld ern ess
reads H en ry I V P art O n e very m u ch in term s o f its ech o es o f R ich ard II, d eclarin g
th at 'In so fa r a s H en ry I V is a ch ro n icle-h isto ry p la y , it ex ten d s the h istorical
v isio n o f R ich ard II in to a n ew re g im e ' (101), a n d also n o tes th at

T h e L ollard rebellio n is an ab se n ce in H en ry IV ; an o m issio n w h ich , d esp ite

th e im p o rtan ce a ttach e d to it b y th e ch ro n icles, w o u ld n o t b e strik in g ly
su rp risin g o r sig n ifican t (m atters o f re lig io n w ere n o t ligh tly d e a lt w ith on
S h a k e sp e a re 's stag e [ . . . ] ) if it w ere n o t for th e p resen ce o f Falstaff. (1992:
159)

O n ly a h isto ricizin g ap p ro ach o f o n e strip e o r a n o th er co u ld read to find w h at

is n ot th ere th at h isto rically m ig h t h a v e been.

S ile n c in g a n d th e Text

T h e d ifferen ce b etw ee n th e tw o d o m in an t m o d es, N ew H istoricism

and cu ltu ral m aterialism , is th at N ew H isto ricism w o u ld b e m o re likely
to read su ch an o m issio n a s a tactfu l su p p ressio n w h ereas cu ltu ral
m a teria lism , a s here, is m o re lik ely to co n clu d e th a t it is a silen ce to
w h ich a u d ien ce a tten tio n is d elib erately draw n.

H ow ever, w h a t cu ltu ral m aterialism d o es stro n g ly sh are w ith N ew H isto ri

cism is a te n d en cy to find th e e a rly m o d ern p erio d h ig h ly repressive, at least
in its p u rp o ses. F o r in stan ce, in o n e strik in g p assag e, I lo ld e m e s s d eclares th at
'th e rev elry an d satire o f F alstaff co n stitu te k in d s o f so cia l p ra ctice w h ich w ere
affo rd ed a legitim ate sp a ce in m ed iev al cu ltu re ' (130), w h ic h effectiv ely d is
p la ce s a T illyardian 'm e rrie E n g la n d ' a co u p le o f ce n tu rie s b a ck in tim e in
o rd e r to m ak e a sh a rp co n tra st w ith S h ak esp e are's h isto rica l m o m en t. Yet for
cu ltu ral m a teria lists th e o p p ressiv e e a rly m o d ern regim e is n o t m o n o lith ic in
its p o w e r and stru ctu res, b u t co u ld be - and w a s - ch a lle n g e d , n o t le a st by
early m o d ern d ram atists.

Q u e e r T h e o ry

T h e b asic aim o f q u eer th eory is to m ak e sa m e-sex lo v e a n d attractio n

v isib le w ith in literary w o rk s, o n the gro u n d s th at its p resen ce h a s too often

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b e e n ig n o red . A lth o u g h in so m e w a y s it m a y see m to resem b le fem in ism in

ex p licitly fo c u sin g its in terest o n o n e p a rtic u la r g rou p o f ch a ra cters in th e tex t,
a n d also lik e fem in ism o ften d raw in g an eq u atio n b etw een th e id en tity and
ex p erien ces o f ch aracters a n d critic, q u ee r th e o ry is sig n ifican tly d ifferen t in
th at it em erg ed la ter in th e th eo retical m o m en t, and so ten d s to b e in d ialo g u e
w ith a w id e r ran g e o f o th e r theoretical p arad ig m s th an fem in ism , o r at least
th an fem in ism in its e a rly d ay s (see R o bso n , this v o lu m e, C h a p te r 5). It is no
su rp rise th a t Tw elfth N ight h a s p ro ved a p articu la rly h a p p y h u n tin g grou n d :
P eq u ig n ey , fo r in stan ce, o b serv es th at 'th e g iv en n a m e Seb astian re ca lls the
m a rty r trad itio n ally p ictured a s a h an d so m e y ou th - a kind o f C h ristian
A d o n is - w ith a n early n u d e b o d y pierced b y a rro w s' (1 9 9 5 :1 8 1 ) and a rg u es that
th ere is n o e v id en ce th at S eb astian is p ro p o sin g to sep a ra te h im s e lf from
A n ton io a t th e e n d o f th e p lay (182), w h ile V alerie Trau b arg u es th at
O liv ia 's d esire for V iola is serio u s. L ess o b v io u sly , Trau b also fin d s in H en ry
I V a 'co n tain ed h o m o ero tic d e sire ' (1992: 93). A rg u in g th a t F a lsta ff h a s so m e
q u a lities S h a k e sp e a re 's cu ltu re ty p ically g en d ered 'fem a le' a n d a ls o that
'S u ch a fo cu s o n th e b u lg in g a n d the p ro tu b era n t, th e o p en in g s, p e rm ea
b ilitie s a n d effu sio n s o f F a lsta ff's b o d y situ a te h im a s "g ro te s q u e b o d y " '
(1992: 56), she d eclares th a t 'i t is ap p aren t th at h o m o ero tic d esire in fu ses the
relatio n sh ip o f F alstaff a n d H a l, sig n aled b o th b y F a lsta ff's "fe m in in e " q u a l
ities and H a l's p red o m in an t la c k o f in terest in w o m en ' (59). It is th is d an g er
o u s d esire, sh e su g g ests, th at m a k e s F a lsta ff's u ltim ate b an ish m en t in evitab le:
'W h en h o m o ero tic ex ch a n g es th reaten to re p la ce h etero sexu a l b o n d s, w hen
eroticism is co llap sed into a n x ie ty a b o u t rep ro d u ctio n , then h o m o ero ticism is
ex o rcized at the sam e tim e a s th e fem ale g en d er is resecu red in to the p atri
a rch a l o rd er' (1 9 9 2 :1 3 9 ).
B u ild in g o n T ra u b 's an a ly sis, Jo n ath an G o ld b erg , d ecla rin g th a t 'T h e H en ry
IV p lays are, n o d o u b t, h isto ry p lays, y e t their relatio n sh ip to a t least o n e kind
o f h isto ry - th e h isto ry o f sex u ality - h as g o n e largely u n e x a m in e d ' (1 9 9 5 :3 7 ),
arg u e s th at 'T h e o p en in g scen es o f 1 H en ry I V lo ca te H a l's ca reer - h is desire
for th e th ro n e - in th e co n te x t o f o th e rs' d esires fo r h is a rriv a l th e re ' (1 9 9 5 :4 3 ).
S in ce th o se o th e rs a re th e exclu siv ely m a le g ro u p in g s aro u n d H al a n d at his
fa th er's co u rt, G o ld b erg th erefo re cau tio n s ag ain st sim p ly see in g F alstaff
th rou gh h is 'fe m in in ity ', a s Trau b largely d o es, and in d eed a rg u es for a m uch
m o re co m p licated view o f g en d er id en tity altogether. F o r G o ld b erg , Hal and
F alstaff a re in e v e ry m eanin g fu l sen se lo v e rs - 'w h a t k eep s th e p la y from
m a k in g m o re o v ert th e lo v e relatio n b etw een H al and h is fat co m p a n io n is the
p ro xim ity o f th e ir relatio n to so d om y : th e te rm s stain , riot and rebellion su g g est
a s m u ch ' (1995: 49) - e v e n if th e relatio n sh ip is n o t tech n ica lly con su m m ated ,
w h ich w e c a n in an y ca s e n ev e r k now : 'A re H al and F alstaff b ed co m p anio n s?
It is p e rfectly cle a r w h y the p la y s c a n n ev e r a n sw e r th at q u estio n d irectly . For
w h ile the k in g co u ld sleep w ith m e n , h e co u ld n o t b e a so d o m ite ' (1995: 56).

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N ev erth eless, e v e n if the q u estio n ca n n o t b e an sw ered , it is still im p o rta n t for

G o ld b erg th a t it sh o u ld be ask ed , for a q u eer th e o rist w ill regard it a s essen tial
to en co u rag e read ers and au d ien ces o f S h ak esp e a re's p lays n o t a lw ay s to read
from a n u n th in k in g h etero sexu al p e rsp ectiv e, ju s t a s in th e e a rly d a y s o f
fem in ism th ere w as m u ch in siste n ce o n sim p ly rem in d in g p eop le n o t sim ply
to a ssu m e th at all those w h o m attered w ere m ale.

P resen tism

In th e in au g u ral issu e o f Shakespeare, th e jo u rn a l o f the B ritish Sh ak esp eare

A sso ciatio n , H u gh G rad y co n trib u ted a p iece en titled 'S h a k e sp ea re Stud ies,
2005: A Situ ated O v erv iew '. H u gh G rad y d eclares the p ie c e 's fou nd ational
p rem ise to be that

W ith n u m ero u s sig n s th at th e era d o m in ated b y th e new h isto ricism is

co m in g to an en d , S h ak esp e are S tu d ies in 2 0 0 5 a p p e a rs to be at a crossroad s
[ . . . ] In ad d itio n , it see m s cle a r th at th e n ew h isto ricism h a s sp lit in to tw o
d ifferent stream s. O n e , ep itom ized b y th e new m aterialism h a s foregone
an o rien tatio n to w ard o u r co n tem p o ra ry w o rld , p referrin g to recreate
S h a k e sp e a re 's h isto rical co n te x t em p irically . T h e seco n d h a s arisen as
a reactio n to th is ten d en cy a n d self-co n scio u sly in terp rets Sh ak esp eare
in th e co n tex t o f o u r o w n cu ltu re, ev en w h e n it is in v o lv ed in situ atin g
S h ak esp e are histo rically. (2 0 0 5 :1 0 2 )

T h e fath er o f N ew H isto ricism , S tep h e n G reen b latt, fam ou sly d eclared th at

th e aim o f h is criticism w as to sp e a k w ith th e d ead . In h is b o o k Shakespeare
in th e P resen t, T erence H aw k es ch a lle n g e s G ree n b la tt to o ffer w h a t m ig h t w ell
sta n d a s a p resen tist m anifesto:

If an in tru siv e, sh a p in g aw aren ess o f o u rselv e s, a liv e and activ e in o u r ow n

w o rld , d efin es u s, th en it d eserv es o u r clo sest a tten tio n . P ayin g th e p resen t
th at d eg ree o f a tten tio n m ig h t m o re p ro fitab ly be ju d g e d , n o t a s a 'm ista k e',
eg re g io u s and in so u cian t, b la n d ly im p o sin g a tritely m o d ern p ersp ectiv e
on w h a te v e r texts co n fro n t it, bu t ra th er as the b a sis o f a critica l stance
w h o se en g ag em en t w ith th e tex t is o f a p a rticu la r ch aracter. A Sh ak esp eare
criticism th at takes th at on bo ard w ill n o t y earn to sp e a k w ith the d ea d . It
w ill aim , in th e en d , to ta lk to th e living . (2002: 3 -4 )

N o t o n ly is this a m o re d irect an d en e rg izin g a im th an N ew H isto ricism 's

n o to rio u s self-ab asem en t in th e fa ce o f pow er, bu t m an y p resen tist critics h a v e
also arg u ed th at w e c a n in fa ct o n ly e v e r read from a p resen tist p ersp ectiv e,
w h eth er w e ch o o se to d o so o r n o t, b ecau se w e are sim p ly n o t eq u ip p ed to

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read fro m th e p o in t o f v iew o f a p a st so u tterly a lien to o u r o w n ex p erien ces:

a s G rad y h a s it,

P resen tist criticism [ . . . ] assu m es th at all o u r k n o w led g e o f the past,

in clu d in g that o f S h a k e sp e a re 's h isto rical co n tex t, is sh a p e d b y the
id eo lo g ies and d isco u rses o f o u r cu ltu ral p resen t and th a t far from being
an im p ed im en t to o u r k n o w led g e, th is u nd erstan d in g is its en ab lin g
fou n d ation . (2 0 0 5 :1 1 4 )

C erta in ly , w e d o n eed to re co g n ize th at there w ere m a n y p o in ts o f d ifference

b etw een S h ak esp e are's h isto rical m o m en t a n d o u r o w n : S tep h e n G reen blatt
n o tes, for in stan ce, th at ath eism , 'th e sta n ce th at see m s to co m e n a tu ra lly to
the g reen est co lle g e fresh m an in late tw en tieth -cen tu ry A m erica [,] see m s to
h a v e b e e n a lm o st u n th in k ab le to th e m o st d arin g p h ilo so p h ica l m in d s o f late
six tee n th -cen tu ry E n gland ([1985] 1992: 8 4 )' (see M a ley , th is v o lu m e, C h a p ter
10). O n the o th er h an d , P eter W om ack fin d s in H enri/ I V a co n stru ctio n th at is
reco gn izably 'B re ch tia n ', d esp ite the three ce n tu rie s sep a ra tin g B rech t and
Sh ak esp eare. W o m ack h ere im p licitly calls for u s to re co g n iz e th at it is ju s t as
leg itim ate to call Sh ak esp eare 'B re ch tia n ' a s it is to c a ll B rech t 'S h a k esp ea rea n '
(1995: 138). E w an Fernie, w h o se a b stra ct a n n o u n ces th a t 'th e cu rren t clim a te
o f terro r casts a stran g e lig h t o n extrem e actio n in S h a k esp e a re', sim ila rly does
not h esitate to p ro p o se a co m p ariso n w h ic h Sh ak esp eare co u ld n ev e r h av e
in ten d ed w h en h e co m p ares th e self-d estru ctiv e u rges o f A n g elo , O th ello and
M acbeth to th e p ractice o f 'b a re b a ck in g ', th at is h a v in g u n p ro tected g a y sex
for th e sak e o f th e th rill o f flirtin g w ith in fectio n w ith th e H IV v iru s (2006: 95
a n d 110).
In S hakespeare in the P resen t, H aw k es b eg in s h is a n a ly sis o f H am let by n otin g
th at in B erlin in 1945, the O ffice o f M ilitary G o v ern m e n t in th e A m erican
se cto r ap p o in ted T h eatre O fficers and circu lated a lis t o f w h at w as a n d w as
n o t su itab le fo r p erfo rm an ce. C oriolan u s and Ju liu s C aesar w ere n o t; M acbeth
a n d H am let w ere, b ec a u se th e y w ere felt to illu stra te the w o rk in g s o f ju stice
a n d th e d o w n fall o f crim in als (66). T h is lead s H aw k es to o b serv e th e ch a r
a cters in H am let th at 'I t is a lm o st a co m m o n p lace th a t m o st o f th em en g age
in so m e sort o f p o licin g o r su p erv isin g a ctiv ity ' (70) a n d to fo cu s h is an aly sis
a cco rd in g ly , co n clu d in g th at 'T o ex ag g e rate o n ly slig h tly , th e p ro p o sa l that
H am let w as at th is ju n c tu re p re fe ra b le to C oriolan u s h era ld s n o th in g less
th an a n ew w o rld order. In it, the U n ited S tate s, n o t B ritain , effectiv ely speaks
fo r a triu m p h an t and b ellig e ren t A n g lo -S a x o n o rd er' (76). H ere, H a w k cs's
fa r-rea ch in g arg u m en t is th a t a tten tio n to th e h isto ry o f Sh a k esp e a re p ro d u c
tion c a n h elp u s b ette r u nd erstan d the w o rld . T h e re m ig h t ind eed be tim es
w hen p re sen tist read in gs effectiv ely force th em selv es u p o n u s. In 1992, for
in stan ce, G rah am H o ld e m e ss co u ld w rite w ith o u t fu rth er co m m e n t that

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'H enry I V P ari O n e b eg in s w ith the im age o f the cru sa d e, a ch aracteristic

L an castrian sy m b o l o f so cial u n ity a n d h arm o n y in th e p u rsu it o f piety and
v io le n c e ' (89); now , it w o u ld be d ifficu lt to fo rg e t th at th e im a g e o f the
C ru sad e s h a s b een ap p rop riated b y A l-Q aed a a s a prom p t and ju stificatio n
for w h at they see a s their o w n h o ly w a r a g a in st th e W est, and o n e w ould
co n seq u en tly n o t sim p ly b e a b le to p ass o v e r th is p a ssa g e b u t w ou ld h av e to
lin g er a n d co n sid er it. A t present, rep resen tatio n s o f Isla m in Sh ak esp eare are
th e fo cu s o f a g rea t d ea l o f critical a ctiv ity , so th a t a s I w rite a sp ecia l issu e o f
Shakespeare, th e jo u rn a l o f th e B ritish S h ak esp e are A sso cia tio n , is p ro p o sin g to
co n cen trate en tirely o n 'S h ak e sp eare an d Isla m ', an e m p h a sis th at sim p ly
w ould n o t h a v e o ccu rred to th e A n g lo -A m erican su b je ct co m m u n ity tw en ty
o r s o y e a rs ago.

P o stco lo n ia lism

A d ifferent k in d o f read in g e x p lic itly from w ith in the p resen t is offered by

p o stco lo n ialism . P ostco lo n ialism , like B ritish S tu d ies slig h tly la ter in th e the
oretical m o m en t, is a cu te ly aw are o f B rita in 's p la ce in th e w id e r w o rld , b u t
it is also aw are o f tem p o ral a s w ell a s o f the g eo g ra p h ica l p o sitio n in g w h ich
h as b een th e p rin cip al in terest o f B ritish S tu d ies (see Streete, th is volu m e,
C h a p ter 7). T h u s, F ran cis B ark er an d Peter H u lm e d ecla re that

texts c a n n ev e r sim p ly b e en cou n tered b u t a re , o n th e co n tra ry , repeated ly

co n stru cted u nd er d efin ite co n d itio n s: T h e Tem pest read b y S ir W alter
R aleig h in 1914 a s th e w o rk o f E n g la n d 's n a tio n a l p o et is v ery d ifferent
from T h e Tem pest co n stru cted w ith fu ll tex tu al a p p a ra tu s b y an ed ito r /
critic su ch a s Frank K erm o d e, an d fro m th e 's a m e ' tex t in scribed
in stitu tio n ally in that m ajo r fo rm atio n o f 'E n g lish L iteratu re' w h ich is the
sch o o l a n d u n iv ersity sy llab u s a n d its su p p o rtin g p ractices o f teach in g
and ex am in atio n . (1985: 1 9 2 -9 3 )

F or B ark er and H u lm e, 'T h e en se m b le o f fiction al a n d liv ed p ractices, w h ich

for co n v e n ie n ce w e w ill sim p ly refer to here a s "E n g lish co lo n ia lis m ", p ro
v id e s T h e T em pest's d o m in an t d iscu rsiv e co n -te x ts' (198). U K -b ased critics
w ho w rite ab o u t th is rath er d a rk m o m en t in th e ir o w n n a tio n 's p ast often
b etra y a slig h t qu easin ess ab o u t S h a k e sp e a re 's ro le in it. F o r B ark er and
H u lm e, T h e Tem pest is a p lay th at su p p o rts th e E n g lish co lo n ial en terp rise , and
y e t they su g g est th a t 'T h e len g th s to w h ich th e play h a s to g o to a ch iev e a
leg itim ate en d in g m a y ( . . . ] be read as the q u ellin g o f a fu n d am en tal d isq u iet
co n cern in g its o w n fu n ctio n s w ith in th e p ro jects o f co lo n ia list d isco u rse'
(2 0 3 -4 ). M o re sta rk ly , A nn T h o m p so n w rites that

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R ead in g th e p lay as a w o m an a n d a s a fem in ist, it is p o ssib le to feel good

ab o u t d elin eatin g and rejectin g its id e alizatio n o f p atriarch y , a n d one
c a n go b ey o n d th e p lay to co n sid er th e co n scio u s a n d u n co n scio u s sexism
o f th e critica l and sta g e history. R ead in g a s a w h ite B ritish p erso n , m y
co n scien ce is less clear: w o m en a s w ell as m e n b en e fite d (an d still b en efit)
from th e kind o f co lo n ialism id ealized in T h e Tem pest. (1 9 9 5 :1 7 6 -7 7 )

O n e co u ld w ell arg u e, th o u gh , th at th is an g st is m isp la ced , b ec a u se it is by no

m ean s cle a r th at T h e Tem pest actu a lly d oes id ealize co lo n ialism (see R obson,
th is v o lu m e, C h a p te r 5). C erta in ly th is is b y n o m ean s g u aran teed to b e the
ca s e in p erfo rm an ces o f the p lay , w hich a re m u ch le ss lik ely to b e d riv en b y a
sin g le d o m in atin g id ea w h ic h ev ery th in g m u st b e found to fit. T h e o th e r
criticism w h ich is o fte n lev elled at p o stco lo n ia list ap p ro ach es is th a t they m ay
b e too q u ic k to a ssu m e a o n e-size-fits-all m o d el in w h ich a ll p rev io u sly and
presen tly co lo n ized co u n tries a re u n d ersto o d as h avin g h a d essen tially the
s a m e ex p erien ces. In the ca s e o f T h e Tem pest, th e Sh ak esp eare p la y to w hich
su ch ap p ro a ch es a re m o st o ften ap p lied , this ten d en cy is ex acerb ated and
co m p licated b y the p la y 's o w n n o to rio u s g eo grap h ical in d eterm in acy , w hich
h as led d iffere n t critics to relate it to Irelan d , the M ed iterran ean a n d N o rth
A m e rica w ith e q u a l ease , d esp ite th e fa ct th at th ese th ree a re a s h a d su ch very
d iffere n t co lo n ial h isto ries. Ind eed D ym p n a C alla g h a n a rg u es th a t this very
in d eterm in acy is ce n tral to th e m ean in g o f th e p lay, in th at 'W h a t is at stak e in
relatin g Ireland to T h e T em pest is n o t [ . . . ] a m a tter o f d irect a n d specific
co rresp o n d en ce betw een Ireland and th e isle , b u t p recisely th e p la y 's resolute
n o n sp ecificity , its h azin ess and im p recisio n o n m a tters o f b o th g eo g rap h y
a n d , esp ecially [ . . . ) o f h isto ry ; its d elib erately b ad m e m o ry ' (2000: 100),
th o u g h fo r C alla g h a n th e re is n o d o u b t th a t 'Irela n d p ro v id es th e rich est
h isto rical a n a lo g u e for th e p la y 's co lo n ial th e m e' (2000: 137). F o r C allag h an ,
the p la y 's 're so lu te ' lack o f referen ce to the m o st o b v io u s co n tem p o rary
p a ra llel is in itself telling.

B ritish Stu d ies

M o re g eo g rap h ically sp ecific is th e em erg in g d iscip lin e o f 'B ritish S tu d ies'. In

re cen t y ears, m an y critics h a v e fo llo w ed th e lead o f h isto ria n s in paying
in creasin g a tten tio n to th e fa ct th at d u rin g th e secon d h a lf o f Sh ak esp eare's
ca reer E n g lan d w as b e in g forced to reassess q u ite rad ically its p o sitio n in the
w o rld (and this p ro cess w as in fa ct alread y in train in so m e resp ects, and
b ein g a n ticip a te d in o th e rs, th ro u g h o u t h is w ritin g life) (see E n g e l, th is v o l
u m e, C h ap ter 2). A t h o m e, the o n g o in g w a rs in Irelan d a n d the a ccessio n in
1603 o f a S co ttish k in g w h o in tro d u ced for the first tim e the id ea o f 'G reat
B rita in ' m e an t a rad ical reap p raisal o f E n g la n d 's trad itio n al b o rd ers; abroad ,

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the p u sh to acq u ire o v erseas co lo n ies w as m ak in g th e n ew 'G re a t B ritain '

a cu te ly a w are o f its p o sitio n o n th e w o rld m ap , and p articu larly o f its lo ca tio n
w ith in w h a t is n o w o ften called 'th e A tlan tic a rch ip elag o '. W illy M aley's
s u rv e y o f Sh ak esp earean criticism is in flu en ced by th ese id eas: ' " A T h in g
M o st B ru tish ": D ep ictin g S h ak esp e are's M u lti-N a tio n S ta te '. It ap p eared a s a
review p ie c e in S hakespeare, a n d b eg in s w ith an ex trem e ly p u n ch y a b stra ct
w h ic h g iv es an ex cellen t sen se o f th e ty p e s o f to p ic su ch criticism h a s tended
to cover:

In re cen t y e a rs, an g lo cen tric and ro y alist re ad in g s o f S h a k esp e a re h av e

y ield ed to co lo n ial a n d rep u b lican p ersp ectiv es. T h e p la cin g o f th e plays
w ith in a p ro b lem atic e a rly m o d e m B ritish co n tex t h a s b een a d istin ctive
featu re o f th is criticism . T h is essay su rv ey s recen t w o rk o n th e B ritish and
Irish d im en sio n s, ad d ressin g th e bro ad issu es en tailed in situ a tin g Stu art
Sh ak esp eare: su ccessio n , u nion, p lan tatio n , th e rein v en tio n o f B ritain, and
th e ex p an sio n o f E n g lan d . T h is criticism , co n cern ed w ith q u estio n s o f
co lo n ialism and n atio n alism in the co n tex t o f B ritish sta te form ation ,
focu ses o n th e N in e Y ears W ar in Irelan d (1 5 9 4 -1 6 0 3 ), the su ccessio n
crisis th at led to th e U n ion o f C ro w n s (1603), the F lig h t o f the Earls
(1607), and th e U lster P lan tatio n (1609). (2007: 2)

M an y o f S h a k e sp e a re 's p lays h a v e p ro ved am e n a b le to b ein g u nd erstood

w ith in this new p arad igm , b u t it is n o su rp rise th at so m e h av e attracted
m o re an aly sis th an o th e rs: a s M a le y o b serv es in the seco n d h a lf o f h is ab stract,

A lth o u g h th is w o rk h a s to u ch ed o n all o f S h a k e sp e a re 's co rp u s, it has

tend ed to ce n tre o n a g ro u p o f p lays, n am ely the 'B ritish te tra lo g y ' -
H am let, K in g Lear, M acb eth and C ym belin e - b o o k-en d ed by H en ry V a n d T he
Tem pest. T h is w o rk , p a rt o f the 'n ew co n tex tu a lism ', a revised a n d enlarged
v ersio n o f n ew h isto ricism and cu ltu ral m aterialism , m ixes th e em p irical
m eth o d s o f the old h isto ricism w ith the th eoretical in sig h ts o f the new , and
a d d s th e u rg en cy , the 'v ery n o w ' o f P resentism . F o u r related features
em erg e: th e reth in k in g o f g en re, in th e ex ten d in g o f th e ca teg o ry o f h isto ry
p lay to in clu d e trag ed ies su ch a s M acb eth and K in g L ear, a n d ro m an ces like
C y m belin e and T h e Tem pest; th e reth in k in g o f h isto ry , in a co n com itan t
ex ten sio n o f the term s 'Ja c o b e a n ' and 'S tu a rt' to all o f S h a k e sp e a re 's late
and p o st-E lizab eth an w o rk ; the reth in k in g o f the relation b etw ee n new
h isto ricism a n d cu ltu ral m aterialism in th e tw in n in g o f to p ica lity and
p resen tism as critical ap p ro ach es; a n d the reo rien ta tio n o f th e fie ld in the
reco llection o f, an d reco n n ectin g to , an earlier trad itio n o f (old ) h isto ricist
criticism p reo ccu p ied b y g eo g rap h y a n d p lace. B y g o in g bey o n d the
h isto rie s a n d reo rien tin g th e trag ed ies and rom an ces, this n ew criticism is
ch alle n g in g g en re b o u n d aries a s w ell as n atio n al b o rd ers. (2 0 0 7 : 20)

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B ritish S tu d ies, th en , d o es co n sid erab ly m o re th a n it s a y s o n th e tin: it

a d d resses a w id e ra n g e o f issu es and in v ite s so m e far-reach in g reassessm en ts
a n d recateg o rizatio n s o f so m e o f S h a k e sp e a re 's m o st im p o rtan t plays.
P articu lar a tten tio n h a s b e e n p aid by B ritish S tu d ies to 77te Tem pest, w ith its
o b v io u s n od in the d irectio n o f th e E n g lish co lo n ia l en terp rise (see M a ley , this
v o lu m e, C h a p te r 10). In d eed , M aley classifies T h e T em pest as the Irish p la y (he
a ls o calls H am let a s 'th e S co ttish P la y ', o n the b a sis p rin cip a lly o f w o rk by
S tu a rt K u rlan d a n d A nd rew H ad ficld ). C a lla g h a n found in a v ariety o f p aral
lels fallin g sh o rt o f d irect reference: th at 'Irelan d w a s q u ite literally fu ll o f
n o ises, a cu ltu re o f so u n d ', th at 'sc a m e l' a n d 'g a b b le ' c a n b o th be u nd erstood
a s sp ecifically a s Irish w o rd s, a n d th at 'E n g lish a tta ck s o n Irish d ress also
co rresp o n d w ith th e rep resen tatio n o f C alib an a s m issh ap en and in h u m an '
(2000: 107, 108, 1 1 6 -1 7 , 130). T o th ese M aley ad d s 'A rie l a s an O ld English
figure, th a t is, a s a rep resen tativ e o f th e d escen d a n ts o f th e C a th o lic colonists
o f the tw e lfth ce n tu ry ' (2000: 95). E v en m o re im p o rta n t h av e b een the
h isto ries, w h ich ex p licitly ad d ress th e q u estio n o f the p ro cesse s b y w hich
S h a k e sp e a re 's E n gland and its n e ig h b o u rin g co u n tries h a v e b e e n form ed .
A g ain B ritish S tu d ies in vites recatego rizatio n h ere: M a ley takes issu e w ith
critical p ersp ectiv es w h ich su b su m e Scottish , W elsh a n d Irish ch a ra cters into
th e E n glish .

A cco rd in g to A nia L oom ba: 'S h a k e sp ea re 's "o th e r s " a re rem arkab ly few
in n u m b er - O th ello , C alib an , Sh y lo ck , Je ssica , C leo p a tra and h er train,
A aro n , T am ora if w e w ish , and M o ro cco ' (180). T h is lis t leav es o u t as others
th e likes o f F lu ellen , G len d o w er, Ja m y , M acbeth a n d M acm o rris, in oth er
w o rd s th o se n o n -E n g lish o th e rs w h o a rc b o th foreig n a n d fam iliar.
(2000: 82)

F or M aley , th en , B ritish S tu d ies m ak es u s see th at the in creasin g ly im p ortan t

ca teg o ry o f 'O th e rn e ss' is a p p lica b le n o t o n ly to th e u su al su sp ects o f p o st
co lo n ia l criticism b u t to the h isto rie s too. T h u s D av id S c o tt K astan o b serv es o f
1 H en ry I V th a t 'H en ry ru les o ver a n atio n w h o se b o u n d a ries a re in secu re and
w h o se in teg rity is u nd er attack from w ith in . H e is a t w a r w ith the S co ts in the
N o rth , th e W elsh in the W est, a n d the v ery n o b le s th at h elp ed h im to p o w er
n o w o p p o se h is ru le '. (1991: 242)
In th e case o f m an y an a ly ses, there p ro v e to b e twro p rin cip al co n seq u en ces
o f read in g S h ak esp e are's rep resen tatio n s o f E n g lish h isto ry w ith in the se t o f
co n tex ts to w h ich w e a re ale rted by B ritish S tu d ies. O n e o f th ese, u n su rp ris
in g ly , is a refu sal to au to m atically read from a n 'E n g lis h ' p o in t o f view , a n d a
w illin g n ess to tak e th e n o n -E n g lish ch aracters o f th e p la y m o re serio u sly than
h a s o ften b een d o n e in the p ast. T h u s Jo an F itz p a trick arg u e s th at 'T he
m ag ical p o w ers th a t G ly n d w r b o asts o f ap p e ar to b e g en u in e at le a st o n ce in

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the p la y ' (2004: 125), a n d a rg u es th at 'F a r fro m u n d erm in in g G ly n d w r in

p articu lar, th e o v era ll e ffe c t o f th e scen e se t in W ales is to u n d e rm in e the
reb els in g e n era l' (2 0 0 4 :1 2 7 ), w h ile T erence H a w k es sim ila rly rem ark s th a t 'It
m ay w ell be th at an acq u a in ta n ce w ith W elsh p eop le in L o n d o n a cco u n ts for
S h a k e sp e a re 's p o rtray al o f G len d o w er as m o re sy m p a th e tic th an h is sources
w o u ld e n co u ra g e ' (2002: 33). Seco n d ly , readin g S h a k e sp e a re 's 'E n g lish ' h is
tory p la y s w ith in a 'B ritish ' co n tex t o ften ten d s to sen sitiz e critics to issues
th at w ere p ro m in en t n o t o n ly in th e m e d iaev al B ritain o f w h ich Sh ak esp eare
w rote b u t also - a n d in so m e cases m o re s o - in th e early m o d ern B ritain in
w h ic h h e w rote: thu s D av id S c o tt K astan w rites th at 'T h e u n itary sta te, " A ll o f
o n e n atu re, o f o n e su b stan ce b re d " ( 1 .1 .1 1 ) , w o u ld b e p ro d u ced in op p osition
to an alien a n d b a rb a ric "o th e r," a lm o st p re cisely th e w a y an id ea o f an
o rd erly and co h e ren t E n g lish n atio n w as fash io n ed in E liz a b eth a n E n glan d
largely b y referen ce to th e alterity a n d in ferio rity o f th e Irish ' (1991: 2 4 2 ). N o r
n eed th e p o litical issu es o n w h ic h B ritish S tu d ies to u ch es b e so lely co n fin ed to
the six tee n th and sev en teen th cen tu ries. W illy M a ley su g g ests that

It is w o rth rem em b erin g th at in the C o m m o n s v o te o n th e Iraq w a r on

T u esd ay 18th M arch 20 0 3 , a m ajo rity o f S c o ttish a n d W elsh M P s voted
ag ain st th e w ar, b u t th an k s to th e v o tes o f E n g lish M P s, a n d a h elp in g hand
fro m U lster L o yalists, th e im p erialist ven tu re w a s en d o rsed . A th in g m o st
b ru tish in d eed . (2007: 96)

In th is resp ect, B ritish S tu d ies can ind eed lo o k like a p o w erfu l fu sion o f an
u n u su ally p articu larized form o f h isto ricism w ith an u n u su a lly en erg ized and
m o tiv ate d fo rm o f presen tism .

E c o c ritic is m

It is a p o w erfu l testim o n y to th e relativ ely su d d e n em erg en ce o f this new

critica l p o sitio n th a t th e in flu en tial jo u rn a l E n glish L iterary R en aissan ce should
d ev o te its 20 0 7 su rv ey o f re cen t d ev e lo p m e n ts in a p a rticu la r field to an
a rtic le by K aren R ab er o n 'R ecen t E co critical S tu d ies o f E n glish R en aissan ce
L iteratu re'. E co criticism certain ly m ak es n o b o n es a b o u t read in g Sh ak esp eare
fro m w ith in o u r o w n h isto rical m o m en t ra th er th an his. In the first m ajo r
eco critical ap p ro ach to Sh ak esp eare, G reen Shakespeare - su rely also the first
w o rk o f S h ak esp e arean criticism to co n tain a d ia g ra m o f Ja m e s W att's steam
g o v e rn o r - G ab rie l E g a n a rg u es th at 'O u r u n d e rsta n d in g o f S h a k esp e a re and
o u r u nd erstan d in g o f G ree n politics h a v e o v erla p p in g co n cern s and can be
m u tu ally su sta in in g ' (2006: 1). To ap p ly G ree n th in kin g to Sh ak esp eare, for
in stan ce, c a n , E g a n arg u es, a le rt u s to the fact th at 'A lth o u g h h e w o u ld not, o f
co u rse, h a v e u sed th ese term s, S h a k e sp e a re 's p la y s sh o w an a b id in g in terest

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 R ecent C ritical Responses an d Approaches

in w h a t w e n o w id en tify a s p o sitiv e- and n eg a tiv e-feed b a ck lo o p s, cellu lar

stru ctu res, th e u ses a n d ab u ses o f an alo g ies b etw ee n n atu ral a n d so cia l order,
a n d in th e av ailab le m o d e ls for co m m u n ity ' (2 0 0 6 :5 0 ). E g a n also su g g ests th at
'V irtu ally a ll Sh a k esp e a re criticism h a s b e e n w ritten a cco rd in g to the
E n lig h ten m e n t's scien tific p rin cip le s, and th ese a re cu rre n tly b e in g revised. It
is w o rth tak in g n o tice o f the re v isio n ' (2006: 33), sin ce 'a n u m b er o f seem in g ly
n a iv e o ld id eas ab o u t o u r re latio n s w ith th e n atu ral w o rld - for ex a m p le, th at
th e E arth itself is a liv e a n d th a t w h a t w e d o can ch a n g e th e w ea th er - h a v e
tu rned o u t to be tru e ' (2 0 0 6 :4 ). E gan th erefo re su g g ests th at w e m ig h t w a n t to
reassess cu rren t critical o rth o d o x y in ce rtain respects. Sp ecifica lly , h e su gg ests
th at w riters su ch a s T illy ard , w ith th e ir fo c u s o n a h o listic a n d ord ered 'w orld
p ictu re ', sh o u ld n o t be u n critically d iscard ed . In d eed , w e need to 'd iscard
ce rta in p reju d ices th at recen t S h ak esp e are criticism h a s fostered . O n e su ch
p re ju d ice is th a t an alo g ies betw een th e n a tu ra l w o rld a n d h u m a n so ciety , and
b etw ee n d iffere n t lev els o f h u m an so ciety , are red u ctiv e a n d p o litica lly co n
serv a tiv e ' (2006: 4): in fact

S h a k e sp e a re 's an alo g ies b etw ee n h u m an so ciety and the w id e r cosm ic

o rd er sh o u ld n o t em b arrass u s, a s th e y s e e m to h a v e em b arrassed late
tw en tieth -cen tu ry criticism th a t ch o se to a v ert its g aze. T h e la test ideas
fro m scien ce o ffer u s w a y s to u nd erstan d th ese an a lo g ies as po litically
prog ressive. (2 0 0 6 :1 6 )

W h en it co m es to sp e cific texts, E g a n su g g ests th at

w e c a n read T h e T em pest in a co u p le o f h isto rica l co n tex ts th a t h ave

recen tly beco m e av ailab le, and w ith in w h ic h it see m s e v e n m o re g rim ly
p essim istic th an re cen t (esp ecially p o stco lo n ial) criticism h a s allo w ed . T h e
n ew co n tex ts a re co n cern ed w ith th e k n o w led g e o f scien ce, a n d w ith the
co stu m in g o f the p lay. (2006: 149)

T h e p o in t w h ich E g a n m akes ab o u t co stu m in g is a slig h tly sep a ra te on e, bu t

h is p o in t ab o u t th e h isto ry o f scien ce tak es u s rig h t to th e h eart o f th e ecocriti-
ca l p roject, sin c e E gan su g g e sts th at to read th e p la y in th is ligh t co u ld sh ow
u s th at th e p la y 's 'recu rre n t arb o real [tree] im agery h a s a very real p o in t in the
p la y , fo r P ro sp ero 's m ain activ ity sin ce h is arriv al o n the islan d h a s b e e n its
d e fo resta tio n ' (2006: 155) and th at 'S h a k e sp ea re 's p la y lin k s co lo n izatio n ,
d efo restatio n , and extrem e w e a th e r in w ays th a t can n o w b e seen a s p rescien t'
(2006: 171). L ike p resen tism and B ritish S tu d ies, th en , e co criticism is in ter
ested n o t o n ly in Sh ak esp eare bu t in the w a y s in w h ich th e critica l d isco u rse it
fo sters can in terv en e in co n tem p o rary p o litica l d eb ate, b u t its ag en d a is
sp e cifica lly a G reen on e.

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F u rth e r A n a ly sis: G r e e n Read in gs

P erh ap s th e m o st o b v io u s ap p licatio n o f a G reen ag en d a is in those

p la y s w h ic h featu re w h a t C . L. B a rb er ca lle d the 'g ree n w o rld ' - A
M id su m m er N ight's D ream , Two G entlem en o f V erona, The M erch an t o f Ven
ic e an d A s You L ike It b ein g th e m o st o b v io u s e x a m p les, esp ecia lly sin ce
A M id su m m er N ight's D ream co n ta in s a sp e ech sp e cifica lly rem ark in g on
re cen t sev ere d isru p tio n s to w eath er p attern s. In the recen t B B C series
S h akespeare R etold, w h ich jettiso n s th e o rig in al lan g u ag e and u p d a tes the
p la y s to a co n tem p o rary settin g , O b ero n actu a lly u ses the p h rase 'g lo b al
w arm in g ' w h en d escrib in g th e effects o f h is co n flict w ith T itan ia o n the
n atu ral w o rld - d o y o u th in k th a t it is a leg itim a te in terp retation ?

P e rfo rm a n ce Stu d ies

R elated to presen tism is th e in creasin g ly p ro m in en t stu d y o f Sh ak esp eare's

p lays in p e rfo rm a n ce a n d related issu es (see H am p to n -R eev es' C h a p ter 6 and
E g a n 's C h a p te r 9, this v o lu m e). P erfo rm a n ce m a y see m b y its v ery n atu re to
b e fleetin g, im p erm an en t a n d ep h em eral: e v e n a lo n g th eatre ru n w ill finish,
and h o w ev er co p io u sly it h as b een d o cu m en ted , it is d ifficu lt if n o t im possible
to reco rd o r reco n stru ct it in ev ery d etail o r to g iv e an y real s e n s e o f w h a t it
w as lik e to b e p resen t a t a p erfo rm an ce. H ow ever, critics o ften m ak e referen ce
to p erfo rm an ce in th e ir ex p lo ratio n s o f p la y s a n d p erfo rm a n ce is also often
n ow th e fo cu s o f in terest o n its o w n a cco u n t, a s in the im p o rtan t M an ch ester
U n iv ersity P ress Shakespeare in P erform an ce series. In tro d u cin g h is volu m e
o n H am let in th e S hakespeare in P erform an ce se rie s, A n th o n y B. D aw so n
d eclares,

I am w ritin g as p a rt o f a sc rie s called Shakespeare in P erform an ce, p u b lish ed

by a w ell-estab lish ed u n iv ersity press. T h is co n tex t au to m a tica lly co n fers
an a ir o f a u th o rity o n th e b o o k th at m ay b e m islead in g b eca u se it su gg ests
th at 'S h a k e sp e a re ', 'H am let' a n d 'p erfo rm a n ce ' are all sta b le en tities; p lu s it
a ssu m es th a t w h en I d escrib e a p ro d u ctio n I a m so m eh o w a b le to co n v ey
w h at really to o k p lace. B u t there is so m eth in g cru cia l le ft o u t o f su ch an
a ssu m p tio n , so m eth in g th at is fo reg ro u n d ed in th e tex t o f H am let itself.
A n d th a t is th a t all su ch ce rtain ties a re to so m e d e g ree illu so ry [ . . . ] all
m e an in g s, as the p lay rem in d s u s, are p ro v isio n al and tem p o rary , a result
o f n e g o tiatio n and cu ltu ral stru g g le as w ell a s in d iv id u al effo rt and
creativ ity . (1995: 3)

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 R ecent C ritical Responses an d Approaches

F or D aw so n , 'm a k in g m ean in g s is a cu ltu ral p ra ctice in se p a ra b le fro m p er

form an ce in w h atev er a re n a ' (1995: 4 ), a n d aw a ren ess o f th is a llo w s u s n o t
o n ly to ap p reciate th e ran g e o f m ean in g s th a t m ay be lib era ted in p erfo rm
a n ce , b u t also to g rasp so m eth in g fu n d am en tal a b o u t d ra m a in g en era l and
H am let in p articular:

O n ly recen tly h a v e sch o lars b eg u n to em p h asiz e th e p erfo rm a n ce asp ects

o f [S h ak esp eare's] w ork. T h is in tu rn is related to cu ltu ral ch a n g es in
w h ich th e id e a o f p erfo rm an ce in all its sen se s (en co m p a ssin g p o litics,
teach in g , co m m u n icatio n s a n d in fo rm atio n ex ch a n g e a s w e ll as theatre)
h a s b eco m e d o m in an t. In o u r p o st-m o d e m w o rld , selfh o o d its e lf h a s co m e
to b e seen as p rim arily a m atter o f p e rfo rm a n ce, rath er th an as so m eth in g
're a l'. (1995: 4)

In th is w ay, H am let beco m es a p lay w h ic h sp e a k s o n a b a sic lev el to ou r

p resen t u n d erstan d in g o f o u r o w n co n d itio n (see H is co c k /L o n g sta ffe , this
v olu m e, C h a p te r 1). T h a t H am let in tu rn is b o th a k ey tex t in E n g lish -sp eakin g
cu ltu re, and a k ey elem e n t in the self-d efin itio n o f 'g rea t Sh ak esp earean s'
su ch a s G arrick , Irv in g o r O livier, in d ica tes th e im p o rta n ce o f 'p erfo rm a n ce'
in m a n y sen se s a n d in d eed D aw so n su g g ests th at an im p o rta n t factor

in acco u n tin g fo r th e p la y 's cu ltu ral ce n tra lity m ay b e the p ro m in en ce

th e tex t and its p erfo rm an ces co n fer o n th e in d iv id u al self. B o rn at a tim e
w h en th e em erg in g forces o f P ro testan t th eo lo g y , cap italist en terp rise and
h u m an ist in d iv id u alism w ere co m b in in g to fo rm w h at h a s co m e to be
called th e 'm o d e rn su b je ct', H am let see m s to em b od y th e stru g g les and
asp iratio n s o f th e in d iv id u al so u l se t a flo a t in a sea o f tro u b les and
u n certain ties. (1995: 7)

To so m e ex ten t, m oreover, this is a self-p e rp e tu atin g co n d itio n , sin c e D aw so n

fu rth er arg u es th at

In th is reg ard , too, th e p ro m in en t cu ltu ral p o sitio n o f ce rta in a cto rs, such
as D av id G arrick in the eig h teen th cen tu ry, H en ry Irv in g in the n in eteen th ,
o r L au ren ce O liv ier in th e tw en tieth , m ak es itself felt. (1995: 8)

To th in k a b o u t H am let in th is w ay is fa r m o re th an to th in k a b o u t a few
ep h em era l a n d lo n g -g o n e p erfo rm an ces; it is to e n g a g e w ith h o w so ciety has
b o th sh ap ed and b e e n sh ap e d b y a ce n tral cu ltu ra l ic o n o f o u r civ ilizatio n .
M ich ael C o rd n er ap p lies a ra th er d ifferently sla n ted k in d o f p erfo rm an ce
a n a ly sis w h en h e ex am in es M a cb e th 's in ju n ctio n to L ad y M acb eth to 'h o ld
th ee still':

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The Shakespeare H andbook

S e v en teen th -cen tu ry u sa g e au th o rises an in trig u in g lin e-u p o f possible

m ean in g s for (th ese w ord s]. If w e in terp ret 's till' a s an a d v erb ca rry in g its
co m m o n early m o d ern s e n se o f 'co n sta n tly , alw ay s, co n tin u o u sly ', o n e
p lau sib le p arap hrase is: 'a lw a y s, and in a ll circu m sta n ces, k eep y o u rself
u n d er tig h t co n tro l'; w h ile an e q u a lly cred ib le o p tio n , d ep lo y in g the sam e
ad verb ial m ean in g for 's till', w ou ld be: 'sta y lo y al to th e sam e m o d e of
co n d u ct - and th e sa m e firm re so lv e - a s y o u h a v e d o n e th ro u g h o u t o u r
attem p t o n th e cro w n '. If, h ow ever, w e in v o k e th e a d jectiv a l m ean in gs
for 's till' av ailab le to Sh ak esp eare, fu rth er p o ssib ilities o p en up. For
in stan ce, 's till' co u ld m ean, th en as now , 'm o tio n le ss', w h ich co u ld here
g en erate 'stan d s till', b u t also , b y ex ten sio n , 'd o n 't let y o u r p h y sical control
la p se'. 'S till' co u ld also sig n ify 'sile n t, ta citu rn ', and fro m th at m ig h t b e
ed u ced : 'sta y tig h t-lip p ed , b e carefu l to sa y n o th in g to b etra y u s'. A n oth er
cu rre n t sen se w as 'so ft, su b d u ed , n o t lo u d ', w h ich m ig h t su g g est: 'keep
y ou r b eh a v io u r n o rm a l, u n e m p h a tic'. A n d fin a lly , it co u ld m e a n 'secret',
w h ich m ight lead to: 'ta k e ca re y o u re m a in u n rea d a b le ', th u s g en era tin g a
p ro v o cativ e - a n d (d ep en d in g o n the a cto r's ch o ice o f in to n a tio n ) p ossibly
b a rb ed - ec h o o f L ad y M a cb e th 's e a rlie r criticism th at h is face 'is a s a
B o ok e, w h ere m e n / M ay read e stra n g e m atters'.

C o rd n er d eclares th at

W hen Sh a k esp e a re pen n ed th ese lin es, h e p resu m ab ly h a d in m in d a clear

id ea o f h o w h e in ten d ed them to b e in flected . D esp ite the pressured
reh earsal circu m stan ces u n d er w h ich Ja co b ea n a cto rs w o rk ed , h e m ay h av e
ca rv ed o u t tim e to in stru ct R ich ard B u rb ag e in th o se in ten tio n s a n d secured
th e latte r's ag reem en t s o to p erfo rm th em . B u t n o e v id en ce o f these
p referen ces su rv iv e s in th e b a re w o rd s p rin ted u p o n th e relev an t p a g e o f
th e First F olio , w h ich is all w e h a v e to w o rk from . C o n se q u e n tly , m od ern
read ers and acto rs, w h ile rem ain in g strictly faith fu l to early m o d ern usage,
c a n co n stru ct a ric h array o f in terp retativ e p o ssib ilities from th is b rief
ph rase. (2006: 9 1 -9 2 )

F or C ord ner, u sin g a h isto rical u nd erstan d in g o f h o w m ea n in g s co u ld be

m a d e in p e rfo rm a n ce is cru cial to u nd erstan d in g th e p o ssib le ra n g e o f
m ean in gs for th e p la y (see H am p to n -R eev es, this v o lu m e, C h a p ter 6).
H ow ever, n o t ev e ry o n e is en tirely co n v in ced b y th e ris e o f p erfo rm a n ce
criticism . L u k as E rne in h is in flu en tial b o o k S hakesp eare a s L iterary D ram atist
cla im s th at

T h e g rea ter p a rt o f p erfo rm an ce criticism h a s b een sa lu ta ry and ben eficial,

and this b o o k h a s n o q u arrel w ith it. W h at d o es need to b e qu estion ed ,

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 R ecent C ritical Responses an d Approaches

h o w ev er, a re so m e o f th e m o re d o g m atic claim s th at h av e b een m ad e a b o u t

th e im p o rtan ce o f p erfo rm an ce for ou r u n d e rsta n d in g o f S h a k esp e a re's
p lays. W h en p erfo rm an ce critics cla im , for in stan ce, th a t 'th e stage
exp an d in g b efo re an au d ien ce is th e so u rce o f all valid d isco v ery ' a n d that
'S h ak e sp eare sp eak s, if an yw h ere, th rou gh h is m e d iu m ,' they a re sim p ly
ig n o rin g on e o f the tw o m ed ia in w h ich S h a k e sp e a re 's p la y s e x ist and
e x iste d . (2003: 22)

P erfo rm an ce criticism , th en , p o larize s o p in io n s. For so m e, it is an essen tial

tool fo r read in g a n d u nd erstan d in g the p lays, bu t for a critic lik e E rn e, it
a ctu a lly threatens the in teg rity o f th at p ro cess ra th er th an assistin g it.

B e yo n d T h eo ry?

It is p erh ap s n o t su rp risin g th a t o n e resp o n se to th e p leth o ra o f co m p etin g

th eo ries h a s b een the em erg en ce o f w h a t can b e lo o se ly d escrib ed a s a 'p ost-
th eoretical m o m en t'. In 1992, G rah am H o ld ern ess rem arked sca th in g ly that
'T h e ed ito r o f th e A rd en Sh ak esp eare te x ts o f 7 H en ry I V is a b le to quote
a p p ro v in g ly fro m b o th D o v e r W ilson and Barber, and to su p p o rt th e id e a o f
the p lays a s a "u n ifie d v isio n " w ith th e n am es o f N ew C ritics C lcan th B rooks
a n d R o b ert B. H eilm an ' (144), bu t su ch id e o lo g ica l p lu ra lism is in creasin gly
less lik ely to be av o id ed o r to attract atten tio n if it is p ractised . T h u s, for
in stan ce, L au rie M ag u ire arg u e s in h e r b o o k S tu d y in g Shakespeare: A G u id e to
the P lays (2004: 190) th a t H am let 'p ro v id es an ex ten d ed exa m in a tio n o f death
a n d g rie f, w ith tran sh istorical em o tio n s ab o u t d ea th em b ed d ed in a localized
R eform ation crisis ab o u t ritu als o f m o u rn in g '. A w are o f h isto ry , M agu ire
n ev e rth e le ss feels a b le to regard th e p lay a s d ea lin g w ith w h at w e m ig h t call
'e te rn a l v e ritie s': 'H a m le t d iv id es h is w o rld in to good v e rsu s b a d , g enuine
v ersu s false, b u t the ten sio n is actu ally d ead v ersu s a liv e ' (2 0 0 4 :1 9 4 ), w h ile o f
H en ry I V sh e d eclares th at 'T h e d ifference b etw een H en ry IV 's and H al's
stra te g ies is th a t th e la tte r's in v o lv es u sin g and d isp o sin g o f p e o p le ' (2 0 0 4 :9 7 ).
T h e re is also a n ew w illin gn ess a m o n g m an y m o d ern critics to en g a g e with
th e figure o f the author. M an y e a rly th e o retica l ap p ro ach es rigorously
esch ew e d d iscu ssio n o f the au th o r h im self o n th e g ro u n d s o f th e 'in ten tion al-
is t fa lla cy ' - th at sin ce w e can n o t actu a lly k n o w w h a t the a u th o r w a s th in kin g,
th ere is n o p o in t sp ecu latin g a b o u t it - s o th at S tep h e n G ree n b la tt, for
in stan ce, d ecla re s th at 'it m a y be th a t H ario t w as d em o n ica lly co n scio u s o f
w h at h e w as d o in g [ . . . ] B u t w e d o n o t n eed su ch a b io g ra p h ica l ro m a n ce to
a cco u n t for th e p h en om en o n : th e su b v ersiv en ess [ . . . ] w a s p ro d u ced b y co lo
n ial p o w e r in its o w n in tere st' ([1985] 1992: 89). H o w ev er in re cen t y e a rs the
id ea o f the a u th o r h as b een m ak in g so m eth in g o f a co m eb a ck , a s the title o f a
b o o k lik e th e K ozu ka and M u lry n e ed ited co llectio n Shakespeare, M arlow e,

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Jon son : N ew D irection s in B iography (2006) attests. T h u s in S tu d y in g Shakespeare

M a g u ire a ls o o b serv es th a t 'S h a k e sp ea re 's fath er d ied in 1 6 0 1 ; th e d ea th o f
fath ers is p ro m in en t in S h a k e sp e a re 's w ritin g in 1 6 0 0 -1 ' (2004: 19 5 ), a n d the
g ro w in g b o d y o f w o rk b y critics in terested in S h a k e sp e a re 's p o ssib le C a th o li
cism a lm o st in v ariab ly d raw s o n b io g rap h ical evid en ce. T h is can b e p ro b lem
a tic, how ever, b ec a u se in m an y areas o f S h a k e sp e a re 's life b io g ra p h ica l ev i
d e n c e is sa d ly lacking. T h o u g h th is is n o m o re th an is to b e ex p e cted for a
figure o f th e p erio d - in th e ca s e o f a slig h tly la ter co n tem p o ra ry o f S h a k e
s p e a re 's, th e d ra m a tist Jo h n F ord , w e d o n o t ev en know w h en h e d ied -
S h a k e sp e a re 's fam e has in ev itab ly led too m an y critics to su b stitu te sp ecu la
tion fo r e v id en ce w h en faced w ith th ese tan taliz in g g a p s, and w o rk in this
area m ay co n seq u en tly need to b e treated w ith cau tio n . In th e b ew ild erin g
v a riety o f th e o retical a p p ro a ch es p re sen tly av aila b le to u s it is p erh ap s in ev it
a b le th at any o n e in d iv id u a l th e o ry sh o u ld find it d ifficu lt to m ain tain its
cla im to p rim acy and tru th -v alu e, b u t it is eq u a lly in ev ita b le th at it is no
lo n g er accep tab le to read th ese p la y s in a w ay w h ich cla im s to b e w h olly
in n o cen t o f theory.

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Shakespeare

G abriel Egan

C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w

Shakespeare and Biography 173

C atholic Shakespeare 17 5
Shakespeare as Collaborator 17 7
Shakespeare as Author? 18 0
Textual Transmission 181
M an o f th e Theatre? 182
Editing Shakespeare 183
The G lo b e 18 5
Virtual Shakespeare 18 8

T h is ch a p ter is co n cern ed w ith recen tly -em erg ed new co n tex ts for the w ork
o f Sh a k esp e a re a n d h o w th ese h a v e affected , and m a y co n tin u e to affect,
the criticism o f h is w o rks. In p articu lar, it w ill fo c u s o n h is b io g ra p h y and
w o rk in g h ab its, his su rv iv in g texts, and th e a rch a eo lo g ica l w o rk o n the
b u ild in g s in w h ich h is p la y s w ere first perform ed .

S h a k e sp e a re a n d B io g rap hy

Sev eral n ew b io g ra p h ies ap p eared in the first y e a rs o f th e tw en ty -first ce n

tu ry, d esp ite th e fact th at in itially n o n ew k n o w led g e a b o u t h is life had
em erg ed in th e p reced in g d ecad es. T h u s, it m ig h t seem th a t all b iog rap h ers
c a n d o is fit th e ex istin g p ieces o f a n in co m p lete jig sa w in to n ew co n fig u r
atio n s, sh ap ed n o t s o m u ch b y th e fa cts a s b y th e k in d o f Sh ak esp eare they
w an t to co n stru ct (see H o p k in s, this v o lu m e, C h a p ter 8). T h u s K atherine
D u n can -Jo n es's U n gen tle S hakespeare (2001) is d riv en la rg e ly b y the d esire to

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d isp el th e lo n g stan d in g m y th s o f h is u n w o rld ly g o o d n ess and to sh o w that,

like an y am b itio u s a n d increasin gly w ealth y m a n o f h is tim e, Sh ak esp eare
w a s class-co n scio u s a n d ca p a b le o f sh arp -d ealin g w h en h is p erso n al fortu nes
w ere at stak e. T h at s o m an y o f h is co n tem p o ra ries called h im 'g en tle '
Sh a k esp e a re sh o u ld not clo u d ou r ju d g em e n t o f th e em p irica l e v id en ce about
h is b eh a v io u r - su ch th in g s a s h is p u rch ase o f a title, h is en clo su re o f com m on
lan d - w h ich need to b e u nd ersto o d w ith in th e co n tex ts o f th e b u sin ess
a ctiv ities w h ich stru ctu red h is life.
O n e o f th e reaso n s th a t th e realities o f S h a k e sp e a re 's life h a v e b e e n glo ssed
o v e r is th at, b ec a u se h e w ro te d ra m a tic p o etry , h e w a s for m a n y y ears treated
a s a p o et - and p o ets a re su p p o sed to b e o th er-w o rld ly . H ow ever, sin c e about
the m id -tw en tieth ce n tu ry the d riv e to h a v e Sh ak esp eare u nd ersto o d as
e ssen tially a m a n o f th e th eatre h a s tend ed to strip a w a y this a ssu m ed poetic
u nw o rld lin ess. T h e th eatre o f early m o d ern L o n d o n w a s a cu t-th ro at b u sin ess
o p eratin g o u tsid e th e p ro tectio n a n d co n tro l o f th e g u ild stru ctu re o f the
city T h in k in g ab o u t th e ex istin g facts o f S h ak esp e a re's life in these term s,
a b io g ra p h e r m a y co m b in e the p ieces o f th e jig sa w w ith a re sp ect for the
n ecessary d o m estic and p ro fessio n al arran g em e n ts th at a su ccessfu l playing
co m p an y sh arer su ch a s Sh ak esp eare m u st h a v e m ad e.
To tak e a straig h tforw ard ex a m p le, it is co m m o n ly a sserted th a t Sh ak esp eare
retired to Stratfo rd -u p o n -A von so m e tim e aro u n d 1 6 1 3 , w h en h is ca reer in the
th eatre w as over. T h e ce n tral b io g rap h ical facts th at u n d erp in th is assertion
a re th at Sh ak esp eare d ied in Stratfo rd in 1616 a n d th at n on e o f the su rv iv in g
p la y s in w h ic h h e had a hand can b e d ated la ter th an 1613. B u t in o rd er to
retire to S tratfo rd Sh ak esp eare w ou ld h a v e to h a v e b e e n liv in g elsew h ere, and
a s S tan le y W ells (2002: 2 8 -3 8 ) poin ts o u t w e sim p ly d o n o t know w h ere
Sh a k esp e a re liv ed m o st o f th e tim e. It is a rea so n a b le a ssu m p tio n th a t his
w o rk in the th eatre in d u stry k ep t h im in L o nd on , and th e re a re reco rd s o f h is
b ein g resid en t at ce rtain tim es, b u t a life o f co n sta n t trav el b etw ee n Stratford
and L o n d o n w as q u ite p o ssib le. As W ells n o te s, the essen tial req u irem en ts for
h is w ork w ere a w ell-sto ck ed lib rary a n d re la tiv e p e a ce in w h ic h to read and
w rite, a n d it is at lea st a s easy to im ag in e h im fin d in g th ese in S tratfo rd , w h ere
he o w n ed a g ran d h o u se , as in L o nd on . U n d erly in g an im a g e o f Sh ak esp eare
retirin g to Stratfo rd m a y w ell be an a ssu m p tio n o f h is lo n g -term ab an d o n
m ent o f h is w ife and fam ily fo r the d u ratio n o f a n e x citin g ca reer in the
m etro p o lis, a n d m o st p o te n tly o f him g iv in g u p th is life w h en h e co m p leted
his la s t so le-au th o red p la y T h e Tem pest in 1611. P ro sp ero 's fa rew ell to the
a u d ien ce in th e ep ilo g u e to th e p lay is p leasin g ly read a s S h a k e sp e a re 's fa re
w ell to the stag e b u t, o f co u rse, it can b e n o su ch th in g , for h e w e n t o n to
co -w rite th ree m o re p la y s w ith Jo h n F letcher: A ll is True, C ard en io a n d T h e Two
N o ble K in sm en . We w ill sh o rtly co m e b a c k to th is m a tter o f co lla b o ra tio n , and
h o w it b ears u p o n in terp retatio n o f th e w o rks.

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F u rth e r A n a ly sis: S h a k e sp e a re a n R o m a n ce

P lay s th at Sh ak esp eare w ro te in th e last y ears o f h is career are so m e

tim es called the R om ances. F in d seco n d ary m a teria l th a t g iv es you the
cu rre n t scho larly o p in io n o n th e d a te s o f co m p o sitio n o f ea ch o f his
p lays - a g o o d C o m p lete W orks e d itio n sh o u ld h a v e th is - a n d m ak e a
list o f the p la y s fro m P ericles (1607) to th e en d o f S h a k esp e a re's career.
B esid e each p lay title g iv e a b rief acco u n t o f the p la y 's g en re, tak in g in to
acco u n t w h en it is set, th e n atu re o f th e p lo t, and esp ecia lly su ch things
a s w h eth er an y bad ch aracters d ie , w h eth er a n y g o o d ch a ra cters die,
an d w h eth er the o u tco m e is a h ap p y o n e for th e p ro tag o n ists. D o th ese
la te p lays fall in to cle a r g e n e ric categ o ries?

C a t h o lic S h a k e sp e a re

T h e b ig g est b io g rap h ical n ew s has b een th e claim recen tly ad v an ced b y sev
e ra l sch o lars th a t Sh ak esp eare w as secre tly a C ath o lic, a n d h en ce h e liv ed h is
life in p e rm a n en t ta cit o p p o sitio n to th e state-en fo rced P ro testan t orth o d o xy.
T h is id e a first a ch iev e d w id esp read cu rre n cy w h en H. A . J. H o n ig m a n n (1985)
a ttem p ted to exp lain th e so -called 'lo s t y ea rs' b etw ee n 1585, w h en the b a p
tism o f S h a k e sp e a re 's tw ins is reco rd ed in Stratfo rd -u p o n -A v on , a n d 1592,
w h en a llu sio n s to h is L o n d o n th eatre life b eg in . F o r th is m issin g period ,
H o n ig m an n p la ce d S h ak esp e are in th e fam ily h o m e o f a w ealth y C ath o lic
lan d o w n er A lex a n d er H o g h to n in L an cash ire, w h o se w ill referred to a
W illiam S h ak esh afte lo d g in g w ith h im . A t th e en d o f th e tw en tieth centu ry,
R ich ard W ilso n (1997; 200 4 a ; 2004b) d isco v ered fu rth er co n n ectio n s betw een
Sh a k esp e a re and recu san t activ ity . T h e v alid ity o f these co n n ectio n s rem ain s
a m a tter o f d isp u te, a n d R ich ard B earm an 's research has u n d erm in ed the
ev id en tial v a lu e o f th e re b e in g a 'S h a k e sh a fte ' in H o g h to n 's w ill by sh o w in g
th at it w as a co m m o n n a m e in L an cash ire (B earm a n 2002).
H ow ever, w h a t w o u ld it m atter if Sh ak esp eare w ere secretly C ath olic?
H ow w o u ld this affect th e in terp retation o f h is p la y s? F o r on e th in g, it
w o u ld p u t an en d to the lo n g -ch erish ed id e a th at Sh a k esp e a re sa w both
sid e s o f ev ery arg u m en t, and in d eed w a s ca p a b le o f a rticu la tin g b o th sides,
w ith ou t e v e r fin ally co m in g d o w n in fav ou r o f either. T h is a lleg ed n eu trality
o f Sh a k esp e a re is so m etim es k n o w n as his 'n e g a tiv e c a p a b ility ', a p h rase
co in ed b y the p o et Jo h n K eats, w h o saw Sh a k esp e a re as h a v in g an unusual
ca p a city to su sp en d ju d g em en t, 'o f b e in g in u n certain ties, M y steries, d oubts,
w ith o u t an y irritab le reach in g a fte r fact and re a so n ' (W h ite 1987: 34). B u t the

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id e a o f a Sh ak esp eare w h o secre tly favou red o n e sid e in th e g rea test in tel
lectu al a rg u m e n t o f h is d ay n o t o n ly forces u s to reco n sid er h is rep resen ta
tio n s o f relig iou s co n tro v ersies - sa y , in 1 H en ry V I w h ere C ard in al B eau fort
d are n o t a p p e a r at co u rt in h is ro b es u n til H en ry V is lo n g b u ried
(W en tersd o rf 2006) and in K in g John w here th e k in g o v ertly d en ies th e p o w er
o f R om e and co m es to regret it - b u t also to reco n sid er all th o se m om en ts
w h ere h e see m s to refu se fin al co n clu sio n s to an y d eb ate. C o u ld it b e th a t we
a re ju st to o in se n sitiv e to th e su b tle h in ts th a t te ll u s w h ich sid e h e w as on?
In a n y ev en t, th e v ery fa ct th a t h e had assid u o u sly b u ried h is o w n feelings
(else h e w o u ld n o t h a v e s o lo n g passed a s the p oet o f 'n eg a tiv e ca p a b ility ')
w ould requ ire a re-exam in atio n o f e v e ry lo n g stan d in g critical assu m p tio n
o f n eu trality.
L e t u s tak e a co n crete ex am p le. T h e g h o st in H am let cla im s to co m e from
P urgatory:

G H O ST I am th y fa th er's sp irit,
D oo m ed for a ce rtain term to w a lk th e n igh t,
A nd for th e d a y confined to fast in fires
Till th e fo u l crim es d o n e in m y d a y s o f n atu re
A re b u rn t and pu rged aw ay.
(1. 5. 9 - 1 3 , p. 1684)

O n ly C ath o lics b elie v ed in P u rg ato ry and rejectin g th e id ea o f a fixed-

d u ra tio n for ce rtain sin s - a 'tim e ' to be p aid fo r ea ch 'c rim e ' - w a s a k ey
ten et o f th e n ew P rotestant faith and p h ilo so p h y in itiated b y M a rtin L u th er
(see E n g e l, th is v o lu m e, C h a p te r 2). T h re e scen es b efo re th is on e, th e au d ien ce
w as m ad e aw are th at H am let h im se lf w a s ed u ca ted at th e ep icen tre o f
L u th er's in flu en ce ('g o in g b a ck to sch o o l in W itten b erg ', 1. 2. 113), s o the
p lay o ffers so m eth in g to ad h eren ts o f b o th th e o ld a n d the n ew religion s. If
w e im ag in e a Sh ak esp eare w h o w a s secre tly attach ed to the old faith,
H a m let's o w n ed u ca tio n is a n ew d ep a rtu re fro m th e tru th a n d th e father,
n o t th e so n , rep resen ts co rrect theology.

F u rth e r A n a ly sis: S h a k e sp e a re a n d R e lig io u s D iv isio n

Find o th e r m o m en ts in S h ak esp e are's p la y s w h ere th e d ifference

b etw een P ro testan t and C a th o lic d o ctrin e seem s im p ortan t. (If you are
s tu ck fin d in g e x a m p les, sea rch an electro n ic tex t o f the p la y s for the
w ord 'p u rita n '; th is w ill n o t find ev ery re lev a n t m o m en t b u t it should
tu rn up at least fo u r scen es in w h ich extrem e P ro testan tism is m e n
tioned .) R ead in g these m o m en ts in the lig h t o f th e ch a ra cte rs' p reced in g

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d ia lo g u e a n d beh aviou r, c a n y o u te ll if the au d ien ce is en co u ra g ed to

see eith e r sid e o f th is C h ristia n sch ism as b e in g in th e right?

H am let is g en erally u nd ersto o d to b e both fo rw ard a n d b ack w ard lookin g,

w ith o ld H a m let p e rso n ify in g m ed ieval p rin cip le s m a d e to cla n k n o isily
o n to th e stag e in fu ll arm o u r and p resu m ab ly ca rry in g a b ro ad sw ord . A t the
s a m e tim e, the y o u n g er g en era tio n lo o k s fo rw ard to the R en a issa n ce presen t,
in w h ic h m artial sk ill is tran sm u ted in to cerem o n ial co m b a t w ith finely
w ro u g h t w eap o n s: T r e n c h rap iers a n d p o n iard s [ . . . ] g ird le, h a n g er [ . . . ] m ost
d e lica te ca rria g es' (5. 2. 1 0 9 -1 2 ). T h e 1990 film o f th e p la y m a k e s ex p licit this
co n tra st o f o ld a n d n ew w a y s w h en H a m let (M el G ib so n ) ch o o ses a s h is
w ea p o n for th e fin al co n test n o t a d e lica te rap ier b u t a m ed iev a l broad sw ord ,
a n d self-m o ck in g ly co lla p se s u n d e r its w eigh t (Z effirelli 1990). T h e o ld and
the n ew , in th eo lo g y as w ell as p h ilo so p h y an d w id er cu ltu ral p ra ctice, are
th u s p u t in to d ram atic co n flict, so th e p lay m ig h t b e th o u gh t q u in tessen tia lly
the w o rk o f a d ram atist scep tical o f p ast a n d p resen t id eas. B u t if Sh ak esp eare
w a s a se cre t follo w er o f the old relig io n w e h a v e to su p p o se th a t h e w a s
d ee p ly o p p o sed to th e E lizab eth an p resen t, w ith its en fo rced a tten d a n ce at
P ro testan t m ass.
A cco rd in g to R ichard W ilson, this lo n g -en g rain ed n ecessity to co n cea l his
b e lie fs is itse lf the reason th at S h a k e sp e a re 's p e rso n a l view's see m s o m a rk
ed ly ab sen t from th e w o rks. E x tin g u ish in g o n e's p erso n a lity in o rd er to
m o u th v ie w s th a t o n e did n o t b elie v e w as a h a b it th at se cre t C a th o lics learn t
in o rd er to su rv iv e . W h en Sh a k esp e a re ca m e to w rite p la y s th is h a b it m a n i
fested itse lf a s a h ig h ly d ev elo p ed cap acity to in h ab it th e p oin ts o f view o f
o th e rs and a rticu late th em a s th o u g h from w ith in . T h e v en trilo q u ism o f
d ra m a w as esp ecially su ite d to S h a k e sp e a re 's relig iou s o u tlo o k , if (and the
m a tter is far from settled ) h e w as in d eed a C ath olic.

S h a k e sp e a re as C o lla b o ra to r

T h e trad itio n al v ie w o f S h ak esp e are's d ra m a tic ca reer h a s b e e n th at, u nlike

m a n y o f h is co n tem p o raries, h e g en erally w o rk ed o n h is o w n . A cco rd in g to
G . E. B en tley (1971: 1 9 7 -2 3 4 ), m o st d ram a w as co m p o sed b y p a irs o r team s
o f w riters co llab o ratin g , b u t w e tend to think o f Sh a k esp e a re a s a loner. W ork
o n e v id en ce for h is o ccasio n al co lla b o ra tio n w a s co n sid era b ly su ppressed
for m o st o f th e tw en tieth ce n tu ry b y a th u n d ero u s B ritish A ca d cm y lectu rc
b y E. K. C h am b ers (1 9 2 4 -2 5 ) th a t d en o u n ced th e early , rela tiv ely cru d e
sta tistically -b ased in v estig atio n s o f F. G . F le a y and J. M . R ob ertso n . D esp ite
th is, th e e v id en ce g rad u ally accu m u lated an d B rian V ick ers's 2 0 0 2 b o o k on
the su b je ct co u n ted am o n g st S h a k e sp e a re 's co lla b o ra tiv e w o rk s H en ry VI,

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T itu s A n d ron icu s, T im on o f A then s, P ericles, A ll is True (H en ry V III) and T h e Tivo

N o ble Kinsm en.
V ick ers d o es n o t d w ell u p o n th e d a tin g o f th e se p lays, w h ich in th e ch ron
o lo g y o f the 19 8 6 O xfo rd C o m p lete W orks is 1592 fo r 1 H en ry V I a n d Titus
A n d ron icu s, 1605 fo r T im on o f A th en s, 1607 for P ericles, 1613 for A ll is True, and
1 6 1 3 -1 4 fo r T h e Two N oble K in sm en (W ells e t al. 1987: 1 1 3 -3 4 ). B etw een 1592
a n d 1605, Sh ak esp eare see m s n o t to h ave co llab o rated a n d y e t h e w rote
tw en ty -o n e p lays, o v e r h a lf th e can o n . Sh ak esp eare slow ed d o w n tow ard s
w h at w e n o w k n o w - ev en if h e d id n o t - w as to b e the e n d o f h is career. T h e
first ten p lays in th e O xfo rd ch ron o log y, from T w o G en tlem en o f Verona to
R ichard II, w ere w ritten b etw ee n 1590 an d 1595, a b o u t tw o a year. T h e last ten
p la y s, K in g L ear to T h e Two N oble K in sm en , w ere w ritten b etw ee n 1605 and
1614, ab o u t on e a year. (In th o se co u n ts I ex clu d e th e lo st p la y s L ove's Labour's
W on and C a rd en io a n d ig n o re th e p o etic o u tp u t.) So , Sh ak esp eare b e g a n and
en d e d h is ca reer a s a co llab o rato r, w o rk in g q u ick ly at the b eg in n in g and
slo w ly at th e end.
A n o b v io u s e x p lan atio n for this b e h a v io u r offers itself. A t th e start o f his
career, th e n o v ic e w as keen b u t n eed ed to w o rk w ith o th ers, like an ap p ren tice,
a cq u irin g sk ills a n d p e rh ap s b ein g so m ew h a t ex p lo ited . A lth o u g h T h om as
N a sh e w as three y ears y o u n g er th a n Sh a k esp e a re, h e h a d estab lish ed h im self
a s a p u blish ed w rite r in th e late 1580s and w as alread y p a rt o f a w ell-d efin ed
circle o f O xfo rd and C am b rid g e g rad u ates in L o n d on (in clu d in g C h risto p h er
M a rlo w e and R o b ert G reen e) w h en h e w orked w ith Sh ak esp eare o n 1 H en ry
V I in 1592 (Sm ith , S tep h e n & Lee 1 9 3 7 -3 8 :1 0 1 -9 ). L ik ew ise, G eo rg e P ee le w as
co n n ected w ith this circle o f g rad u ates w h e n h e w o rk ed w ith S h a k esp e a re on
Titus A n dron icu s th e sam e y e a r an d h e w as so m ew h ere b etw ee n fiv e and eig h t
y e a rs S h a k e sp e a re 's sen io r (B o w ers 1987a: 2 4 2 -5 3 ). W h en Sh a k esp e a re co l
laborated ag ain it w as in 1 6 0 4 -6 o n T im on o f A th en s w ith T h o m as M id d leton
(Sh ak esp eare & M id d leto n 2004: 5 - 6 ), w h o w a s fifteen o r sixteen y e a rs his
ju n io r (B o w ers 1987b: 1 9 6 -2 2 2 ), a n d in 16 0 7 on P ericles w ith G eo rg e W ilkins.
W ilk in s's a g e is u nk n o w n and h is ce rtain d ram atic o u tp u t to th at d ate w as
a sh a re in T h e T ravails o f the T hree E n glish B rothers a n d so le a u th o rsh ip o f
The M iseries o f In fo reed M ariage. H is b o d y o f w o rk w a s m u ch less th an
S h a k e sp e a re 's th irty -o n e p la y s w ritten o v er th e p reced in g fifte en y ears o r so.
We m ay su p p o se th at in th is seco n d p h ase o f co lla b o ra tio n Sh ak esp eare no
lo n g er h ad to p ro v e h im self, co u ld afford to slo w d o w n (as h e u n d o u b ted ly
d id to w ard s th e en d ), and w o rk ed w ith o th e rs a s a m a ster im p a rtin g h is skills
a n d b en efitin g from th e ju n io r p a rtn e r's k eenness.
Sh ak esp eare en d e d h is w o rk in g life so m ew h a t a s h e b eg an it, b u t a s the
m aster rath er th an th e ap p ren tice. A cco rd in g to G a ry T aylor (2004b) the first
few y e a rs o f the 1600s w ere hard o n Sh ak esp eare, a n d , m id -ca reer and (early)
m id d le-ag ed , h e retu rned to co llab o ratio n to re v iv e h is flag gin g o u tp u t b y

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b rea k in g a ru n o f m e d io crity th a t b e g a n after H am let. W h eth er h e ach ieved

th is w ith T im on o f A then s w e ca n n o t d irectly tell b eca u se n o th in g is k n o w n o f
its stag e h isto ry b efo re th e R esto ratio n (S h ak e sp ea re & M id d leto n 2 0 0 4 : 89),
a lth o u g h w e m ight tak e this fact itse lf a s in d irect ev id en ce th at it w a s n o t a
hit. But in d isp u tab ly h is n ex t k n o w n co llab o ratio n , P ericles, w ritten probably
in the w in ter o f 1 6 0 7 -8 , w as a n im m ed iate, h u g e, a n d en d u rin g su ccess
(Sh ak esp eare 200 4 : 2 - 4 , 5 4 -^ 2 ).
W h a t d ifferen ce d oes it m a k e to o u r in terp reta tio n o f a p la y if w e d ecid e
th at Sh ak esp eare co llab o rated o n it? A re a d e r w h o fin d s h e rse lf d isap p o in ted
th at at the end o f 1 H en ri/ V I Jo a n o f A rc tu rn s o u t to b e p recisely th e w itch
a n d h arlo t th at the E n glish said sh e w as m a y b e co m fo rted b y the kn o w led ge
th at Sh a k esp e a re did n o t w rite th is p a rt o f the p la y (T aylor 1995). T h e
S h a k esp e arean p a rts o f th e p lay see m to b e th o se esp ecia lly co n cern ed to
sh o w th a t m e n h u rl a ccu satio n s o f im p ro p riety at w o m en w h o th reaten th eir
m a scu lin e m ilitary d o m in an ce, and in p a rticu lar th at b ein g a ccu sed o f w itch
cra ft w a s a risk tak en b y w o m en w h o refu sed to co n fo rm to p revailin g rules
o f fem ale su b m issiv en ess. S o m eo n e w ith a le ss su b tle to u ch see m s to h ave
finished o ff the p lay , and b y co n firm in g all the E n g lish accu satio n s th is w riter
d ra in s from the ch a ra cte r o f Jo a n so m e o f th e ra d ica l p o w er sh e h a s in the
m id d le scen es o f it.
In a n o th e r o f th e early p lays, th e p ro b lem o ccu rs rig h t a t th e b eg in n in g . It
h as lo n g b een a m atter o f co n cern to critics th at T itu s's k illin g o f h is son
M u tiu s in a ro w o v e r L av in ia is o u t o f ch aracter and seem s too easily forgot
ten a b o u t in a p la y in ten sely co n cern ed w ith fam ily co h esio n . O n e could
a rg u e th a t this is artistically in ten tio n al, sin ce T itu s em b od ies th e strictest
R o m an valu es a n d p la ce s h o n o u r a b o v e all else. R e ce n t w ork o n th e a u th o r
sh ip o f the p lay, how ever, ex p la in s th e k illin g o f M u tiu s a s an in cid en t added
to the p lay b y its co -au th o r G eo rg e P eele w ith ou t S h a k esp e a re's k now led ge
o r ag reem en t (Boyd 2004). W h at sh o u ld w e d o a b o u t su ch a case? T h ere is
an arg u m en t for u nd o in g su ch in terv en tio n s in a tex t if w e th in k th at the m ain
a u th o r w o u ld n o t h a v e ap p ro v ed o f th em , b u t w h a t if (a s see m s to b e the case
h ere) P eele w as en tru sted w ith w ritin g ce rtain scen es a n d sim p ly failed to
k eep to th e a g reed p lot?

F u rth e r A n a ly sis: P ie c in g T o g eth er a S h a k e sp e a re a n Text?

Read the first twro scen es o f M easu re f o r M easu re, m ak in g a lis t o f the
p ro b lem s w ith th e d ra m a tic m aterial, in p a rticu la r rep etitio n s and co n
fu sio n s in th e ev en ts. (E d ito rs o ften try to fix th ese th in g s, s o y o u m ay
w a n t to read th e tex t a s it ap p eared in th e first, v irtu a lly uned ited ,
ed ition : the F olio o f 1623. You w ill find im ages and electro n ic te x ts o f

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th is o n lin e in a n u m b er o f p laces, in clu d in g th e In tern et Sh ak esp eare

E d itio n s.) T h e n read th e acco u n t o f T h o m as M id d le to n 's in terferen ce
in th e p lay after S h ak esp e are's d ea th (T aylor 1993); d o es th is a cco u n t
e x p la in all the pro blem s y o u liste d ? H o w w ou ld y o u r rea d in g o f the
play d iffer if, as h a s recen tly b een cla im e d , th e o rig in al settin g w ere not
V ienn a in A u stria b u t F errara in Italy (T aylor 2004a)?

S h a k e sp e a re as A u th o r?

F or so m e sch o lars, au th o rial co lla b o ra tio n is ju st o n e exp ression o f th e g en er

a lly co llab o rativ e n atu re o f d ram a in w h ich in d iv id u a ls n ecessa rily su b m erg e
th eir p erso n alities w ith in the g ro u p . O th ers b elie v e th at in th e act o f co llab o ra
tiv e w ritin g the ind ivid u al w rite rs' v o ices m ight n o t b e en tirely b len d ed . A fter
a ll, if th e v o ices w ere u tterly m erged w e w o u ld b e u n ab le to d e te c t th a t the
en d in g o f 1 H en ry V I o r th e b eg in n in g o f Titus A n d ron icu s w ere th e w o rk o f
w riters o th e r th an Sh ak esp eare. T o ta k e a n ex am p le from n ea r th e e n d o f
S h a k e sp e a re 's career, the su b je ct m a tte r o f A ll is True (a co lla b o ra tio n betw een
Sh a k esp e a re and Jo h n F letch er) is the refo rm in g P ro testan t k in g H en ry VIII
w h o h im self had p ersecu ted P ro testan t h eretics b e fo re h is co n v ersio n to the
n ew faith . A s w e h a v e se e n , if S h ak esp e are w as a se cre t C a th o lic th en this
w ould b e a to p ic a b o u t w h ich he had d ecid ed b u t c o v e rt o p in io n s. Joh n
Fletcher, o n th e o th er h an d , w as th e g ra n d so n o f a m a n w h o a ssisted Jo h n
F o x e o n th e 1583 ed itio n o f the stan d ard a cco u n t o f P ro testan t m a rty rs called
A ctes a n d M on u m en ts (M erriam 2005: 39).
F o x e 's A ctes a n d M on u m en ts is itself a so u rce for A ll is True - also k n o w n as
H en ry V III - a s c a n be seen in th e se ex tracts, in w h ich th e sh ared w o rd s and
ph rases a re h ig h lig h ted :

O h Lord, w hat m a n n er a m an he you ? W h at sim p licity is in y o u ? I h a d thou ght

th at y ou w o u ld rath er have su ed to u s to h a v e taken th e p ain s to h av e h ea rd you
a n d y o u r accu sers to g eth er for y o u r trial, w ithou t an y su ch in du ran ce. (Foxe
1597: 8B 1V)

(K IN G H EN RY ]
W hat m a n n er o f m an are y ou ? M y lord, I looked
You w ou ld h a v e g iv en m e y o u r p e titio n that
I sh o u ld have ta'en so m e pain s to b rin g to g eth er
Y o u rself an d y o u r accu sers, a n d to h a v e h ea rd you
W ithout in d u ran ce further.
( 5 .1 .1 1 8 - 2 2 , p. 3 1 8 0 -1 )

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T h is o n e p ag e o f A ctes an d M on u m en ts is u sed fo r a w h o le seq u e n ce o f b o rro w

in g s in th e p lay , so m e in sc e n e s attribu ted to Sh ak esp eare a n d so m e in scen es
a ttrib u ted to Fletcher. A s T h o m as M erriam (2005: 3 5 -4 0 ) poin ted o u t, this
h a s b een g iv en a s an ex a m p le o f th e d ram atists w o rk in g so clo sely together,
d ra w in g o n the sam e m aterials s o ex ten siv ely , th at a n y th o u g h t o f u n tan glin g
th eir lab ou rs is futile. B u t w h a t if w e d o n o t a ssu m e a d iv isio n o f la b o u r b y
scen es a n d in stead try to w o rk to a finer reticu latio n , in v e stig a tin g co lla b o r
a tio n w ith in scen es?
M erriam u sed C h a d w y ck -H ea ley 's L iterature O n lin e (LIO N ) d atabase to
test th e rarity o f ce rtain co m b in atio n s o f w o rd s in the T h o m as C ra n m er ep i
so d e s in 5 .1 th at u se F o x e a s a so u rce. T h e p hrases 'T h e re a re th a t' and 'F o r so
I k n o w ' ap p e ar in th e p a rts o f this p la y n o rm a lly attrib u ted to Sh ak esp eare,
b u t n o w h e re e lse in Sh ak esp eare, b u t th e y ap p e a r o fte n in th e w o rk s o f
Fletcher. By a se rie s o f su ch te sts, M erriam redrew th e b o u n d a ries b etw een
the Sh a k esp e a re a n d F letch e r p arts o f th e p lay , a n d sh o w ed th at ' [ . . . ] the
C ra n m er ep iso d es in A ct 5 o f H enri/ V III w ere w ritten b y F letch e r a n d not
b y S h a k esp e a re' and th at Sh a k esp e a re d id n o t u se F o x e 's b o o k (2005: 39).
T h is rem ov es the d ifficu lty o f im ag in in g a C ath o lic Sh ak esp eare using
a s h is so u rce a v itriolic a n ti-C ath o lic, a n ti-P ap a l w ork. W e m a y h a v e b een
see in g a m b iv a le n ce o r n eu trality in S h ak esp e a re's w o rk o n ly b eca u se w e
m isto o k as h is w ritin g p arts o f th e p la y s th at w ere by o th e r p eop le, a n d th at
in tru th h e w a s m ore partial, m o re o p in io n ated , th a n w e h a v e h ith erto
im agined.

T extual T ra n sm issio n

F or a lo n g tim e a h ierarch y ex iste d am o n g st S h a k e sp e a re 's texts, w ith the

lo n g er v ersio n s found in th e p o sth u m o u s F irst F o lio u su ally co n sid ered to be
s u p erio r to th e sh o rte r q u arto v ersio n s p u blished in h is lifetim e (see g lossary).
A s e t o f p articu larly sh o rt q u arto v ersio n s w ere for m o st o f th e tw entieth
ce n tu ry lab elled 'b a d ' q u a rto s b ec a u se th e y seem ed textu ally co rru p t and
in e x p ertly cu t d o w n v ersio n s o f th e fam iliar texts. T h e m o st n o to rio u s o f th ese
is th e 'b a d ' q u a rto o f H am let th at in clu d es a sp e ech b eg in n in g , fam iliarly
en o u g h , w ith 'T o b e , o r n o t to b e ' b u t co n tin u in g 'A y, th e re's the p o in t, / To
d ie , to sleep - Is th at all? Ay a ll' (S h ak e sp eare 1603: D 4 '). T h e re a re 'b a d '
q u a rto s o f T h e M erry W ives o f W indsor, 2 a n d 3 H en ry V I, R om eo a n d Ju liet and
H en ry V , a n d at tim e s th e e a rly p rin tin g s o f K in g Lear, R ichard II a n d R ichard III
h a v e fallen u nd er su sp icio n too. A lth o u g h th e m ean s b y w h ich th e se texts
w ere co m p ile d w as n e v e r fu lly d isco v ered , th e g en era l a ssu m p tio n w a s th at
m in o r acto rs w h o had p erfo rm ed in th em h ad g o t to g eth er a n d prod uced
su rrep titio u s texts b y recalling th e ir lines a n d th e lin es o f th e o th er actors,
sellin g th e resu ltan t tex t to a p u b lish er for an easy and illicit profit.

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A lth o u g h o ccasio n ally critics exp ressed co n cern th at th e 'b a d ' q u a rto s w ere
n o t s o bad a fte r all (M cM illin 1972), from th e 1980s m o re and m o re critics
arg u ed th a t w e sim p ly can n o t tell w h ere th ese sh o rt v ersio n s o f the plays
co m e from , and th at th e y m ig h t sim p ly b e altern a tiv e v ersio n s w ith d ram atic
m e rits o f th e ir o w n (U rk ow itz 1988; W erstin e 1990; W erstine 1999; Ira c e 1994;
M agu ire 1996). M o st recently, L u k as E rn e (20 0 2 ; 20 0 3 ) h a s p resen ted an
en tire ly new th esis th at m ig h t a cco u n t for the 'b a d ' q u a rto s. C o n tra ry to the
o rth o d o x y th a t b eg an to em erg e in th e 1950s a n d a ch iev ed d o m in an t ex p res
sio n in th e 1986 O xfo rd C o m p lete W orks o f Sh ak esp eare, p erh ap s th e plays
w ere n o t, a fte r a ll, essen tially scrip ts for th e th eatre. W hat if Sh ak esp eare
co n scio u sly w rote fo r re ad ers o f h is p la y s ra th er th an (or p erh ap s as w ell as)
for p erform ers?

F u rth e r A n a ly sis: W h ic h H a m le t1
.

Find th e 'to be o r n o t to b e ' so lilo q u y in H am let in y o u r ed ition and

co m p are it w ith v ersio n s y o u c a n find fro m the q u a rto s a n d / o r Folio.
(You w ill find facsim iles o f 'b a d ' q u a rto s a t th e b a ck o f re cen t A rden
Sh a k esp e a re ed itio n s, and also at v a rio u s p la ce s o n lin e in clu d in g the
In tern et Sh a k esp e a re E d itio n s.) D o es th e b a d ' q u arto strik e you as
m erely a g arb lin g o f th e g o o d tex t, o r c a n y o u s e e m e rits a s w ell as
co rru p tio n s in its d ifferences from th e tex t w e u su ally read?

M an o f th e T h e a tre ?

T h e id e a o f Sh ak esp eare a s e ssen tially a m an o f th e th eatre w ritin g scripts

for a cto rs - the idea th at E rn e w ou ld o v ertu rn - is w o rth co n sid erin g for a
m o m en t b e fo re w e lo se sig h t o f it. E n g lish stu d ie s a s a u n iv ersity su b ject
is largely a tw en tieth -cen tu ry in v en tio n , alth o u g h u n iv ersities h ave been
aro u n d for h u n d red s o f years. T h e n ew ly em erg in g d iscip lin e g reatly v alu ed
p ractical criticism an d clo se read in g , atten d in g to 'th e w o rd s o n th e p ag e',
a n d see in g Sh ak esp eare p rim arily a s a lite ra ry w rite r (see H isco ck and L o n g
sta ffe, this v o lu m e). From ab o u t th e 1950s, this v ie w o f Sh ak esp eare w as
in creasin gly u n d erm in ed , esp ecially in th e n ew u n iv ersity d ep a rtm en ts in
B risto l a n d B irm in g h am th a t stu d ied d ram a a s a su b je ct in its o w n rig h t, and
th is ap p ro ach rap id ly sp re ad to o th e r cen tres. U n d er th e in flu en ce o f
A lla rd y ce N ico ll a n d Jo h n R u ssell B ro w n esp ecia lly , the U n iv ersity o f
B irm in g h a m 's Sh ak esp eare In stitu te in Stratfo rd -u p o n -A v on treated w hat
h ap p ened o n th e th eatre sta g e as ev ery b it a s im p o rtan t a s w h at a p p e a rs in the
text. R esearch in th eatre h isto ry b o lstered the id ea th at a s a w o rk in g actor,

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Sh a k esp e a re w o u ld have co n sid ered th e m o u n tin g o f a su cce ssfu l p e rfo rm

a n ce a s the w h o le p o in t o f his w ritin g (an d in d eed th e w ay to m ak e m oney)
a n d th at sales o f b o o k s w o u ld be a t b e s t a sid e lin e a n d a t w o rst a d istractio n
from , e v e n a n in ju ry to, h is m ain b u sin ess. A fte r a ll, th ree th o u san d peop le
co u ld p ay to see o n e 's p lay o n an y g iv en aftern oo n in a th eatre, w h ile total
sa les o f a b o o k w ere lim ited b y sta tu te to th e fifteen h u n d red co p ies th a t no
p rin t-ru n co u ld exceed . In u tte r re v ersal o f to d a y 's eco n o m ics, th e a tre w a s the
m ass m ed iu m a n d b o o k -rea d in g th e m in o rity activity.
T h is n ew m an -o f-th e-th eatre ro le for S h ak esp e a re in flu en ced a ttitu d e s and
p ra ctices in v a rio u s w a y s. W ithin ed u catio n , an a ctiv e a n d p a rticip a to ry ('on
y o u r feet') m o d e o f in stru ctio n co u ld n o w rep lace sittin g at d esk s and reciting
lin es o f d en se p o etry (see H am p to n -R eev es, this v o lu m e, C h a p te r 6). In the
th eatrical pro fessio n , la c k o f an E n g lish d eg ree n eed n o lo n g e r b e fe lt a h a n d i
ca p , fo r w as n o t S h ak esp e are h im se lf a w o rkin g a cto r w ith n o m o re th a n a
g ra m m a r sch o o l ed u catio n su p p lem en ted b y ad u lt a u to -d id a cticism ? W ithin
a ca d e m ic Sh a k esp e a re stu d ies, the re-cen trin g o f a tten tio n u p o n the theatre
m eant th e strip p in g aw ay o f tex tu al elem en ts th at b elo n g ed to the stud y
n o t th e stag e. A n o ften -q u oted ex a m p le o f ju st h o w fa r from the s ta g e editors
had tak en th e ir te x ts is the o p en in g w o rd s o f Jo h n D o v e r W ilso n 's N ew
Sh a k esp e a re T itu s A n d ron icu s:

[1.1] A n open p la ce in R om e, before th e C apitol, b esid e th e en tran ce lo w hich there

stan d s th e m on u m en t o f th e A n dron ici. T hrough a w in d ow op en in g on to the
balcon y o f an u pper ch a m b er in th e C apitol m a y b e seen th e S en a te in session .
(Sh ak esp eare 1948)

N o t a w ord o f this a p p e a rs in th e tw o early prin tin gs o f th e p lay, th e 1594

q u a rto a n d the 1623 F olio ed itio n s th a t are o u r o n ly a u th o ritie s for th e tex t; the
a b o v e is all the ed ito r's in ven tion. A s S tan le y W ells (1984: 84) co m m en ted ' . . .
it reads m o re like a d irectio n for a film than for a p la y o n th e E lizabeth an
s ta g e ' (see K in g , th is v o lu m e, C h ap ter 11).

Ed itin g S h akesp ea re

W ells, fresh from g rad u ate stu d y a t the Sh a k esp e a re In stitu te, w orked o n the
N ew P en g u in Sh ak esp eare w ith T. J. B. S p e n ce r in th e 1960s and d ev elo p ed
n ew id eas ab o u t stag e-cen tred e d itin g th at receiv ed th e ir fu llest ex p ressio n in
the 1 9 8 6 O xfo rd C o m p lete W orks. W h ereas th e ir p red ecesso rs seem ed to
w a n t to h elp th e re a d e r im agin e th e fictional lo ca tio n in w h ich th e actio n to o k
p la ce , th e n ew stag e-cen tred ed ito rs w an ted th eir read ers to im a g in e the
a ctio n o ccu rrin g o n the k in d o f sta g e th at S h ak esp e a re w o u ld h a v e assu m ed
h e had at h is d isp osal. K n o w in g th a t for m o st o f S h a k esp e a re's career

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p erfo rm an ces w ere u n in terru p ted by in terv als, th ese ed ito rs m ark ed act-
b rea k s a s u n o b tru siv ely a s p o ssib le, rejectin g the 's ta rt a new p a g e ' la y o u t th at
h a d lo n g g o v e rn ed ed itio n s o f Sh ak esp eare. W h en it b eg an to be a p p a ren t in
the 1970s th at Sh ak esp eare ten d ed to retu rn to th e p lays h e had w ritte n and
re v ise them , the n ew stag e-cen tred ed ito rs h ad to d e c id e ju s t w h a t it w a s they
w ere try in g to rep resen t: th e p lay a s o rig in ally co n ceiv ed , o r the p la y as
Sh a k esp e a re later preferred it, p erh ap s w ith ch a n g es m a d e in the lig h t o f
reh earsals and early p erform ances.
E ver sin ce ed ito rial p ractices b eg an to be prop erly th eo rized in th e late-
n in eteen th cen tu ry, it h ad b een assu m ed that th e id e a l to w h ich o n e w as
e d itin g - the d o cu m en t, now lo st, th at o n e w o u ld lik e to recreate - w ou ld b e the
tex t a s it stood in the first co m p lete au th o rial version . B u t w ith Sh ak esp eare
n o w co n ceiv ed as a w o rk in g a n d p ractical m a n o f th e th eatre, th is ideal
n eed ed to b e ad ju sted . R ad ically , th e O xfo rd C o m p lete W orks a ttem p ted to
rep resen t th e play a s it w as first perform ed. If there w ere tw o e a rly printings,
s a y a q u arto th at seem ed to b e b a se d o n au th o ria l p a p e rs and a fo lio tex t that
seem ed to be b a se d o n a d o cu m en t u sed in th e th eatre, th e la tte r m igh t w ell be
preferred e v e n if it om itted p a ssag es in th e q u arto . T h u s, H a m le t's so lilo q u y
b eg in n in g 'H o w all o cca sio n s d o in fo rm ag ain st m e ' (u su a lly ap p earin g at
th e e n d o f iv. 4 ), fro m th e seco n d q u arto b u t a b se n t in th e fo lio , is d em o ted to
a n a p p e n d ix in th e O xfo rd C o m p lete W orks, o n th e g ro u n d s th a t (g o o d as
it is) it see m s n o t to h a v e m a d e it in to th e first p erfo rm an ces.
T h e se a re th e p ractical ed ito rial im p licatio n s o f in sistin g on a stage-cen tred
stu d y o f S h ak esp e are (see H am p to n -R eev es' C h a p te r 6 and K in g 's C h a p ter
11, th is v o lu m e). H ow ever, L u k a s E rn e's th eory th at S h a k esp e a re, a t least
from a b o u t 1 6 0 0 w h en h e w rote H am let, h ad re ad ers a s m u ch a s p la y g o ers in
m in d , ch allen g es the idea th at te x ts sh o u ld attem p t to record early o r first
p erfo rm an ces. In the five y ears sin c e E rn e an n o u n ced h is th e o ry th ere has
b e e n n o serio u s attem p t to refu te it and w e a re cu rren tly in a p erio d o f
u n co m fo rtab le vacan cy: flaw s in th e theatre-cen tred o rth o d o x y h a v e been
rev ealed , b u t n o new o v erarch in g p arad igm h a s b een p ro p o sed . W h a t seem s
likely to o ccu r n e x t is at least a p artial re h ab ilitatio n o f lite ra ry -critica l sen s
ib ilities w ith in S h ak esp e are stu d ies. E d w ard P ech ter (2003) h a s arg u ed th at
m isgu id ed id eas ab o u t rad icalism a n d th eatrical a n ti-elitism u n d erv alu e the
literary in relation to theatre. In e ssen ce th is, lik e E rn e's, is an arg u m en t for
a revalu ation o f S h a k e sp e a re 's literarin ess. T h e arg u m en t th a t the sh o rt q u a r
tos a re th eatricalized (cu t fo r a fast p ace, lo sin g th e w o rd y stu ff n o t need ed
in th e th eatre) is , P ech ter claim s, b a se d o n an im p o v erish ed sen se o f w h at
the th e atre can d o . F ou rth a cts a re o ften re flectiv e, g iv in g s p a c e to fem a le
ch a ra cters, and cu ttin g there (as m an y sh o rten ed v ersio n s d o) d oes n o t ju st
in crease th e p ace, it ch a n g es th e g en d er b alan ce. T h u s, w e sh o u ld n o t be
afraid to lau d the p la y s' literary q u alities. P o litics also g ets in th e w ay: w e

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a re su p p o sed to reject th e literary a s co n se rv ativ e a n d elitist and the th eatrical

a s rad ical an d d em o tic, b u t in m an y cases to ch a m p io n a sh o rt (form erly,
'b a d ') q u a rto tex t b ecau se y o u th in k it m o re rad ical th an th e fo lio is to g iv e
up th e fo lio 's m o re in terestin g p o litical m ateria l su ch a s th e co m p lex ities o f
H en ry V 's h ero ism and D esd em o n a and E m ilia 's d iscu ssio n o f the g en d er
d o u b le stand ard .

T h e G lo b e

W h ile the stage-cen tred th in kin g h eld u n ch allen g ed sw a y , the th in g m ost

o b v io u sly m issin g from Sh ak esp eare stu d ies w as a clear id ea o f ju st w h at that
s ta g e lo o k ed like. T h e A m erican acto r Sam W a n a m a k er's p ro ject to b u ild a
replica G lo b e th eatre n ear to the site o f the o rig in a l in L o n d o n had o n e w atch
w ord: au th en ticity . T h e aim w as n o t to b u ild the k in d o f th eatre w e w ou ld like
to th in k th a t Sh a k esp e a re u sed , b u t rather, b y u sin g th e b est th eatre-h isto rical
sch o la rsh ip available, to bu ild th e clo sest p o ssib le rep resen tatio n o f the
th eatre h e actu a lly u sed , and th en to p u t o n p erfo rm a n ces th at ad h ere as
clo sely a s p o ssib le to th e o rig in al p ractices. T h e p ro ject w a s co m p reh en siv ely
m o ck ed b y m ain stream B ritish Sh a k esp e a rea n s in the 1980s, m a n y o f w h om
w ere M arx ists w ith d eep su sp icio n s th a t th e w h o le th in g w as an ex ercise
in w o rsh ip p in g th e Bard (w h a t G eo rg e B ernard Shaw , w ritin g m u ch ea rlier
in th e tw en tieth cen tu ry, w ittily d u b b ed 'b a rd o la try '). T h e p roject ca m e to
fruition in the late 1990s w ith the o p en in g o f the rep lica G lo b e in south
L on d on and it h a s b eco m e the m o st su cce ssfu l th eatre in the co u n try , ju d g ed
b y h o w o ften th e 'h o u se ' is 'fu ll'.1
F o r the first ten y ears, th e new G lo b e o p erated a p o licy o f ex p erim en tin g
w ith acad em ically in ten siv e, d ee p ly re search ed 'o rig in a l p ra ctice s' o f p er
form an ce. T h is m eant su ch th in g s a s u sing teen a g e b o y s to p la y th e fem ale
roles and w earin g clo th in g th at accu rately rep ro d u ced w h a t the sixteen th
and sev en te en th -cen tu ry acto rs w o re, w h ich w as essen tia lly w h a t ev ery b o d y
w o re in th o se days. T h a t is to sa y , th e re is o v erw h e lm in g e v id en ce th at p e r
form an ces in S h a k e sp e a re 's tim e w ere in 'm o d e rn d ress' in th e sen se th at the
a cto rs w o re m u ch w h a t th e a u d ien ce w o re, ra th er th an try in g to rep ro d u ce
the clo th in g o f the tim es in w h ich th e ir p la y s w ere set. W e h a v e to im a g in e the
a n cien t R om ans o f Ju liu s C aesa r w earin g h ats, ca p es, d o u b lets, and h o se, not
to g as and san d als, if w e w a n t to p ictu re th e first p erfo rm a n ces. L ik ew ise, w e
have to p ictu re Ju lie t o r C leo p atra p lay ed b y a b o y , a n d if 'h e r ' g o w n is
d esig n ed to show o ff a b u st th e bo y a cto r m u st be p u t in to a co rse t th at
pu lls th e m ale to rso s o a s to p ro d u ce o n e . O r rather, at th e G lo b e w e n o lo n g er
h a v e to im ag in e th ese th in g s sin ce the sk ills o f m a k in g fu n ctio n a l early
m o d e m clo th in g h a v e b e e n reco v ered and refin ed s o th at actors m a y ex p e ri
e n c e for th em selv es ju st h o w th e ir ch a ra cte rs' m o v em en ts and p o stu res w ere

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co n strain ed b y th e clo th in g w o rn in th e first p erfo rm a n ces. A n aristo cratically

d ig n ified u p rig h t p o stu re m ain tain ed e v e n d u rin g th e a c t o f sittin g d ow n
w a s, it tu rn s o u t, n o t s o m u ch a m atter o f tra in in g in d ep o rtm en t as the
co n strain in g o f th e b o d y w ed g ed into th e fig u re-h u gg in g sh a p e s p o p u la r for
b o th m en and w o m en o f h ig h statu s. T h is k in d o f realism h a s stru ck m an y
a s h isto rical fetish ism , b u t it h a s an in tellectu al rigour, and a so cio -h isto rical
p ra ctical u sefu ln ess, th a t w e c a n co n tra st w ith th e im p recisio n o f early m o d
e r n 'c o stu m cs', h eld to g eth er by v elcro and z ip p e rs, u sed by o th e r trou pes
su ch a s th e R oy al Sh ak esp eare C om p any.
T h e d esign team led b y Je n n y T iram an i th at b ro u g h t this d iscip lin e and
ex p e rtise to the G lo b e le ft the p roject in 20 0 6 , an d p ro d u ctio n s th e re n o w h a v e
m u ch less claim to a cad e m ic rig o u r than those m o u n ted in the first ten years.
T h e th eatre b u ild in g itself, h o w ev er, rem ain s an a ca d em ica lly rig o ro u s replica
o f th e o rig in al, a n d if w e th in k th a t th e atre b u ild in g s h a v e a n im p o rtan t effect
o n th e p erfo rm an ces th a t ta k e p la ce w ith in th em th en th e p roject has m u ch
m o re to u n co v er ab o u t e a rly m o d ern th eatre practice. A d ifficu lty arises,
how ever, b ecau se it is h ard to sh o w th at a th e atre b u ild in g h a s an im p ortan t
effect o n th e p erfo rm an ces, o th e r th an in th e m o st g en eral term s. C ertain ly,
the d ra m a tic a esth etics o f o p e n -a ir p e rfo rm a n ce b y d a y lig h t in th e m id-
a ftc m o o n a re d iffere n t fro m th o se o f in d o o r ev e n in g p e rfo rm a n ce b y artificial
light. W h en on e facto rs in the sp a tia l relatio n sh ip s b etw ee n th e a cto rs and
the au d ien ce - at th e G lo b e th e sta g e is su rro u n d ed o n th ree sid es b y stand in g
sp e ctato rs w h om th e actors ca n n o t ignore, a n d w h o ca n n o t ig n o re one
a n o th e r a s they d o in d a rk in d o o r th eatres - it is cle a r th at m o d es o f ad d ress
(su ch a s so lilo q u y a n d asid e ) a n d th e ir asso ciated p sy ch o lo g ica l sta te s (self-
co m m u n io n , ap p eal to th e w o rld o u tsid e th e fictio n ) a re q u ite d ifferen t a t an
o p e n -a ir am p h ith eatre w h en co m p ared to a co n v e n tio n a l in d o o r p rosceniu m -
arch theatre.
H ow ever, b ey o n d th ese m ain d ifferen ces, it is hard to ju stify th e G lo b e's
a tten tio n to d etail, sin c e it is d ifficu lt to arg u e th at the a u th en tic p ra ctices o f its
b u ild e r P eter M cC u rd y h a v e a lastin g im p act o n th e a cto rs' use o f th e theatre
now . T h is is th e ca s e w ith th e in terio r d eco ration w h ich , in fact, sh o u ld be
(from w h at w e k n o w o f E lizab eth an p u b lic b u ild in g s) a s b rig h t a n d gau d y
aro u n d th e full sp an o f the au d ito riu m a s it cu rre n tly is o n th e stag e. It is
d ifficu lt to ju stify ex ten d in g th e d eco ratio n to th e au d ito riu m o n th e ground s
o f an y th in g o th e r than rigour, sin c e it d o es n o t seem from p erfo rm a n ces to
d a te th a t th eatre d eco ratio n h a s a n o tice a b le effect u p o n th e p la y , b ey o n d the
o cca sio n a l referen ce su ch a s O th e llo 's 'y o n m a rb le h ea v e n ' (3. 3 . 4 6 3 ) and
H a m let's 'th is m ajestical ro o f fretted w ith g o ld en fire' (2. 2. 2 9 1 -2 ) - both
re ferrin g to th e p ain ted u n d ersid e o f th e co v er o v e r th e stage.
A rg u ably , this p o in t w as effectiv ely co n ced ed sev eral y e a rs ag o w h en a
cru cial co m p ro m ise w a s m ad e. D u rin g an a cad e m ic se m in a r o n the su b je ct in

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the early 1980s, Jo h n R o n ay n e p resen ted e v id en ce th at th e in terio r d ecoration

o f th e G lo b e m u st h a v e b e e n so m eth in g b etw ee n 'th e E n glish trad itio n o f the
o rn a m en ted facad e, low relief d eco ratin g flat su rfa ces, and th e in n o v a tio n o f
cla ssical scu lp tu ral p rin cip le s' (1983: 22). R o n ay n e p ointed o u t th at in exterio r
v iew s the 1599 G lo b e a p p e a rs w hite w ith ston e w a lls, alth ou g h it m u st have
b een tim ber-fram ed . T h e co n tract for th e F o rtu n e th eatre, m o d elled o n the
G lo b e, ex p la in s w h y . It sp e cifies th at the b u ild in g w a s to b e 'su fficien tly
en clo sed w ith ou t (th a t is , o u tsid e] w ith lath, lim e and h a ir' (H en slo w e 1961:
3 0 8 ). T h is e x terio r treatm en t le d to the co n clu sio n th a t a t th e n ew replica
G lo b e 'a m ag p ie b la ck a n d w h ite h alf-tim b erin g is n o t a ccep ta b le ' (1983: 23),
it w ou ld h ave to b e lik e w ise co v e red u p w ith plaster. B y 1 9 9 7 R on ay n e's
p o sitio n h ad shifted :

O u r re-creatio n o f th e 1599 G lo b e is a tim b er-fram ed b u ild in g , a n d w e

h a v e elected to leave th e 'g re e n ' o ak ex p o sed to w ea th er a n d fad e to
grey o ver the y ears. T h e m ajo rity o f b u ild in g s in pre-fire L o n d o n had
th e ir tim b ers ex p o sed (C laes d e Jo n g h 's p ain tin g o f L o n d o n Brid ge, o f
ab o u t 1612, n o w a t K en w o o d H o u se, sh o w s th is v iv id ly ). A s ou r
reco n stru ctio n is th e first m a jo r tim b er-fram ed b u ild in g in th e ca p ita l since
th e F ire, o u r d ecisio n , o n b a la n c e , w as to e x p o se th e stru ctu re o f w h a t is a
ra re sig h t in L o n d o n , rath er th a n co v e r it u p a s th e E lizab eth an s m ay h ave
d o n e, tak in g fo r g ran te d th e fram ew o rk ed ap p earan ce. F o r th em , outer
ren d erin g w as grander. F o r us, h alf tim b erin g is m o re g en erally ev ocativ e.
(9 9 7 :1 2 2 )

T h is sh ift rep resen ts a rad ical ch an g e in th e th eo retical u n d e rp in n in g o f the

p ro ject, sin c e th e stated a im w as a lw a y s reco v ery o f 'w h a t had b e e n ' in the
E liz a b eth an p erio d and n o t 'w h a t is n o w ev o c a tiv e ' o f th e period.
We can reach fu rth er b a ck into the p ro ject a n d find that, d esp ite M cC u rd y 's
a u th en tic co n stru ctio n p ractices, co m p ro m ise s w ere b u ilt in to th e in itial co n
ce p tio n o f th e rep lica theatre. A fter all, if it w ere to o p era te a s a profession al
th e a tre it w ou ld have to m e e t tw en tieth -cen tu ry safety sta n d a rd s, ju s t as
M cC u rd y 's b u ild in g w o rk ers h ad to u se h ard -h ats, h a rn esses a n d ligh t-w eig h t
stu rd y scaffo ld in g u n av ailab le to th e b u ild e rs in 1599. A s th e first cou p le
o f b a y s o f the replica th eatre w ere b ein g p u t to g eth er b y M cC u rd y 's team ,
T eren ce H a w k es m o ck ed the p roject, lin king it to the fu tility o f textu al w o rk
th at h as s im ila r a m b itio n s to reco v er th e past:

T h e le ss th an ed ify in g sp ectacle o f sch o la rs in p u rsu it o f au th en ticity

is fam iliar en o u g h in th e field o f Sh ak esp earean textu al sch o larsh ip ,
w h ere the q u est for w h a t th e Bard 'o rig in a lly ' w rote in p ristin e and
u nsu llied m an u scrip t form h a s its o w n co m ic and id eo lo gically

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illu m in atin g h istory. [ . . .] T h e good n ew s is th at, to co n fo rm to m o d ern

fire reg u latio n s, th e [p ro ject's tw o] th eatres w ill h a v e illu m in ated E xit
sig n s. L ig h t o n e for m e. (1 9 9 2 :1 4 2 -4 3 )

T h a t is to say , for all th e m eticu lo u s sch o la rsh ip a b o u t th e arch aeo lo g y o f the

G lo b e, th e need to p u t in m o d ern sa fety lig h tin g rev eals the in tellectu al b a n k
ru ptcy o f th e en tire p roject. W e can n o t g o b a ck to th e p ast, H aw k es insists,
a t least n o t w ith ou t b rin g in g o u r m o d ern selv es a lo n g too (see R o b so n , this
v o lu m e, C h ap ter 5). For all the arch itectu ral w o rk , 'W h a t can n ev e r be
re co n stru cted ', h e w ro te , 'is the m a jo r in g re d ien t o f a ll S h a k esp e a re's plays
[ . . . ] th e ir o rig in a l a u d ien ce' (1992: 143). T h is m ean s th a t o u r h istorical
k n o w led g e is alw ay s m ed iated th rou gh th e co n cern s o f th e presen t, n o t lea st
the co n c e rn to g e t o u t a liv e in th e e v e n t o f a fire. H aw k es w en t o n to d evelop
th is in sig h t in to w h a t h a s b eco m e th e la te st trend in S h a k esp e a re stu d ies - o r
a t lea st the latest to h a v e a sin g le ca tch y n am e - w h ic h h e d u b b ed Presentism
(H aw kes 20 0 2 ; Fernie 2005; G ra d y & H a w k es 2 0 0 7 ) (see H o p k in s, this
v o lu m e, C h a p te r 8).
T h is m ig h t see m the la st w ord o n the su b ject, b u t in fact th ere w ere o b jec
tio n s a lo n g th ese lines w ell b efo re th e p ro ject b eg an to asse m b le th e re p lica 's
g ia n t tim b ers. O n e sch o o l o f th o u g h t h ad alw a y s b een th a t a 'g o o d en o u g h
replica - o u td o o rs, p layin g in d ay lig h t, w ith b o y a cto rs - w o u ld b e a m o re
u seful to o l for learn in g ab o u t S h a k e sp e a re 's d ram atu rg y th an an in ten sely
a u th en tic reco n stru ctio n . In d eed , a 'g o o d e n o u g h ' G lo b e m igh t b e m ad e from
flexible u n its so th at if n ew k n o w led g e em erg ed the replica co u ld b e adapted
to tak e acco u n t o f it, o r in d eed if a p articu lar ex p e rim e n te r w an ted to try
so m eth in g u n u su al - say , to lo w er th e sta g e balcon y so th at R o m e o could
leav e Ju lie t's b ed ro o m in a sin g le m an ly b o u n d - it co u ld b e acco m m o d ated .
A t the W an am ak er rep lica a n e a rly arg u m en t b etw een arch itectu ral exp erts
a n d th eatre p ractitio n e rs ab o u t th e p ro p o se d lo cation o f th e stage-p o sts
resu lted in a red esig n in g o f the stag e co v er, w h ich ca n n o t n o w b e m oved
ag ain . F o r a ll it s u sefu ln ess as a n ex p erim en tal th eatre, the ex istin g replica
G lo b e is h am stru n g by its very au th en ticity , sin ce n o -o n e w an ts to a lter it
g reatly for the sak e o f fu rth er research.

V irt u a l S h a k e sp e a re

T h e re m a y b e an em erg in g tech n ical so lu tio n to th is d ilem m a. In the 1990s

the tech n iq u es o f V irtu al R eality (V R ) m o d ellin g en a b led th e a tre h isto rian s
to b u ild rep lica th eatres in sid e co m p u ters. O n ce bu ilt, th ese th eatres co u ld be
used to test th e o rie s a b o u t th eatre d esig n , an sw erin g su ch q u estio n s a s 'w h at
v iew o f th e sta g e co u ld b e had from the top g a lle ry ?' a n d 'h o w is au d ibility
in th e sta lls affected if w e co v e r the w alls w ith this p a p e r?' In th e case o f the

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replica G lo b e, su ch a m o d el en ab led a fresh te stin g o f th e in terp retation o f the

a rch a eo lo g ical e v id en ce from the site o f th e o rig in a l G lo b e, w hich revealed
th a t th e W an am ak er G lo b e is n o t q u ite so secu rely th e b est 're a d in g ' o f
the ev id en ce a s w as o n ce th o u gh t (E g an 2004). In th e p ast co u p le o f years,
V irtu al R eality m o d ellin g h a s d ev elo p ed from an a ca d e m ic d iscip lin e in to a
w id esp read and in exp en siv e m ed iu m for recreation , w ith m illio n s o f users
sp e n d in g tim e in sid e v irtu a l w orld s su ch a s S e co n d Life.
T h e T H E A T R O N p ro ject th at b u ilt V irtu al R eality rep licas o f a n cie n t G reek
a n d R o m an th e a tre s, a s w ell a s a rep lica G lo b e b ased o n th e W anam aker
p ro ject, is n o w m o v in g its b u ild in g s into S e co n d Life. O n ce th ere, th ese b u ild
in g s m a y b e u sed n o t o n ly for a cad e m ic ex p erim en ta tio n b u t also for 'liv e '
v irtu al p erfo rm an ce b y 'a c to rs' (av atars) controlled b y co m p u te r u sers w ho
m igh t n ev e r m e e t in real life. T h e tech n o log y is in its in fa n cy , and th e hu m an-
co m p u te r in terfaces a re n o to rio u sly clu m sy: m o st u sers a re lim ited to a m o u se
a n d a k ey b o ard . H ow ever, V irtual R eality h ead sets a re a v a ila b le th at im m erse
the w eare r in the v irtu al ex p erien ce b y co n tro llin g ev ery th in g th at is seen
a n d h eard , and co m b in ed w ith w irelessly -co n n ected g lo v e s and so ck s these
en a b le an acto r-av atar in sid e the sim u latio n to a d o p t a p p rox im ately the
sta n ce a n d g estu res o f th e w earer. It see m s lik ely th at p erfo rm a n ces inside
V irtu al R eality w o rld s w ill b eco m e in creasin g ly o f in tere st to p layg o ers and
acad em ics. E v en th o se w ith sy m p a th y for th e P resen tist in siste n ce o n the
th o ro u gh ly m ediated n atu re o f h isto rical k n o w led g e m ay w ish to en g age
w ith su ch ex p erim en tatio n , a n d the p resent au th o r (w h o has su ch sym p ath y )
is cu rre n tly a d v isin g on the rem oval o f the illu m in ated E xit sig n s from the
T H E A T R O N G lo b e s o th at the S eco n d L ife v ersio n m ay a p p ro a ch ev en
m o re clo sely th an th e fu ll-size rcp lica to th e co n d itio n s p rev a ilin g at the
1599 o rig in al, a n d y e t rem ain ad ap tab le (as th e fu ll-siz e b u ild in g ca n n o t) to
a cco m m o d ate n ew d isco veries.

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Shakespeare Studies:
From Margins to Centre

W illy M aley

C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w

W h at's at Issue? 19 0
Issue: Family, Lineage, Su ccession 19 5
N ationalism , C olonialism and R ace 19 8
Republicanism 203
Sexuality 204

W h a t's at Issu e?

In h is 'A fterw o rd ' to Jo n ath an D o llim o re a n d A lan S in ficld 's P olitical S h ake
sp eare (1985), R ay m o n d W illiam s ad d ressed th e issu e o f p o liticizin g an au th or
w h o se w o rk a ttra cts a b o d y o f criticism u np aralleled in w o rld literature:

R eco rd in g a ce rtain w arin ess, an u nease, ab o u t th e m a in title o f this volu m e

o f e ssa y s, I found m y self b a ck in th e N o rth W in g o f C a m b rid g e U niversity
L ib rary , in th e au tu m n o f 1 9 3 9 .1 w as th ere to p ick u p a c o u p le o f b o o k s on
S h ak esp e are for an essay. M y first im p ressio n o f th o se h u n d red s o f
v o lu m es, tig h tly stack ed in w h a t lo o k ed lik e an in d u strial w areh o u se, can
b e b e s t u n d ersto o d if 1 ad d th at th is w as the first tim e I had b e e n in any
lib rary larger than a living ro o m . W an d erin g in and o u t, tryin g to d ecip h er
[. ..] th e co m p licated sy stem o f classificatio n , I ca m e acro ss a sectio n w h ich
in d u ced a k in d o f vertigo. I d o n 't, fo rtu n ately , rem em b er all th e actual
titles, b u t a q u ick sc a n sh o w ed m e Sh ak esp eare a s ro y alist, d em ocrat,
ca th o lic, p u ritan , feu d alist, p ro g ressiv e, h u m an ist, racist, E n glish m an ,

1 90
 R ecent Issues in Shakespeare Stu dies: From M argins to Centre

h o m o sex u al, M arlo w e, B aco n a n d s o o n ro u n d th e bay . I flick ed th e p ag es

o f so m e o f th e m o re im p ro b ab le ascrip tion s. T h e co m p o u n d ed sm ell o f
d isu se a n d o f ev id en ce rose to m y nostrils. I g o t o u t and w e n t for a w alk.
(D o llim o re & Sinfield 1994: 231)

Sh a k esp e a re stu d ies in th e p a st w as ca u g h t b etw een ex cessiv ely sp ecialized

stu d ies o f th e s o rt d erid ed b y W illiam s, a n d all-en co m p assin g th eo ries like
E. M . W. T illy a rd 's E lizabethan W orld P ictu re (1943), an a ttem p t to co n stru ct an
in clu siv e h isto rical co n tex t for S h ak esp e are's ag e. In th e ag e o f ca b le, satellite
a n d th e w eb, n ew ap p ro ach es a n d in terests are co lla p sin g th ese sp e cia list and
g en era list d istin ctio n s. In h er co n trib u tio n to P olitical Shakespeare, 'H o w B rech t
R ead S h a k esp e a re', M arg o t H e in e m an n cited N igel L aw so n , th en C h an cello r
o f the E x ch eq u er in M argaret T h a tch er's C o n serv a tiv e g o v ern m en t, w h o co n
fid en tly d eclared th at, like h im , 'S h ak e sp eare w a s a T ory' (203). Sh ak esp eare
w a s ce rta in ly tau g h t a s a T o ry for a lo n g tim e, a s a great sy m b o l o f E m p ire and
E n glish n ess. H e h as also b e e n read and tau g h t a s a royalist.

F u rth e r A n a ly sis: S h a k e sp e a re a n d P o litic a l D e b a te

T h e first e x tra ct is from I H en ry I V and th e seco n d from T h e Tempest.

C o n sid e r th e w ays in w h ich S h a k e sp e a re 's w ritin g m ig h t b e s e e n to
s tim u la te d ebate in the a u d ie n c e 's m ind ab o u t m o n a rch y a s a political
sy stem .

1 H en ry IV , 4. 3. 5 4 -1 0 7
F IO T SP U R : T h e kin g is k in d ; a n d w ell w e know th e K ing
K n o w s at w h a t tim e to p ro m ise, w h e n to pay.
M y fath er and m y u n cle a n d m y self
D id g iv e him th at sa m e ro y alty h e w ears;
A nd w h en h e w as n o t six -a n d -tw en ty stron g ,
Sick in the w o rld 's regard , w retch ed and low,
A p o o r u n m in d ed outlaw sn eak in g hom e,
M y fath er g av e h im w elco m e to the shore;
A n d w h en h e h eard h im sw ea r and v o w to G od
H e ca m e bu t to b e D u k e o f L ancaster,
T o s u e h is liv ery , and b e g h is p eace
W ith tears o f in n o cen cy a n d term s o f zeal,
M y father, in k in d h eart and pity m o v ed ,
Sw o re him assistan ce , and p erfo rm ed it too.
N o w w h en th e lo rd s a n d b aro n s o f the realm
P erceiv ed N o rth u m b erlan d d id lean to h im ,
T h e m o re a n d le ss cam e in w ith ca p and knee,

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M et h im in b o ro u g h s, cities, v illag es,

A tten d ed him o n b rid g es, sto o d in lanes,
L aid g ifts b efo re h im , p ro ffered h im th e ir oaths,
G a v e h im th e ir h e irs a s p a g es, fo llo w ed h im ,
E v e n at th e h ee ls, in g old en m ultitudes.
H e p resen tly , a s g reatn ess k no w s itself,
S te p s m e a little h ig h er th an his vow
M a d e to m y fa th e r w h ile his b lo o d w as poor
U p on th e n ak ed sh o re a t R avenspu rgh ,
A n d n o w forsoo th tak es o n him to reform
S o m e certain ed icts a n d so m e stra it d ecrees
T h a t lie too h ea v y on th e co m m o n w ea lth ,
C rie s o u t u p o n ab u ses, see m s to w eep
O v e r h is co u n try 's w ro n gs; a n d by th is face,
T h is see m in g brow o f ju stice, did h e w in
T h e h e a rts o f all th at h e did a n g le for;
P ro ceed ed further, c u t m e o ff th e h ead s
O f all the fav ou rites th at the a b se n t k in g
In d ep u tatio n le ft b eh in d h im here,
W h en h e w as p e rso n a l in th e Irish war.
S IR W A LTER B L U N T: Tut, I ca m e n o t to h ea r this.
H O T SP U R : T h e n to th e point.
In sh o rt tim e after, h e d ep o sed th e K ing,
S o o n after th at d ep riv ed h im o f h is life,
A n d in th e n eck o f th at task ed th e w h o le state;
To m a k e th a t w o rse, su ffered h is k in sm a n M arch -
W h o is, if ev ery o w n er w ere w ell placed,
Ind eed h is kin g - to be en g aged in W ales,
T h ere w ith o u t ran so m to lie forfeited ;
D isg raced m e in m y h ap p y victories,
S o u g h t to en tra p m e by in tellig en ce,
R ated m in e u n c le from th e C ou n cil-b o ard ;
In rag e d ism issed m y fa th e r from th e co u rt,
B roke o ath o n o ath , co m m itted w ro n g o n w rong,
A n d in co n clu sio n d ro v e u s to see k out
T h is head o f sa fety , and w ith al to pry
In to h is title, th e w h ich w e find
Too in d irect for lo n g co n tin u an ce, (p p . 1 2 0 9 -1 0 )

T h e Tem pesI, 2 .1 .1 4 7 - 5 8
G O N Z A L O : (to A n to n io ) I'th ' co m m o n w ea lth I w ou ld by
co n traries

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 R ecent Issues in Shakespeare Stu dies: From M argins to Centre

E x ecu te all th in gs. F o r n o kind o f traffic

W ould I ad m it, n o n a m e o f m ag istrate;
L etters sh o u ld n o t be k now n; rich es, poverty,
A n d u se o f serv ice, n o n e; co n tra ct, su ccessio n ,
B o u rn , b o u n d o f la n d , tilth, vineyard , n o n e;
N o u se o f m etal, co rn , o r w in e , o r oil;
N o o ccu p a tio n ; a ll m en id le, all;
A n d w o m en to o - b u t in n o cen t and p u re;
N o so v ere ig n ty -
S E B A S T IA N : Yet h e w o u ld b e k in g o n 't.
A N T O N IO : T h e la tte r en d o f h is co m m o n w ea lth forg ets the
b eg in n in g , (p. 3073)

B efore w e ru sh to rep lace Sh ak esp eare the co n se rv a tiv e ro y alist im p erialist

w ith S h ak esp e are th e q u e e r cath o lic rep u b lican w e sh o u ld p au se a m om en t.
H a m let's h esitatio n h as its v irtu es. Sh ak esp eare is , for so m e re cen t critics, a
w rite r p reo ccu p ied , e v e n o b sesse d , w ith issu es o f ra ce, cla ss a n d g en d er in
w ays th a t h a v e b e e n g lo ssed o v er b y co n v e n tio n a l criticism . Ja cq u e s D errid a,
w h o h a s w ritten o n R om eo an d Ju liet, a n d w h o se Sp ecters o f M a rx (1993) can be
read a s an ex ten d ed m ed itatio n o n id e a s o f tim e and ju stice in H am let, spoke
b efo re h is d ea th o f h is d ream o f b eco m in g a 'S h a k e sp ea re e x p e rt', sayin g
th at h e w o u ld lik e to liv e for tw o hu n d red y ears in o rd er to a ch iev e th at
statu s. W e w h o a re y o u n g sh all n ev e r see s o m u ch n o r live s o lo n g . For
D errid a, 'e v ery th in g is in S h a k esp e a re' (D errid a 1992: 67). D errid a 's o w n
read in g p ractice can be su m m ed up in o n e line fro m H am let, 'T h e tim e is o u t
o f jo in t', b ec a u se it co n sists p recisely in 'd eco n stru ctin g , d islo ca tin g , d is
p lacin g, d isarticu latin g , d isjo in in g, p u ttin g "o u t o f jo in t" th e au th o rity o f the
" i s " ' (D errid a 1995: 25). T h u s, for D errid a, an yth in g w h ich is v iew ed a s being
p resent ('is ') req u ires clo se scru tin y an d interrogation .
In this ch ap ter, I in ten d to ta k e th e re a d e r o n a w alk , a g u id ed to u r o f key
issues in Sh a k esp e a re stu d ies in th e period sin c e D ollim o re a n d S in field 's
P olitical Shakespeare. H is a n ecd o te is in terestin g for a ran ge o f rea so n s, n o t least
its d ate, fo r 'th e au tu m n o f 1 9 3 9 ' m ark ed th e o u tb reak o f th e S eco n d W orld
W ar in E u rop e, and the b eg in n in g s o f a d eclin e o f the B ritish E m p ire that
b ro u g h t w ith it th e kind o f q u estio n in g o f n atio n a n d m o n a rch y w e s e e in
recen t Sh ak esp eare criticism . T h o se o ld ch e stn u ts o f 'S h a k e sp ea re a s royalist,
d em o cra t, ca th o lic, p u ritan , feu d alist, p ro g ressiv e, h u m an ist, racist, E n glish
m an , h o m o sex u al, M arlo w e, B aco n ' a n d s o o n h a v e b een reh eated , a n d o th e r
iron s th ru st in to th e fire. So , let u s w a n d e r ro u n d th e bay and th e b e n d to see
h o w far th e im p ro b ab le and th e d isu sed h a v e b eco m e newr orth o d o xies.

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M u ch o f the n ew m aterial o n S h ak esp e are sh a re s a co n cern w ith th e culture

a n d so ciety th at p ro d u ced him a s m u ch as th e p la y s th at h e p ro d u ced , a n d so
it can ap p e ar le ss sy m p ath e tic, le ss ap p reciativ e, th a n th e w o rk o f ea rlier
g en eratio n s. O n e critic w h o m an ag es to be b o th n ew and to d o a lo t o f v ery
clo se read ing o f S h ak esp e are's p la y s is P atricia Parker. T h e title o f h e r best
b o o k - S hakespeare fr o m the M argin s (1996) - en ca p su la tes m u ch re cen t issue-
b a se d Sh ak esp eare criticism , w h ich focu ses o n w h a t a p p e a r m arg in al o r m in o r
a sp e cts o f th e can o n , o r at least asp ects co n sid ered m a rg in al by tradition al
criticism : m ino r ch aracters; le sser k n o w n w o rk s; o r th em es a n d issu es th at
m ig h t h ave b een , if n o t u n th in k ab le fo r earlier g en era tio n s o f critics, then
b u ried in foo tn otes o r g lo sses o r ed ito rial asid es o r p resen ted a s n o te s and
q u eries. T h e se h ith erto m arg inal en q u iries are n o w b eco m in g ce n tra l to the
stu d y o f Sh ak esp eare. H o w ev er, m any o f th e fresh fin d in g s in Sh ak esp earean
criticism h a v e e a rlie r an alo g u es and so u rces, an d so it is a s m u ch a qu estio n
o f ren ovatio n a s in n o v atio n . T h e re is also a te n d en cy in re cen t criticism to
see Sh ak esp eare a s a w rite r clo ser to Jo y ce th an Jo n so n , so th at rich n ess o f
textu re su p p lan ts cla rity o f v isio n o r an y in sisten ce o n u n iv ersal accessib ility.
W ord p lay in T w elfth N ight m ig h t repay a s m u ch a tten tio n a s the p u n fest th at
is Finn egan s W ake.
S o m e o f th e m o st in terestin g w o rk o n Sh ak esp eare in th e la s t g en era tio n
h a s co m e from w h at is g en era lly referred to as 'T h e o ry ': th eory w ith a cap ital
' '. If th at term im p lies ab stractio n th en it sh o u ld b e p ointed o u t straig h t
a w a y th at the m ain p lan k o f m u ch o f th is th eo retical criticism h a s b e e n 'h is to r
ic a l', b u t n o t in term s o f th e o ld ap p roach th at sa w h isto ry a s m a k in g up
m erely a 'b a ck g ro u n d ' o r 'c o n te x t' (see R o b so n 's C h a p te r 5 , E n g e l's C h a p ter 2,
H isco ck an d L o n gstaffe, and H o p k in s' C h a p te r 8 , th is v o lu m e). R ather, this
n ew m aterial o p en s u p the p la y s to a v ariety o f 'c o n te x ts ' in th e p lu ra l, a s w ell
a s b lu rrin g th e d istin ctio n b etw ee n a tex t and its h isto rica l con text, w h ich is
a lw a y s m ad e up o f o th e r texts. F ra n cis B ark er and P e te r H u lm e in th eir
'N y m p h s A nd R eap ers H e av ily V anish: T h e D iscu rsiv e C o n -T exts o f The
Tem pest' (1985) h y p h en a te the w ord co n tex t, to g iv e 'c o n -te x t', in o rd er to
m ak e th e read er aw are o f th e d eg ree to w h ich ev ery co n te x t is also a n o th er
te x t (236, n . 7). L ik ew ise, th e n ew h isto ricist 'c o -te x t', a tex t read a lo n g sid e a
ca n o n ical literary tex t in o rd er to b rin g o u t so m eth in g im p o rtan t b u t ob scu red
in the cu ltu re at large, is a n o th e r co m p licatio n o f th e te x t/c o n te x t d iv id e. For
S tep h e n G reen b latt, 'h isto ry ca n n o t sim p ly be s e t a g a in st literary te x ts as
eith e r sta b le a n tith esis o r sta b le b ack g ro u n d , a n d th e p ro tectiv e iso la tio n o f
th o se te x ts g iv es w ay to a sen se o f their in teractio n w ith o th e r te x ts a n d hence
to th e p erm eab ility o f th e ir b o u n d a ries' (1985b: 165). H ow ev er, this d o es n o t
m ean th at an y th in g g o e s. H isto rical read in gs a re fin e and fash io n ab le, bu t
to p icality - p lacin g , lo catin g and co n tex tu alizin g sp e cific p a rts o f p articu lar
p la y s - is still a risk y bu sin ess.

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Issu e : F a m ily , L in e a g e , S u c ce ssio n

T h e re is n o e n d to th e 'issu e s' to b e fou n d , o r p u rsu ed , in S h a k e sp e a re 's texts.

In m ap p in g o u t ap p aren tly o b liq u e and ecce n tric areas, Sh ak esp eare se ts the
ag en d a a s m u ch a s the critics. F o r ex a m p le, o n e o f th e issu es in H enri/ I V is
'iss u e ' itse lf - the p ro d u ctio n o f ch ild ren a s h e irs a n d h o w th e y su cceed th eir
p aren ts - a to p ic p articu larly p ressin g u nd er th e u n m a rried q u ee n E lizab eth I.
U n d er Ja m es S tu a rt, after th e U n io n o f C ro w n s (1604), th e fo cu s o f the
m o n arch y sw itch ed from 'E n g la n d ' to th e 'B rita in ' w h ich su cceed ed it (see
H o p k in s, this v o lu m e, C h a p te r 8). So , alth o u g h th e first allu sio n to 'is s u e ' is to
the issu e o f m ilitary su ccess - W estm o relan d 's 'U n ce rta in o f th e issu e an y
w ay ' ( 1 .1 . 61) - th a t issu e is b o u n d u p w ith o th e rs in a w a y th at m a k e s it
d ifficu lt to u n tan g le th e p la y 's co n cern s. A lth o u g h a n o th e r m essen g er, Sir
W alter B lu nt, b rin g s m o re e m p h a tic w o rd o f an E n g lish v icto ry , th e n e w s o f
H o tsp u r's 'co n q u e st for a p rin ce to b o ast o f' ( 1 .1 . 76) irks the kin g in so far as
h is o w n issu e - H al - is n o t 'th e th e m e o f h o n o u r's to n g u e' (1. 1. 80). N o rth
u m b erlan d 's issu e is ce rtain , H e n ry 's le ss so. N o rth u m b e rla n d 's son , H arry
H otspur, issu es forth in to b a ttle w h ile th a t o th er H a rry , H al, P rin ce o f W ales -
a n d a le s - is p ro flig ate w ith h is tim e. W h en w e see H a l je stin g , a n d N ed
P oin s ask s o f h im , 'C o m e , w h a t's th e issu e ?' (2. 5. 8 4 -8 5 ), w e see h is fath er's
p ro b lem . It's a fin e tim e to be jestin g w h en th e k in g d o m 's a t w a r w ith
itse lf and n eig h b o u rin g 'o th e rs', the S co ts and W elsh . H a l's su b seq u en t
sp e ech sh o w s th at h e k n o w s w h a t kind o f issu e H o tsp u r rep resen ts, and his
d ecisio n to 'p la y P ercy ' (2. 5. 100), th a t o th e r H arry , as b lo o d th irsty b o a ster
rath er th a n co n q u erin g p rin ce sh o w s th a t h e h a s th e m e a su re o f h is m irror-
im age. Sig n ifican tly , H al is P rin c e o f W ales a t a tim e w h en th e W elsh leader,
O w e n G lendow er, is in the field , o v erp o w erin g th e E n g lish M ortim er:

A th o u san d o f h is p eop le b u tch erd ,

U p o n w h o se d ead co rp se ' there w as su ch m isuse,
S u ch b ea stly sh am eless tran sfo rm atio n ,
By th o se W elsh w om en d o n e a s m a y n o t be
W ith ou t m u ch sh a m e retold o r sp o k en of. ( 1 .1 . 4 2 -4 6 , p. 1158)

H ere the qu estio n o f issu e and o th ern ess is p lain ly p resen ted . G en ital
m u tilatio n o f E n glish so ld ie rs b y W elsh w om en b rin g s th e is su e in to sh arp
relief. T h e K in g 's p lan s to sta rt a w a r 'in stra n d s a fa r re m o te' (1. 1. 4) is short-
circuited :

It see m s th en th at the tid in g s o f th is broil

B rake o ff o u r b u sin ess fo r the H o ly L a n d .( l. 1. 4 7 -4 8 , p. 1158)

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T h e is su e o f th e m o n a rch 's u ncertain is su e a n d sh a k y c la im to th e crow n , the

is su e o f civ il w ar, th e issu e o f co n flict b etw ee n th e n a tio n s o f th e A tlan tic
A rch ip elag o - a term m a n y n o w p refer to th e 'B ritis h Isle s' - and th e issu e o f
a d eferred effo rt to d isp la ce th ese stru g g les o n to a cru sa d e a re gath ered
to g eth er in this o p en in g scene.
'Is s u e ' in th e rep ro d u ctiv e sen se also featu res p ro m in en tly in the so n n ets. In
S o n n e t 9 the sp e a k e r ex claim s 'A h , if thou issu e less sh a lt h ap to d ie ', and
o ffers a k in d o f im m ortality in So n n et 13 , 'W h e n y o u r sw e e t issu e y ou r sw eet
fo rm sh o u ld b ear' (8), a s p ro tectio n a g a in st th e 'b a rren ra g e o f d ea th s eternal
co ld ' (12). L ater in th e seq u en ce, th e sp e a k e r co m p la in s th at h o p es fo r 'this
a b u n d a n t issu e ' o f th e b e lo v e d 's p re sen ce tu rn o u t to b e 'B u t h o p e o f orph an s
and u nfathered fru it' (So n n et 97 , 9 -1 0 ). F em in ist and q u eer read in gs o f the
so n n ets a re in terested in th e issu e o f issu e. V alerie Trau b, in 'S e x W ith ou t
Issu e: S o d o m y , R ep ro d u ctio n , an d S ig n ifica tio n in S h a k esp e a re's S o n n ets',
a n a ly ses so d o m y in th e so n n ets a s 'sim u lta n e o u sly a co n stru ctio n o f a n d reac
tion to g e n d e r a n d erotic d iffere n ce' (1 9 9 9 :4 3 2 ). T ra u b 's co n clu sio n u nd erlines
the co m p lex ity o f th e topic: 'H isto rically , S h ak esp e a re's a ttem p t to reserve
so d o m y as a sig n ifier o f h etero ero ticism lo se s o u t; sin c e th e sev en teen th
ce n tu ry , so d o m y h as sign ified a cts p erfo rm ed , leg islated , and p rosecu ted
p rim arily betw een m en ' (447). Trau b in sists th a t th e failu re o r forg ettin g o f
S h a k e sp e a re 's o rig in al p ro ject d o es n o t d e tra ct from its legacy. 'S e x w ith ou t
is s u e ' rem ain s on th e a g e n d a (see H o p k in s, this v o lu m e, C h a p ter 8).

So dom y

T aking th e ir cu e from M ich el F o u ca u lt's allu sio n to 'so d o m y - th at

u tterly co n fu sed ca teg o ry ' (F o u ca u lt 1 9 7 8 :1 0 1 ), critics h a v e a n aly sed the
m e ssy , m u ltip le m ean in g s o f so d om y in S h a k e sp e a re 's d a y (G oldberg
1992; H alpern 2002). Jo n ath an G o ld b erg reco v ers th e e a rly m od ern
sy n o n y m , 'so d o m e trie ', in o rd er to su g g est th at so d om y is 'a m easure
w h o se g eo m etry w e d o n o t k n o w ', w h ile for R ich ard H alp ern it 'co n sti
tu tes a kind o f e m p ty h o le in d isco u rse, a b o u t w h ich n o th in g directly
can b e sa id ' (G o ld b erg 1992: x v ; H alp ern 20 0 2 : 9). T h is co m p lica tin g and
o p en in g u p o f co n fu sed ca teg o ry o f m arg in alized tra n sg ressio n has
ex ten d ed o u r u n d erstan d in g o f the cu ltu ral a n d d iscu rsiv e n atu re o f a
so d o m y , a n d sex u ality m o re g en erally , in th e p erio d , b u t th is b ro a d en
ing o f p e rsp ectiv e still d oes n o t g o far en o u g h fo r so m e sch o la rs, in clu d
ing fem in ists. A cco rd in g to V alerie Trau b, ' "fe m a le h o m o sex u a lity " w a s
n o t o n ly n ot crim in alized , it did n o t e x ist a s a legal categ o ry in early
m o d ern E ngland . T h a t w o m en w ere p ro secu ted u n d er so d om y statu tes
o n th e C o n tin en t (b u t o n ly then in ca s e s o f p assin g a s a m a n a n d u sin g a

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d ild o ) su g g ests th a t w e m u st a cco u n t for n atio n al d iffere n ces in the

reco g n itio n o f w h a t cou n ts a s sex u a l tra n sg re ssio n ' (Traub 1997: 5 4 0 -4 1 ).
In o th er w o rd s, so d o m y ca n n o t be sep arated fro m q u estio n s o f g en d er
a n d nation.

S p ea k in g o f C lau d iu s, H o ratio te lls H am let:

It m u st be sh o rtly know n to h im fro m England

W h at is th e issu e o f th e b u sin ess there. (5. 2. 7 2 -7 3 , p. 1748)

Im ag in in g H o ra tio 's lin es sp o k en o r w ritten in 1600 ju st b e fo re E lizab eth 's

d ea th , w ith Ja m es V I o f Sco tla n d w a itin g o ffstag e to en ter as Ja m es V I o f
B ritain , g iv es 'issu e ' a p a rticu lar to p icality. In T h e Tem pest, the qu estio n o f
is su e is raised , th en racialized :

T h y m o th e r w as a p iece o f v irtu e, and

S h e said thou w a st m y d au g h ter; and th y father
W as D u k e o f M ilan , and h is o n ly heir
A n d p rin cess n o w o rse issu ed . (1. 2 .5 6 - 5 9 , p. 3 0 5 8 )

L ater, F erd in an d h o p es 'F o r q u ie t d ay s, fair issu e, a n d lo n g life ' (4. 1. 2 4 ), to

w h ich P ro sp ero resp o n d s 'F a irly sp o k e' (4. 1. 3 1). Ju n o 's b le ssin g is that
F erd in an d and M iran d a b e 'h o n o u red in th e ir issu e ' ( 4 .1 .1 0 5 ). T h is 'is s u e ' does
n o t ju s t u n ite tw o fam ilies, and tw o states. It also co n trib u tes to the co n stru c
tion o f n atio n al id en tity in the co lo n ial m arg in s (Brow n 1985). G o n z a lo 's
w o rd s la te in th e play m a k e ex p licit its co n cern w ith th e rep ro d u ctio n o f a
h u m a n ist s e lf ag ain st th e altern ativ e b arbaro u s O ther:

W as M ilan th ru st fro m M ilan , th a t h is issue

Sh o u ld beco m e k in g s o f N a p les? O rejoice
B ey o n d a co m m o n joy! A n d se t it d ow n
W ith gold o n lastin g p illars: in o n e vo yag e
Did C larib el h e r h u sban d find at Tunis,
A nd F erd in an d h e r b ro th er found a w ife
W h ere h e h im self w as lo st; P ro sp ero h is d u k ed o m
In a p o o r isle ; a n d all o f u s o u rselv es,
W h en no m a n w as h is ow n. ( 5 .1 . 2 0 8 -1 6 , p. 3103)

T h e p ro g ress o f P ro sp ero 's issu e h a s b een interru p ted b y u su rp atio n and

ex ile ; m an y o f th o se tem p o rarily 'o th e re d ' b y th e ir ex p erien ce o n the island

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a re tran sfo rm ed in to selv es. O th er Sh ak esp earean texts h ith erto read for th eir
e x p lo ra tio n o f 'se lfh o o d ' - H am let, th e so n n ets, T h e T em pest - a re in creasin gly
read in te rm s o f th e relatio n s b etw een se lf a n d other.

N a tio n a lism , C o lo n ia lis m a n d R a ce

If th e n o tion o f n atio n , a lw a y s accep ted a s a k ey featu re o f the h isto rie s, has

b e e n ex p an d ed a n d ex p o u n d ed u p o n , ra ce rem ain s a m o re co m p lcx is su e in
Sh a k esp e a re stu d ie s (see R o bso n , this v o lu m e, C h a p ter 5). C ritics h a v e long
arg u e d o v e r w h eth er th e term can be ap p lied to S h a k e sp e a re 's tim e. S o m e see
n o tio n s o f eth n icity a s m o d ern d ev elo p m en ts, in a p p lica b le to early m od ern
B ritain , w h ile o th ers regard ra ce a s a t issu e in E n glish sta te form ation . M o re
over, su ch q u estio n s d o n o t o n ly co m e in to p la y w h en co n sid erin g the
in h a b itan ts o f d ista n t lan d s a s they a re d ram atiz ed in Sh ak esp earean d ram a.
Ireland is n o w alm o st an issu e in its o w n rig h t in Sh ak esp eare stu d ies, w ith
T h e Tem pest fast b eco m in g the Irish p lay (see H o p k in s, this v o lu m e, C h a p ter 8).
A cco rd in g to Lynda B o ose: 'I f " r a c e " o rig in a tes a s a categ o ry th at h ierarch ic
a lly p riv ileg es a ru ling sta tu s and m ak es th e O th er(s) in ferior, th en for the
E n g lish th e g rou p th at w as first to b e sh u n ted in to th is d iscu rsiv e d erogation
a n d th ereafter in v o k ed a s a lm o st a p arad ig m o f in ferio rity w a s n o t th e b lack
" r a c e " - b u t th e Irish " r a c e " '. B o o se see s th e E n g lish v ie w o f Irelan d a s o n e in
w h ich 'th e d ero g atio n o f the Irish as " a race a p a rt" situ ates ra c ia l d ifference
w ith in cu ltu ral and relig iou s ca teg o rie s rath er th an b io lo g ica lly em p irical
o n e s ' (1994: 36).
C o lo n ia l re ad in g s o f T h e Tem pest ven tu re w ell b ey o n d Irelan d . A cco rd in g to
th e K e n y a n w riter, N g u g i w a T h io n g 'o :

T h e p lay is in terestin g in th at it h as a ll th e im a g e s th a t a re la te r to b e
rew o rk ed in to a racist trad ition p articu larly in p o p u la r E u ro p ean literatu re
ab o u t th e co lo n ised p eop le: th e sav ag e a s a rap ist, lazy , a lo v er o f w h isky,
stu p id , can n ib alistic. B u t th e m ain th in g is th at S h a k esp e a re d oes g iv e to
C a lib a n th e cap acity o r v o ice to say 'n o '. C a lib a n is in v ested w ith en ergy.
A n d re m em b er th at at th e tim e, E u ro p e h as o ccu p ied o n ly a little co rn er o f
th e globe. (1 9 9 3 :1 5 )

S tep h e n G ree n b la tt sa y s th a t 'self-fash io n in g o ccu rs a t the p o in t o f en co u n ter

b etw een a n au th o rity and a n alien [and] w h at is p ro d u ced in th is en co u n ter
p artakes o f b o th [ . . . ] a n d h en ce [ . . . ] an y a ch iev e d id en tity a lw a y s con tain s
w ith in itse lf th e sig n s o f its o w n su b v ersio n o r lo ss' (1980: 9). T h e colonial
read in g is co m p licated in so fa r a s the island is n o t the fin al d e stin a tio n o f
P ro sp ero , o r o f h is bro th er, b u t rath er it p ro v id es a p retext fo r the w o rkin g out
o f d o m estic d isord er, a n d fo r the resto ratio n o f th a t o rd er 'a t h o m e'. In that

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sen se it is tem p tin g to s e e it a s m erely p asto ral, like th e F o rest o f A rd en , rath er

th an n ecessarily ex o tic. P ro sp ero h im se lf is p a rt F au stu s, p a rt K in g Lear, d isaf
fected sch o la r and d ep o sed ru ler w h o fin d s a fresh force in n atu re, a n E d g ar in
A rie l, an E d m u n d in C aliban.
B u t the co lo n ial p retext is a s im p o rtan t as th e co lo n ia l co n tex t. A fte r a ll, one
b e n e fit o f E m p ire - o r w ar - w as the reso lv in g o r su sp en d in g o f cla ss tensions,
a n d there is a sen se in w h ich T h e Tem pest is a p la y a b o u t cla ss - the d isco u rse
o f m astcrlessn ess exp lored b y B row n and N o rb ro o k - a n d a b o u t th e im p o rt
a n ce o f ap p ly in g th eo ry, sin ce P ro sp ero w as bo o k ish w ith ou t b ein g po litically
a stu te till h e reached C a lib a n 's Islan d . C olo n ial v en tu res, lik e w ars and
cru sad es, o ffered id eal o p p o rtu n ities for th e R en a issa n ce sta te to d iv ert the
a tten tio n o f its su bjects.
T h e Tem pest, w ith its p ecu liar co n fu sio n o f p laces, ra n g in g fro m the
M ed iterran ean to th e C a rib b e a n , b y w ay o f th e b o g s o f Irelan d , h a s su ggested
itself a s o n e o f th e m o st o b v io u s lo ca tio n s o f a co n c e rn w ith d isco v ery and the
en co u n ter w ith th e O ther. O n e co u ld see this eith e r a s a n a rro w in g o f p ersp ec
tiv e - co m p ared to the o ld id e a o f the u n iv ersal h ero, tran slatab le across
cu ltu res - o r a s an o p en in g u p o f the tex t to m o re sp e cific id e a s o f d ifference
a n d id en tity , d ep en d in g o n o n e 's critical position .
R a ce an d rep resen tatio n h ave o ccu p ied m u ch re cen t criticism , w h ich has
en co u rag ed u s to co n sid er a b lack H am let, a C h in e se T w elfth N ig h t, a n Irish
Tem pest, a W elsh an d S co ttish a n d Irish d im en sio n to 1 H en ry IV , a n d a sonnet
seq u e n ce in w h ich th e D ark L ad y in v o k es a racialized ro m an ce. Jon ath an
C rew e, in ' B lack H am let: P sy ch o an aly sis o n Trial in So u th A frica ' (2001), reads
W ulf S a c h s's 1 9 3 7 stu d y o f th a t n a m e - rep u b lish ed in 1 9 4 7 and a g a in in
1996 - a s a failed attem p t to im p o se a u n iv ersa liz in g p sy ch o a n a ly tic m o d el
u pon n a tiv e A frican cu ltu re. In h is w o rk , Sach s, a lead in g So u th A frica n p sy
ch o an aly st, h ad stag ed a d ia lo g u e betw een h im se lf a n d a n ativ e h ealer-
d iv in e r w hom h e d u b b ed the 'b la ck H a m le t'. C rew e arg u e s th a t S a c h s's bias,
and w ith it the co lo n ial m in d set o f W estern p sy ch o an aly sis, rev eals its e lf in
the assim ilatio n ist a ssu m p tio n s o f the ex ch a n g e. P eter E rick so n , in 'C a n We
Talk A b o u t R ace in H am let? ' (2002), ex p lo res th e p la y 's rh eto ric o f ra ce, h o m
ing in, a s d o es P atricia P arker, in 'B la c k H am let: B atten in g o n th e M o o r' (2003),
o n the p assag e w here the p rin ce co m p els h is m o th e r to co m p a re h er first and
seco n d h u sb an d s, d em an d in g o f her:

C ou ld y o u o n this fair m o u n tain le a v e to feed,

A n d b a tte n o n th is m o o r? (3. 4 . 6 5 -6 6 , p. 2143)

W h ere E rickson a rg u es th at H am let is p reo ccu p ied w ith w h iten ess a s a s ig n o f

v u ln erab ility , and th a t th e q u estio n s o f race it ra ises a re also q u estio n s o f
n a tio n , fo r Parker, 'H a m le t's o p p o sitio n o f "fa ir e " and " M o o r e " itera tes the

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p o la rizatio n s o f its cu ltu re, fo reg ro u n d in g its m a teria l " fo ils " , in a co n tex t in
w h ich em p ire itself is iro n ized ' (E rick so n 20 0 2 ; P a rk e r 2 0 0 3 :1 5 1 ). G ary T aylor
h a s also sh o w n th e ex ten t to w h ich th e play en g a g e s from its e a rliest p er
form an ces as w ell a s its o p en in g lin es w ith th e q u estio n o f the ou tsid er. In
'H am let in A frica 1607', T aylor p resen ts ex tracts 'fro m th e o n ly su rv iv in g jo u r
n a ls k ep t o n th e R ed D ragon in 1607, e n ro u te from E n glan d to In d ia and the
S p ice Isla n d s o n th e T h ird V oyage o f the E ast In d ia C o m p a n y ' (2000: 211).
T a y lo r's e x p lo ra tio n o f the e a rliest n o n -E u ro p ean p e rfo rm a n ce o f S h a k e
s p e a re 's m o st fa m o u s trag ed y - o ff th e co a st o f S ierra L eo n e - ad d s w eig h t to
the g ro w in g b o d y o f w o rk en v isag in g H am let, th at g rea t p la y o f se lf and
psy ch e, a s a p lay a s so p h isticated ly en g aged w ith n a tio n and ra ce as H en ri/ V
o r O thello.
M u ch o f th e n ew w o rk o n S h ak esp e are b o rro w s freely from the o ld , p ick
in g u p o n h in ts d ro p p ed lik e h an d k erch iefs b y ea rlier critics. P a rk e r points
o u t th a t alth o u g h D over W ilso n a s early a s 1934 m a d e th e co n n ection
b etw een C lau d iu s an d colour, 'it h as n o t y e t p en etrated th e co n scio u sn e ss o f
m o st critics, read ers, a n d au d ien ces o f th is m o st can o n ica l o f p lays - from a
co rp u s in w h ich M o ors are assu m ed to b elo n g o n ly to T itu s A ndronicus,
A n ton i/ an d C leopatra, T h e M erchan t o f V enice, o r O thello' (127). W h ile P ark er
h arks b a ck to D over W ilson, in 'H a m le t a n d th e S co ttish S u ccessio n ?' (1994),
S tu a rt K u rlan d bo rro w s h is title from a b o o k p u b lish ed in 1921 b y Lilian
W in stanley. W 'here W instanley h ad id en tified H am let w ith Ja m es V I, K u r
lan d a v o id s su ch sim p listic o n e-to -o n e co rresp o n d en ces, b u t tak es seriously
the claim th at H am let is a p lay ab o u t the su cce ssio n crisis w h o se h istorical
co n te x t is th e im m in en t su ccessio n o f Ja m es, a S co ttish k in g , to a new B ritish
th ron e. K u rlan d a rg u es th a t th e S co ttish su ccessio n c a n b e read a s im p in g in g
o n th e p lay in a v ariety o f w a y s. D u rin g th e co m p o sitio n o f H am let betw een
1599 a n d 1601 there w ere ru m o u rs Ja m es V I m ig h t ta k e th e E n glish crow n b y
force, w ith th e help o f h is b ro th er-in -law , C h ristia n IV o f D en m ark . K u rland
co n clu d es th at H am let can in stru ctiv ely b e read in rela tio n to the struggle
su rro u n d in g the im p en d in g U n io n o f C ro w n s b etw een E n glan d a n d Sco t
lan d , s o th a t 'th e p o litical w o rld o f th e play is in fo rm ed by th e u ncertain ty
en g en d ered b y Ja m e s V i's m an eu v ers a n d threats to secu re th e E n g lish su c
c e ssio n ' (1994: 293). A n d rew H ad field p u rsu es K u rla n d 's a rg u m e n t further,
re v ea lin g th e ex ten t to w h ich a S co ttish h isto rica l co n tex t can b e establish ed
for a p lay in creasin g ly regard ed a s o n e o f S h a k e sp e a re 's B ritish p lays, p re
o ccu p ied w ith u n io n and su ccessio n . H ad field p resen ts the ca s e gingerly:
'W h y S h ak esp e are w ou ld n o t h a v e b een a b le to w rite a p la y th a t d e a lt d ir
e c tly w ith the S co ttish su ccessio n is rath er e a sie r to co m p reh en d : E lizabeth
h a d forbid d en an y d iscu ssio n o f the su cce ssio n and b y the la s t y e a rs o f the
six tee n th ce n tu ry the m o st lik ely su cce sso r to E liz a b eth w a s Ja m es V I o f
S c o tla n d ' (2004: 93).

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R ace is also b ein g read in th e so n n ets, a n d a n ew O th er h a s step p ed in to the

lig h t in th e sh ap e o f th e 'd a rk la d y '. K im H all (1998) ex p lo res 'w h ite n e s s' as
a racial ca teg o ry , ra th er th a n as a su p p o sed sig n o f in n o cen ce a n d purity.
M a rv in H u n t (1999) co n tra sts a little-k n o w n e a rly sev en teen th -cen tu ry ly ric
trad ition ex tollin g the v irtu es o f A frica n w o m en w ith th e w a y s in w hich
c ritic s ' d iscu ssio n s o f th e lad y featu re 'a n x ie ty , rev u lsio n , and co v e rt d esire'
(369). R ep eatin g a re m ark b y M argreta d e G ra z ia , H u n t p o in ts o u t th at
S h a k esp e arean critica l trad itio n 'h a s e v e r b een slo w er to en terta in th e p o ssi
b ility th at th e p o em s ex p ress d esire for a b lack w o m a n th a n d esire for a b o y'
(386; d e G razia 1 9 9 4 :4 8 ). A s w ith m ale-fem ale so d o m y , so m e a cts a n d aspects
a re played d o w n b y ed ito rs and critics. It is a m easu re o f th e ren ew ed interest
in ra ce th at the d a rk lady h as jo in ed the list o f S h a k e sp e a re 's o th ers, a list th at
g ro w s w ith ea ch o p en in g u p o f th e w o rk s to n ew readings.
N o r h a s Tw elfth N ight escap ed th e sc o p in g ex e rcise th a t h a s b een fin d in g o u t
O th ern ess in u n fam iliar p laces. A n o th er in stan ce o f a fo o tn o te b ein g raised
in to th e b o d y o f a n arg u m en t is the case o f S h a k esp e a re's use o f the w ord
'C a ta ia n ' o r 'C a ta y a n '. A g ain , th e ev id en ce is n o ted b y ed ito rs, b u t is thou ght
tan g en tial to th e m ain actio n o f the p lay. T h e scen e in w h ich th e exp ression
o cc u rs is rep lete w ith g n o m ic a llu sio n s to ra ce and n a tio n , in clu d in g
S ir A n d re w 's p raise for F cste 's clow ning:

In so o th , th ou w ast in v ery g ra cio u s fo o lin g last n ig h t, w h en th ou sp o k est

o f P ig ro gro m itu s, o f the V apians p a ssin g th e eq u in o ctia l o f Q u eu b u s.
(2. 3 .1 9 -2 1 )

T h is elic its th e en ig m atic reply:

M y lad y h as a w h ite h an d , and th e M y rm id o n s a re n o b o ttle -a le h o u ses.

(2. 3. 2 4 -2 5 )

C lea rly , a good d eal o f clo w n in g is g o in g o n h ere, b u t sin c e th e w ord 'clo w n '
itse lf h as a co lo n ial co n tex t it is clo w n in g o f a p articu larly p u rp o sefu l kind.
T h e O E D cite s F u lle r's W orthies II, 177: 'C lo w n fro m C o lo n u s, o n e th at
p lo u g h e th th e g ro u n d ', bu t m u ch earlier, in H o lin sh e d 's C hron icles (1577),
R ich ard S ta n y h u rst o b serv ed th at the Irish ca lle d th e E n g lish settlers 'C o llon -
n es o f th e L atin w ord C olon i, w h ereu n to the d ip t E n g lish w o rd e, C low n e,
see m eth to be a u n sw e ra b le ' (M aley 1997: 32). A ll th e ed ito ria l d ism issa ls o f
th e se lin es a s p u re n o n sen se are rendered p ro b lem a tic o n c c on e b eg in s to see
the g ro w in g m atrix o f cro ss-cu ltu ral referen ces in th is p lay. E lsew h ere, in
T roilus a n d C ressida, w e a re rem in d ed th at A ch illes is 'th e G rea t M yrm id o n '
(1. 3 . 371), le a d er o f th at m y th ica l n atio n . T h e ea rlier ed ito ria l trad ition that
sa w this w h o le p a ssa g e a s p u re n o n sen se o r ju s t th e d rin k talkin g is now

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b ein g o v ertak en b y a m u ch m o re v ig o ro u s critica l in terest in the d iv e rse cu l

tu ral g eo g rap h y o f S h ak esp e are's d ra m a tic m odels.
W h en M aria reb u k es h im for 'ca te rw a u lin g ' a n d th reaten s h im w ith
eje ctio n b y O liv ia 's o rd ers, S ir Toby replies:

M y la d y 's a C atay an , w e a re p o litician s, M a lv o lio 's a P eg -o '-R a m sey , and

'T h ree m erry m e n b e w e '. A m n o t I co n san g u in eo u s? A m I n o t o f h er
b loo d ? Tilly-vally - 'la d y '! T h e re d w elt a m an in B ab ylo n , la d y , lad y '.
(2. 3. 6 8 -7 1 , p. 1784)

L eav in g a sid e th e issu e o f caterw au lin g - w h ich th e O E D d efin es as 'T h e cry

o f ca ts a t ru ttin g tim e; th e ir ru ttin g o r h e a t', and 'G o in g a fte r the o p p o site sex;
lech ero u s m o tio n s o r p u rsu its', clearly a load ed ex p ressio n in a p la y w here
w h o 's w h o is h ard to see o r h ear - Sir T o b y 's seem in g ly in scru tab le sp e ech
a b o u t blood and B abylo n , h as p erp lex ed ed ito rs, w h o h ave n o te d th at
'C a ta y a n ' w as sy n o n y m o u s w ith 'trick ster', o r 'c h e a t', a s w ell a s b ein g 'e th n o
ce n tric sla n g ' fo r C h in ese, a s th e N o rto n p u ts it (1 7 8 4 , n . 6).
T h e fraught relatio n sh ip b etw ee n 'C a th a y ' a n d 'C h in a ' is ex p lo red b y
T im othy B illin g s (2003). B illin g s tak es issu e w ith 'a tra n sh isto rica l cu ltu ral
ess en tia lism ' (2) th a t m an ag es to re co n cile th e u se o f th e sam e term by the
P age in T he M erry W ives o f W in dsor (2. 1. 128) to d esig n a te N ym a 'C h in ese;
scou n drel' (as th e N o rto n g lo sses it), w ith S ir T o b y 's u sage to ca teg o riz e his
k in sw o m an . F u rn ish in g the g lo ss w ith an u nd erco at, B illin g s n o tes th e d if
ficu lt)' in fin d in g a sy n o n y m fo r 'a foul, S in o p h o b ic in su lt for N y m and a
d elig h tfu l, ch e e k y je st for O liv ia ' (3). B illin gs cite s a co n tem p o ra ry a cco u n t o f
th e C ath ay an s - n o t to b e co n fu se d w ith th e C h in e se - a s ' "w h ite k in d e o f
p eop le, w [ith ]o u te b eard es, o f sm all e y e s " ' (4). H e g o e s o n to sp e a k o f 'th e
Catainn a s a s ite o f cu ltu ral fa n ta sy ', for ed ito rs a n d g lo ssa to rs a lik e (6). Like
the relu ctan ce to see so d o m y a s p a rt o f h etero ero ticism , o r to see th e d a rk lady
a s eth n ically o th er, s o B illin g s id en tifies a n o th er trad itio n w ith in S h a k esp ea r
e a n e d itin g a m o n g th o se u n h ap p y w ith the co n trad icto ry g lo ssin g o f Sir
T o b y 's p h rase: 'F ro m tim e to tim e, esp ecially w h en u n settled by th e id e a o f a
C h in e se O liv ia , an n o tato rs h ave p ro p o sed g lo sses th at h a v e n o th in g w h a tev er
to d o w ith C h in ese eth n icity o r w ith C a th a y ' (9). F o r B illin g s, C a th a y o r 'C a t-
a ia ' is 'a n E lizab eth an p h antasm d istin ct from " C h in a " ', a n d w a s b o u n d up
w ith failed p riv ateerin g v en tu res, w h ich m ak es F e ste 's tra v elo g u e tw ittering
ra th er m o re g erm an e (11). If w e n o w h a v e to ad d S in o p h o b ia to th e list o f
a v ersio n s th a t co u rses th rou gh S h ak esp e are stu d ies, th e n it is sa fe to say th at
th e field h a s b een en rich ed . P eter E rick so n asid e, th ere h a v e b een few trea t
m en ts o f ra ce in the h isto ries, a n d few tak ers fo r th e p a ssa g e o f su p p o sed
n o n sen se in 1 H en ry I V w here H a l b efu d d les Francis:

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W hy, then, y ou r b ro w n b astard is y o u r o n ly d rin k ! F o r lo o k you, F ran cis,

y ou r w h ite can v as d o u b le t w ill su lly . In B a rb a ry , sir, it ca n n o t co m e
to s o m u ch. (2. 5. 6 8 -7 0 )

T he N orton S hakespeare g lo sses B arbary a s 'N o rth A frica n reg io n from w hich
E n gland acquired su g a r' (1180, n. 4 ), m ak in g n o m en tio n o f Ia g o 's d en igration
o f O th ello a s 'a B arbary h o rse' ( 1 .1 .1 1 3 ) , D e sd em o n a 's m o th er h a v in g 'a m aid
ca lle d B a rb a ry ' (4. 3. 25), o r C lau d iu s w ag erin g 'six B arb ary h o rses' o n
H a m let's q u arrel w ith L aertes ( 5 .2 .1 0 8 ). G re e n b la tt's essa y , 'In v isib le B ullets',
re fe rs to H a l's 'fe w w o rd s o f calcu lated o b scu rity ', and 'd e lib e ra te ly m y stify
ing w o rd s' (1985a: 3 1 ,3 2 ), b u t w ith B illin g s's rea d in g o f Tivelfth N ig h t in m ind
it m ig h t be w o rth rev isitin g th o se lines.

R e p u b lic a n ism

M an y critics h a v e seen Sh ak esp eare a s b o th a 'roy al p ro p a g a n d ist' and ad v o

ca te o f em p ire (see in tro d u ctio n , th is volu m e). H ow ever, an in flu en tial stran d
o f co n tem p o rary criticism su g g ests th at Sh ak esp eare w a s a s p reo ccu p ied w ith
rep u b lican id e a s a s h e w as w ith royalty.
U su rp atio n is cen tral to H am let, T h e Tem pest and I H en ry IV . H o ra tio 's q u es
tio n in g o f th e G h o st - 'W h a t art thou th a t u su rp 'st th is tim e o f n ig h t' ( 1 .1 .4 4 ) -
esta b lish es at th at p la y 's o u tset the th em e o f the d islo d g in g o f au th ority.
A n d rew H ad field takes the p o in t furth er, see in g the play a s p reo ccu p ied w ith
'w h e th er to get rid o f the in cu m b en t m o n a rch ' (2003: 57 7 ). T h is is n o t to say
th at S h a k e sp e a re 's p lay p u rsu e s a rep u blican lin e; ra th er it is to reco g n ize th at
th e p la y 's p o litical co m p lex ity d eriv es a t least in p a rt from b o th its im m ed ia te
p o litical co n tex ts and S h ak esp e are's im m ersio n in th e cla ssica l rep u b lican
w ritin g h e had alread y d raw n o n in h is w o rk s. H ad field p o in ts o u t th at 'T he
p lo t is f . . . ] in e ssen ce a v a ria tio n o f th e sto ry o f the k illin g o f Tarq u in, a
n a rra tiv e o f rep u blican liberation th at haunted S h a k esp e a re's w o rkin g life
a n d w h ich w a s first u sed in T he R ap e o f L u crece (1 594). T h e re is n o stra ig h t
forw ard w ay o u t o f th e p o litical im p asse at E lsinore a s th e re w a s in R om e. B u t
th is m a y be a d elib e rate co m m e n t o n th e sta te o f E n g la n d in 1 6 0 0 ' (2003: 577).
D avid N o rb ro o k is an o th er p io n eerin g fig u re w h o h a s w o rk ed m ore
b ro a d ly o n R en aissan ce rep u blican ism . In h is 1992 read in g o f T h e Tempest,
N orb rook fixes o n the b o a tsw a in 's refu sal to a n sw er A lo n so 's qu estion ,
ech o ed b y A n to n io , 'W h e re 's th e M a ste r?' (1. 1. 8), ex cep t w ith a q u estio n o f
h is ow n: 'D o y o u n o t h ear h im ? ' ( 1 .1 .1 2 ) . T h e sto rm is m a ster now . A n d th en
an other, 'W h a t cares th e se ro arers fo r th e n am e o f k in g ?' ( 1 .1 .1 5 ) . N o t a jo t is
the an sw er. T h e ro arers a re th e w av es, bu t th e y m ig h t also b e th e w o rk ers, as
the b o a tsw a in p refaced his seco n d qu estio n w ith the w o rd s 'Y ou m a r ou r
la b o u r' (1. 1. 12). N o rb ro o k see s in th e p la y a w illin g n ess to ex p lo re political

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p e rsp ectiv es an tip a th e tic to m o n arch al ru le, m ak in g the th e a tre a cru cib le o f
co m p etin g id eas: 'D esp ite th e ir ro y al lab el, the K in g 's M en o w e d m o st o f th eir
rev en u e to p u blic p erfo rm an ces; S h ak esp e are's p lays w ere th u s a b le to p it
d ifferen t d isco u rse s ag ain st each o th e r w ith fa r g reater freed o m th an co u rtly
lite ra tu re ' (1992: 45).

Se x u ality

R ecen t critica l w o rk co n cern ed w ith q u estio n s o f m a scu lin ity , effem in a cy , the
rep resen tatio n o f w o m en , p atriarch y , cro ss-d ressin g and sex u a l p o litics has
b lu rred g en re b o u n d a ries a s w ell a s g en d er d iv isio n s (see R o b so n , th is volu m e,
C h a p te r 5). F o r ex am p le, alth o u g h there w as a tim e w h e n g en d er w a s se e n as
a n issu e relev an t ch iefly to th e co m ed ies - b earin g in m in d th e h ierarch ical
a p p ro ach th at m ig h t w an t to ra n k the p la y s in te rm s o f, first, trag ed ies, s e c
o n d , h isto ries a n d third , co m ed ies - it is n o w arg u ed th a t q u estio n s o f g en d er
a n d sex u a lity a re ce n tral to ev er}' treatm en t o f n atio n al id en tity , and s o it is
hard to see h o w a full acco u n t o f H am let, for ex a m p le, co u ld fa il to take
a cco u n t o f th e g e n d e r p o litics o f th at p lay , esp ecia lly in term s o f the a n xiety
ra ised b y th e qu estio n o f fem ale su ccessio n . A n x iety a b o u t fem a le ru le w as
in ten se in th e p erio d , a n d Jo h n K n o x 's F irst B last o f th e T rum pet ag a in st the
M on strou s R egim en t o f W om en (1558) w as p a rt o f a n a ssa u lt o n w o m en rulers.
W hat d o y o u d o w h en th e re's n o m ale heir, a p ro b lem th at faced E lizabeth an
E n gland (see H o p k in s, this volu m e, C h ap ter 8)? M oreover, if cross-d ressin g
is an issu e in th e co m ed ies w h ere a b o y d ressed a s a w o m a n d resses a s a
m an, th en it m u st also b e an issu e in the o th er p lays, w h ere all the p a rts in
th e o rig in al p ro d u ctio n s w ere played by m ale actors. T h e w ork o f Jo n a th a n
G o ld b erg (1992), L au ra L ev in e (1994) and S tev en O rgel (1989) forces u s to
reth in k th e b o u n d aries o f the v ario u s g en res, and to d w ell in p a rticu la r o n the
w a y in w h ic h issu es o f g en d er and g en re interact.
A rth u r M a ro tti's essay , ' "L o v e is N o t L o v e ": E liz a b eth a n S o n n e t Sequ en ces
a n d th e So cial O rd e r', fo r ex am p le, reads th e E liz a b eth a n so n n et seq u en ce as
b e in g p reo ccu p ied ch iefly n o t w ith sex u a l b u t so cia l d esires: 'B o th h isto rical
p reced en t an d co n tem p o rary u sa g e san ctio n ed su ch poetry a s a m e a n s o f
ex p ressin g p e rso n a l am bition , and n o t sim p ly th at o f the a rtistic k in d . From
the tim e o f th e trou bad o u rs, co u rtly a u th o rs in p a rticu la r u sed lo v e p o etry as
a w a y o f m e tap h o rizin g th e ir riv alry w ith so cia l, eco n o m ic, and p o litical
co m p e tito rs' (1982: 398). M aro tti cite s S ir Jo h n H a rin g to n , w h o in 1591 ch arac
te riz ed lo v e riv als a s 'th o se th a t b e su te rs to o n e w o m a n , a s a re co m p etito rs to
o n e o ffice' (1982: 399). T h e p u n o n 'o ffice ' a n d 'o rifice ' w a s a co m m o n one.
M a ro tti's alleg o rical stu d y a rg u es th at p o litica l a m b itio n is represented
th rou gh ro m an tic asp iration .

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 R ecent Issues in Shakespeare Stu dies: From M argins to Centre

U n ab le to sp e a k o p en ly a b o u t am b itio n , y o u n g m a le w riters w ere instead

sp e a k in g o f u n req u ited lo v e , by w h ich they m e an t fru strated asp iratio n s m ore
g en erally . T h e case w o rk s b ette r for p u b lic fig u res like P hilip Sid n ey , w h o se
so n n ets resem ble jo b a p p lica tio n s o r ex ce rp ts from a cu rricu lu m v itae, th an for
Sh ak esp eare. M aro tti's essay w as co n tested b y fem in ists and q u e e r theorists
for u n d erp lay in g th e im p o rtan ce o f g en d er a n d sex u a lity . F o r fem inists,
M a ro tti's m o d el m e an t w o m en w ere d am n ed tw ice, first b y b ein g m a rg in al
ized and o b jectified , a n d th en for th in kin g th e so n n ets w ere a b o u t them in the
first place.
W ith regard to Tw elfth N ight, o th e r critics co m p lica te th e p ictu re o f sexual
p o litics further: Jo n ath an C rew e (1995) ex p lo res the v ariety o f cu ltu ral habits
o f th in kin g a b o u t tran sv estism ; Ja m i A k e (2003) d iscern s a lesb ian poetics;
C a se y C h a rle s (1997) a p p lie s Ju d ith B u tler's th eo ry o f g en d er-as-p erfo rm an ce.
M a ro tti su b su m e s sex u a l into so cia l d esire - th e p o em s a re m o re a b o u t so cial
th an sexu al am b itio n . B u t critics lik e K e ir E lam in sist th a t th e so cial and the
sex u a l a re united in a figure lik e V iola, w h o is b o th p u b lic and p riv a te, p olite
a n d th eatrical, in a sen se 'd ise m b o d ie d ' and y e t 'e ro tica lly co rp o ra l' (1 9 9 6 :3 6 ).
T h e h isto ry o f Sh ak esp eare criticism sh o w s ea ch n ew g en era tio n o f critics
p reo ccu p ied w ith issu es a ffectin g their o w n tim e. I f you g o to a Sh ak esp eare
co n fere n ce now y o u 'll h ear p a p e rs o n Q u e er Sh ak esp eare, R ad ical S h a k e
sp eare, F em in ist Sh ak esp eare, D eco n stru ctiv e Sh a k esp e a re, P ostco lo n ial
Sh ak esp eare, P ostm o d ern Sh ak esp eare, e v e n C y b e r Sh ak esp eare. T h e m ar
g in s h a v e tak en o v e r th e cen tre. T h is m e a n s th at a lot o f criticism th at seem ed
su b v ersiv e o r rad ical in its d ay, th irty y ears ag o, is th e n ew o rth o d o x y . L et us
rem ind o u rselv e s th at N igel L aw so n d eclared Sh a k esp e a re a Tory in th e w ake
o f a lan d slid e v icto ry fo r th e C o n serv ativ es. T im es h a v e ch a n g ed , a n d critical
tren d s ch a n g e w ith them .
N igel L aw son , in voked b y M argo t H ein em an n a s an ex a m p le o f th e co m
m a n d eerin g o f S h ak esp e are b y a co n se rv ativ e p o litica l trad itio n , is less w ell
k now n n o w th an h is d au g hter, T V c h e f N ig ella, w h o p ro v id es so m e food for
th o u gh t in a k n o w ing a sid e a b o u t rem em bran ce and b ereav em en t. In h er
co o k b o o k Feast: F ood That C elebrates L ife, N ig ella focu ses o n co m fo rt foo d in a
sectio n e n title d 'F u n e ra l F east' w h en in th e fin al recip e sh e g iv es th e in g red i
en ts for R osem ary R em em b ran ce C ake, in m em o ry o f h e r g ra n d m o th er (2004:
4 5 8 ). N ig e lla 's nod to H am let - 'T h e re 's ro sem a ry , th a t's fo r rem em b ran ce'
(4. 5 . 173) - sh o w s a g rea ter aw aren ess o f cro ss-cu rren ts in Sh a k esp e a re stu d
ies th an h er father, for food a n d m em o ry a re em erg in g a s ce n tra l issu es, as
w itn ess Jo a n F itz p a trick 's F ood in Shakespeare (2007) a n d P eter H o llan d 's
ed ited co llectio n Shakespeare, M em ory an d P erform an ce (2 006). T h e lin k betw een
the L aw son s is a co n tin u in g aw aren ess o f S h a k e sp e a re 's im p o rta n ce a s a
cu ltu rally ce n tral figure w h o sp e a k s to m o re co rn e rs and co n stitu en cies o f the
realm th an an y other.

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 Making Meanings:
Shakespeare's Poetry for
the Theatre

Ros King

C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w

W ords and Sounds 206

M emory and Perform ance History 207
Text and Perform ance 209
Sh akespeare: Literary Author 209
Publishing Shakespeare, Performing Shakespeare 210
Shakespeare: Perform ance Poet 211

W o rd s a n d So u n ds

T h e re are m o re th in gs in S h ak esp e are criticism a n d p e rfo rm a n ce practice

th an can h a v e b een d rea m t o f b y Sh ak esp eare. In d eed , rea d in g , perfo rm in g
a n d w ritin g a b o u t a rt fro m th e p a st n ee d s to sp e a k b o th em o tio n a lly and
co g n itiv ely to a co n tem p o rary a u d ien ce if it is to be m o re th an a m ere ed u
ca tio n al ex ercise o r an in d u lg en ce in h eritag e n o stalg ia. It h a s to m a tter to us
now , else w h y sh o u ld w e b o th e r w ith it?
M any, p erh ap s m o st, cu rren t critics d eclare th at it is in fact im p o ssib le to
v ie w th e p lay from an y th in g o th e r th an the p resen t sta n d p o in t (see H opkin s,
th is v o lu m e, C h ap ter 8). W e ca n n o t know w h a t Sh ak esp eare th o u gh t. W e are
n o t e v e n co m p letely cle a r w h a t h e w rote. In T eren ce H a w k e s's fa m o u s p h rase,
Sh a k esp e a re d o es n o t m ean b u t w e m e an by Sh ak esp eare. O f co u rse, th ere
h a v e a ls o b een p ro d u ctio n s o f p lays su ch a s H en ry V (lik e N ich o la s H y tn er's
for th e N a tio n a l T h eatre in L ond on (2003)) w h ic h h a v e p resen ted th e p la y as
a n ti-w a r (and sp ecifically a n ti-w ar-in -Iraq ) b y g rim ly p re sen tin g the sp eech

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th at H en ry m ak es b efo re th e w alls o f H arfleu r, w h ere h e th reaten s to k ill, rape

a n d p illage th e in h ab itan ts o f th a t to w n in o rd er to force its su rrend er. It is
a b ru tal sp e ech a n d is u su ally cu t from p ro d u ctio n s, su ch a s O liv ie r's film ,
th at see k to m ak e H e n ry heroic.
S h a k e sp e a re 's au d ien ce w o u ld h a v e reco g n ized th at sim ila r terrib le acts
had b e e n tak in g p la ce ju s t acro ss the ch an n e l as th e D u k e o f A lv a 's a rm y
m arch ed th ro u g h th e L ow C o u n tries, sack in g cap tu red to w n s w h ich h a d n o t
su rren d ered b efo re sie g e (and so m etim es th o se th at had ). S o m e o f th em m ay
h av e ta k en part in th at w ar, in th e D u k e o f L eice ste r's arm y , sen t by E lizab eth
in su p p o rt o f the D u tch P ro testan ts, a n d there w ere E n glish m ercen aries on
the S p a n ish sid e (see K in g 20 0 8 ; F raser 2008). T h e se atro citie s, san ctio n ed
b y th e la w o f w a r and b y th e B ib le, to o k p la ce o n b o th sid es, a s they u su ally
d o . A n d D u tch artists, like P ie ter B reu g h el, d ep icted them in p ain tin g s a s the
b ib lical m assacre o f th e in n o ccn ts, u sin g th e p ity o f a N ew T esta m en t h u m a n
sto ry to re fu te w h a t th o se w ith p o w er cla im e d a s d iv in ely sa n ctio n ed law
(K u n zle 2002). T h e use o f th e p ast to ex p lo re the p resen t w a s a n ess e n tia l part
o f R en aissan ce cu ltu re, an d th e in v en tio n o f a n o -p lace, w h ich n ev e r existed
in eith er tim e o r sp ace, is a good w a y o f ex p lo rin g the p resen t w ith a certain
a m o u n t o f im p u nity.
S h ak esp e are n ev e r sets a play in h isto rically a ccu ra te tim e; e v e n h is history
p lays a re an ach ro n istic in v en tio n s th a t p lay w ith tim e, sp a ce, p e o p le and
ev en ts. T h is m etap h o rical co n stru ctio n , co m b in ed w ith the flexib ility and
in v en tiv en ess o f his lan g u ag e, raises m an y m ore q u estio n s th an it answ ers,
a n d h a s from the v ery b eg in n in g en co u rag ed o th e rs to w a n t to rein terp ret and
recreate his w ork. It is p artly th is q u a lity th at co n stitu tes h is en d u rin g social
a n d a rtistic value. B u t for th e se la te r treatm en ts to w o rk , a d a p te rs a n d p e r
form ers n eed a n u anced u nd erstan d in g o f h o w S h a k esp e a re w a s u sin g history
a n d fantasy a s a m e ta p h o r in th e first place.

M e m o ry a n d P e rfo rm a n ce H isto ry

W e now e x p e ct each n ew p ro d u ctio n o f S h ak esp e a re to b e ex actly th a t - n ew -

a n d n o lo n g er go to th e th e atre d em an d in g to ju d g e h o w w ell a p articu lar
a cto r p erfo rm s a w ell-w o rn ro u tin e o f stag e bu sin ess. A n eig h teen th -cen tu ry
H am let w as su p p o sed to tu rn a s w h ite as h is n eck e rch ief o n first seein g the
g h o st; a t the end o f th e n in e te en th ce n tu ry , S a ra h B ern h ard t, o n e o f a lo n g line
o f fem ale H am lets, w as ro u n d ly castig ated in th e p re ss fo r in tro d u cin g new
b u sin ess (ru d ely sw in g in g h er le g s u p to lie o n a b en ch w h ile ta lk in g to
P o lo n iu s)1(see H isc o c k /L o n g sta ffe , th is v o lu m e, C h a p ter 1). H er p erfo rm a n ce
w a s deplored b y the d ra m a tist E liz a b eth R o b in s a s too m u ch the 'scam p ish
sch o o lb o y ' (1900: 909). R obin s co m p ares th e ch aracterizatio n u n fav o u rab ly
w ith th a t o f Ed w in B o oth , w h o m sh e saw in h er y ou th : 'i f I s e t d o w n m o re o f

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B o oth in d eta il th an o f M ad am e B ern h ard t, it is b eca u se, a lth o u g h I sa w h er

y este rd a y , and th at o th e r H a m let y ears a g o , th e o ld p erfo rm a n ce is v ivid still
from end to e n d , and th e n ew o n e o n ly here a n d th e re ' (914).
R o b in s's ratio n ale fo r h e r strictu res, lik e B e rn h a rd t's o w n sp irited d efen ce
o f h er in n o v atio n s in th e L o n d o n T im es, are cou ch ed in sim ila r term s. Both
cla im to w a n t a co n v in cin g reality in the p erfo rm a n ce itself, co m b in ed w ith
faith fu ln ess to Sh ak esp eare. B oth share th e d esire for h o n esty , d y n a m ism and
'rig h tn e ss' in th eatre p erfo rm an ce, b u t the p erfo rm a n ces u n d er d iscu ssio n
clea rly seem ed v ery d ifferent at th e tim e. R o b in s's a cco u n t o f B o o th 's poetic
ren d itio n o f the ro le, how ever, su g g ests a p erfo rm a n ce th at w o u ld m o st likely
b e a s u n co n v in cin g to u s now a s B e rn h a rd t's p erfo rm a n ce o f H a m let's final
d u e l, cu rre n tly sh o w in g o n YouTube.2
T h e th e atre h isto ry ap p ro ach to th e p la y s is a relatively n ew tech n iq u e and
is still b ein g d ev elo p ed , (see H a m p to n -R cev es' C h a p ter 6 a n d H o p k in s'
C h a p ter 8 , th is vo lu m e) T h e m o st re cen t A rd en a n d N ew C a m b rid g e S h a k e
sp eare, fo r ex am p le, in clu d e d etails o f p erfo rm a n ce in th eir critical co m m e n
taries a n d an n o tatio n s. B u t m erely ex tractin g m o m en ts fro m a ra n g e o f
d iffere n t p erfo rm an ces, a s h a s tended to h ap p en , is n o m o re th an a n ecd o ta l. It
d o es n o t d em o n strate h o w th a t in d iv id u al p e rfo rm a n ce o r p ro d u ctio n w as
co n ceiv ed o r receiv ed a s a w h o le, n o r d o es it g iv e su fficien t a tten tio n to the
n a tu re o f th e te x t b ein g p erfo rm ed - th a t is th e e x te n t to w h ic h it h a s b een
a ltered o r in d e ed rew ritten fo r th at pro d u ctio n . M o st im p o rta n t o f a ll, d esp ite
tw en ty y ears o f in siste n ce th at Sh ak esp eare w ro te for the sta g e , n o t the page,
w e h a v e tend ed to ignore the p oten tial for p erfo rm a n ce in th ese texts, w h eth er
in fa ct they h a v e b een p erfo rm ed th at w ay o r n o t (see also C o rd n e r 2006).
In a sh o rt article in a n in tern e t ro u n d tab le o n au th o ria l in ten tio n , C ary
M azer su g g ests th a t th e 'g o a l o f th e p erfo rm a n ce h isto rian . . . is to ask
not w hat a p a rticu lar th eatre a rtist, in a p a rticu la r tim e and p lace, m eans b y
Sh ak esp eare, b u t h ow th at artist m eans b y Sh ak esp eare, i.e. w h at the artist
u n d erstan d s ab o u t h o w S h a k e sp e a re 's scrip ts g en era te m e a n in g and effect in
p e rfo rm an ce'.3S u ch a p ro ject d ea ls w ith a n u m b er o f d iffere n t p o in ts in h isto ry
(th a t o f th e p lay , o f th e p erfo rm an ce a n d o th e r rem em b ered p erfo rm a n ces, as
w ell as o u r p resen t), a n d it d ea ls w ith a n u m b er o f d iffere n t states o f th e tex t
(th e e a rliest p rin ted v ersio n [s], m a n y o f w h ic h d isp la y ex ten siv e v a ria tio n , as
w ell as la ter p rom p t b o o k fs] fo r sp ecific p ro d u ctio n s). W h ere a v a ila b le it
w ill also d raw on d escrip tio n s o f sta g e effects, re v iew s a n d , o cca sio n a lly , the
d ia ries k ep t b y p erfo rm ers. T h is co m p arativ e te ch n iq u e can b eg in to d raw
co rrelatio n s b etw ee n w h a t w as p e rfo rm ed , h o w it w as p erfo rm ed , w h y it w as
p erfo rm ed at th at p erio d a n d w h a t th e effect w a s then. It sh o w s w h a t h a s to
b e d o n e to the tex t to create d ifferent m e an in g s, and a llo w s o n e to evaluate
h ow m ean in g is co n stru cted . N o n e o f th is p o stu lates a u th o ria l in ten tion -
w h a t S h ak esp e are h im self th o u gh t o r m ean t, w h ich w ill rem ain im p o ssib le to

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d eterm in e. B u t it d o es en a b le u s to ev alu ate the d iffere n t p o te n tia l for m ean in g

in d iffere n t v ersio n s o f th e text.

T ext a n d P e rfo rm a n ce

It is easy to n o tice w h en a S h ak esp e arean text h a s b een altered b y being

rew ritten o r ad d ed to (see H isco c k /L o n g sta ffe , th is v o lu m e, C h a p ter 1). B u t
cu ts c a n h a v e as p ro fo u n d effects a s a d d itio n s o n th e m ea n in g s a n d co n tex t o f
th e w o rld s th at rem ain. P ro d u ctio n s o f O th ello frequ en tly c u t th e d ia lo g u e in
w h ic h D esd em o n a p lays up to h er role a s the co m m a n d e r's w ife b y co u n te n
a n cin g , ev en en co u rag in g a n d then eq u ab ly rep ro v in g the b a w d y jo k e s o f h er
h u s b a n d 's trusted en sig n (2. 1. 9 9 -1 6 2 ). Su ch cu ttin g d en ies u s full a c c e ss to
the assu red an d sp irited y o u n g w o m an w h o c a n ta lk as read ily to th e V enetian
se n a te a b o u t th e g ran d th em es o f lo v e a n d w ar as sh e can to th e co m m o n
so ld iery a b o u t d o m estic sex u ality . Too m an y h ap less D esd em o n as h a v e b een
sh o rn o f th e ir v e rb a l and so cial sk ills th rou gh the cu ttin g o f th at scen e w ith
Iago, o ften blam ed for in terferin g in m atters th at d o n o t co n cern them in the
C y p ru s scen es, and a re thu s le ft m erely p ath etic at th e en d . W e rarely see
D esd em o n a s o n stag e w h o a re an y th in g o th e r th a n n a v e , a n d th a t tradition al
im age b lin d s literary critics - w h o lik e in v ariab ly ig n o re th at sc e n e o f baw d y
b a n te r so m etim es b lam in g th e p lay fo r its su p p o sed ly m isog y n istic, v ictim
izing treatm en t o f its h ero in e (see Z ieg ler 2008). It is n o t th e tex t b u t th e cut
th at is m isogynistic.

S h a k e sp e a re : Lite ra ry A u th o r

T h e 1623 F irst F olio is o n e o f th e m o st celeb rated and m o st stu d ied b o o k s in

the w o rld . A s rare b o o k s g o , how ever, it is n o t p articu la rly u nco m m o n w ith
a b o u t fo rty co m p lete e x ta n t co p ies (and as m an y as 2 2 8 in co m p lete copies),
and it is n o t p articu larly b eau tifu l o r w ell p rin ted . It is also w id e ly reprod uced
b o th o n th e in tern e t a n d in prin ted facsim ile. M o st co p ies a re n o w h o u sed in
u n iv ersities o r o th e r p u b lic lib rary co llectio n s, w ith sev en ty -n in e in th e F olger
L ib rary , W ash in g to n . T h e cu rren t m a rk et v a lu e o f a n y in d iv id u al co p y (u p to
3 .5 m illio n ) and the b ro u h a h a th at eru p ts w h e n o n e co m e s o n sa le is th u s out
o f p ro p o rtio n eith e r to its in trin sic v alu e a s a b oo k, o r its a b ility to co n trib u te to
o u r k n o w led g e and u n d erstan d in g o f th e p la y s wrh o se p rin ted rep resen tation s
it co n tain s. R ather, its v alu e is p ro d u ced b y a fetish iz in g o f Sh ak esp eare as
a m o ra l force th a t te a ch e s u s how to live.
S o m e o f th o se w ish in g to d eb u n k th e id e a o f a m o rally im p ro v in g , estab
lish m en t Sh ak esp eare therefore fell w ith en th u siasm o n a p erh ap s in felicitou s
term 'a u th o ria l in stab ility ', co in ed by th e textu al sch o la r E rn st H on igm an n ,
to d escrib e the p ro cess w h ereb y an author, co p y in g h is o w n w o rk , m ay

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so m etim es in tro d u ce sm all v ariatio n s in th e ch o ice o f w ord w h ich a re a rtistic

a lly n e ith e r b ette r n o r w o rse th an th o se h e h a d ch o se n prev io u sly . T h e
term in stab ility w as ta k en u p by th o se w h o w ish ed to co rrect th e n o tio n o f
Sh a k esp e a re as u n iq u e g en iu s b y in sistin g th a t d ram a is a 'co lla b o ra tiv e'
a ctiv ity and th e texts th at h a v e co m e d o w n to u s the resu lt o f 'co lla b o ra tio n '
b etw een printer, actor, b o o k keep er, scrib e and an y o f a m u ltitu d e o f p e o
ple w h o m ay h a v e h ad so m e k in d o f in flu en ce o v e r th e p rin ted tex t o r the
m a n u scrip t fro m w h ic h it w as copied.

P u b lish in g S h a k e sp e a re , P erfo rm in g S h a k e sp e a re

L u k as E rn e's re cen t b o o k S hakespeare as L iterary D ram atist (2003) is an a ttem p t

to red ress th e balance. H e a rg u es th a t th e su b stan tial d ifferen ces betw een
th e te x ts o f so m e o f th e p la y s in th e F olio an d th eir e a rlie r m an ifestation s
in sin g le -p lay ed itio n s c a n be acco u n ted for by th e arg u m en t th a t m o st
Sh a k esp e a re p lays are too lo n g to b e p erfo rm ed in th e 2 - 3 h o u rs 'tra ffic o f the
s ta g e '. Sh a k esp e a re, h e say s, k n e w th at the co m p a n y w o u ld cu t h is plays
d o w n to s iz e and d elib erately w rote m o re than they w o u ld w a n t, b eca u se he
w a s a im in g a t p u b licatio n in p rin t. Su ccessfu l p ro d u ctio n s b y u niversity-
b a se d p ro fessio n al co m p a n ies o n b o th sid e s o f th e A tla n tic d em o n stra te th at
w h at d eterm in es au d ien ce u nd erstan d in g an d w illin g e n d u ra n ce is th e pace
o f d eliv ery .4 S h a k e sp e a re 's v e rse is v ery m u ch m o re co m p reh en sib le w hen
tak en at a p ace th at allo w s au d ien ces to g rasp the sh a p e o f w h o le speech es.
T h is h a s b een k n o w n for a lo n g tim e, alth o u g h it is rarely p ra ctised . R ev iew
ing H arley G ra n v ille -B a rk er's p ro d u ctio n o f T h e W in te r s Tale in 1912, Joh n
P a lm er o b serv ed th a t L eo n tes 'd eliv ered so m e o f h is sp eech es very rapid ly,
b ec a u se they w ere sp eech es w h ich a re u n in te llig ib le if they a re d elivered
s lo w ly ' (S atu rday R eview , 2 3 N o v em b er 1912).
T h e cu ltu ral v a lu e attach ed to Sh ak esp eare in the tw en tieth centu ry,
how ever, en co u rag ed the assu m p tio n th a t six tee n th - and early -sev en teen th -
ce n tu ry p u b lish ers w ere fig h tin g e a c h o th e r an d th e th eatre co m p a n ies for the
rig h t to p rin t p lay-texts. N ev erth eless, an im p o rta n t essa y b y P e te r B layney
h as co n v in cin g ly arg u ed th a t this is a m y th (B lay n ey 1997). B y ca lcu la tin g the
eco n o m ic co sts o f b o o k p ro d u ctio n , B lay n ey d em o n strates th at n o -o n e got
rich p u b lish in g p lay -texts, an d su g g ests th at it w a s th e actin g co m p a n ies that
sto o d to ben efit from p u b licatio n sin ce the ap p e a ra n ce o f th e p rin ted b o o k
w o u ld p ro v id e v alu ab le free ad v ertisin g for an y rev iv al o f a p la y th at w a s a
few y ears old . Ju d g in g b y th e n u m b er o f rep rin ts o f p la y ed itio n s, h e also
sh o w s th at p la y s b y Sh ak esp eare w ere o n ly th e sixth a n d sev en th m o st p o p u
la r in print. T h e to p p la ce s g o to tw o clo set and acad em ic d ra m a s w h ich w ere
n ev er aired o n the p u b lic stag e, and also to th ree p lays, w h ich seem to have
had an u n u su a lly strong h o ld o n the p u b lic stag e o v e r m a n y y ears: M u cedorus;

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D r F au stu s; a n d T h e S pan ish T ragedy (B layn ey 1997: 38 8 ). D esp ite th is, E rn e's
b o o k is h eavily d ep e n d en t o n th at a rtic le a n d q u o tes from it liberally.
H e g ath ers a co m p reh en siv e co llectio n o f th e a lb eit sc a n ty ex ta n t ev id en ce,
y e t e v e n w h ile a ck n o w led g in g that less th an h a lf o f S h a k esp e a re's plays
w ere p u blish ed in h is lifetim e, h e sta te s re p ea ted ly and em p h a tica lly that
Sh a k esp e a re w ro te sp ecifically for p u b licatio n in prin t. T h e e v id en ce ju s t does
n o t su p p o rt th at assertion.
P erh ap s th e m ajo r p roblem w ith E rn e 's th esis is th e fact th a t o rd in ary
read ers find p lay-texts d ifficu lt to read. M o d ern re a d ers a scrib e th a t d ifficu lty
to th e ag e o f th e lan g u ag e a n d th e co m p lex ity o f the p o etry ; th e y frequ en tly
e x p ress am azem en t th at th e y can u nd erstan d th e p la y s p e rfectly w ell w hen
they see them p erfo rm ed in th e th e atre o r o n v id e o , a n d , so m etim e s, if they
read th em o u t lo u d . R ead ers also re m ark o n the la c k o f sta g e d ire ctio n s in
Sh ak esp eare, w h ich th e y find m ak es it d ifficu lt to p ictu re w h a t is g o in g
o n .5 T h e rem ain d er o f th is ch ap ter w ill be d ev o ted to d em o n stra tin g th at
S h a k e sp e a re 's stag e d ire ctio n s are in fact em b ed d ed in th e d ia lo g u e to a far
g rea ter ex ten t than is n o rm ally ap p reciate d e v e n b y critics. It is n o t so m u ch
the lan g u ag e th a t is th e p ro b lem , b u t th e sh o rtco m in g s o f th e p ro cesses o f
silen t read in g w h en d ea lin g w ith this p articu lar k in d o f text.
T h e title p ag e o f D am on a n d P ythias (1571), o n e o f th e e a rliest o f E lizab eth an
p rin ted p lays, g iv es a clu e a s to w h a t m ig h t h a v e b een h ap p en in g . It appears
th at th e in ten d ed readersh ip fo r the p rin ted ed itio n o f th at p la y w a s n o t the
sin g le , silen tly read in g in d iv id u al o f tw en ty -first-cen tu ry ex p erien ce, b u t the
g ro u p . It states b o th the o ccasio n o f its in ten d ed first p erfo rm a n ce and its
fu n ctio n as a p rin ted book: 'N ew ly im p rin ted , a s th e sam e w a s sh ew ed before
th e Q u cen es M aie stic, by th e C h ild ren o f h er G ra ce s C h a p p ell, ex cep t th e
P ro lo gu e th a t is so m ew h a t altered for the p rop er use o f th em th a t h ereafter
sh a ll h a v e o ccasio n to p la ie it, eith e r in p riv ate, o r o p en a u d ie n c e .' In o th e r
w o rd s, it w as p u b lish ed w ith th e e x p e ctatio n th at it w o u ld b e perform ed, p er
h a p s in a m a teu r th eatricals at h o m e, o r p e rh ap s in the s c h o o l classro o m , since
p articip atio n in th eatrical p erfo rm an ce, w h eth er in L a tin o r in E n glish , w a s an
ex p e cted p a rt o f a sixteen th -cen tu ry h u m a n ist ed u catio n . T h is th en m a y also
b e th e reason w h y s o m an y o f S h a k e sp e a re 's p lays ch o sen fo r p u b lica tio n in
p rin t a re im p ro v in g h isto ries o r th o se w ith cla ssica l co n n ectio n s.

S h a k e sp e a re : P e rfo rm a n ce Poet

C oriolan u s is fam o u s for p o sse ssin g on e o f th e v ery few p e rfo rm a tiv e stag e
d ire ctio n s in th e w h o le o f Sh ak esp eare: 'H e holds h e r b y th e h an d , silent'
(5. 3 . 183). It is a n ag o n izin g m o m en t, and n o t o n ly b eca u se o f the ten se
em o tio n b etw een m o th er an d son at this point. S h e h a s ask ed him in the
n a m e o f fam ily and R om an lo y a lty to call o ff his atta ck o n R om e. T h e silence

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a llo w s m em o ries o f all th e co n flictin g lo y altie s th a t h a v e form ed C o rio la n u s's

relatio n sh ip w ith his n a tiv e city a n d in d eed w ith h is m o th e r u p to this m om en t.
It also an ticip ates th e e n d , lettin g u s u n d erstan d th a t h e k n o w s w h a t w ill
h a p p en to h im if he n o w b etray s h is n e w allies, th e V olsces. T h e y a re n o t alon e
o n stag e; they are su rro u n d ed b y o th e r w atch in g , w aitin g , silen t g ro u p s o f
p e o p le , ea ch o f w h o m h a s a d iffere n t ag en d a. C o rio la n u s's w ife, son and the
fam ily friend V aleria o n th e o n e h an d p resu m ab ly see o n ly the fam ily ties and
th e p ro sp ect o f th e ir o w n d e a th s if th e ir em b assy fails. A u fid iu s a n d the
V olsces h e le a d s, o n th e o th e r h an d , m u st be lo o k in g a t th e d iv id ed loyalty
o f th is tu rn coat in th e ir m id st, and co n sid erin g h o w th e y w ill d eal w ith
him w h en h e tu rns ag ain . T h e lo n g er this silen ce is h eld , th e m o re tim e an
a u d ien ce h a s to reg ister these co n flictin g im p erativ es, and to d ev elo p the
n ecessary em p a th y fo r a ch a ra cte r w h o h as b e e n fa r fro m sy m p a th e tic for
m o st o f th e p lay. It is n o t a m o m en t th a t co u ld b e en g in eered th rou gh
d ialogu e.
T h is stag e d ire ctio n h a s co m m o n ly b e e n regard ed a s u n iq u e a lth o u g h there
a re o th ers: 'S tan d fo r th D em etrius' a n d 'S tan d fo r t h L ysan der in A M id su m m er
N ight's D ream ( 1 .1 . 2 4 -2 6 ) and 'S ilen ce' a s H erm io n e w a lk s in to h e r trial in T he
W inter's Tale (3. 2 .1 0 ). A ll th ree ap p e ar in th e F o lio tex t in italics, ran g ed to the
rig h t o f th e co lu m n . A s stag e d irectio n s, they h a v e g rea t p o ten tial for p er
form an ce: h u m oro u s in D ream ; and a p ro fo u n d ex p ressio n o f u n ease in T he
W inter's Tale. But in m o d ern ed itio n s they a re u su ally rendered a s verbal
co m m a n d s (assig n ed to E g eu s and to a co u rt official re sp ectiv ely ), and the
effect is in v ariab ly stilted .
In C oriolan u s, th is m o m en t h as b een p reced ed b y a sp e ech in w h ich tw o
v ery d ifferen t tech n iq u es h a v e b e e n u sed to w rite b o th sile n ce and a ctio n into
the w ord s.

M y w ife co m es fo rem o st, th en th e h o n ou red m o u ld

W herein this trun k w as fram ed , a n d in h er hand
T h e g ran d ch ild to h er b loo d . B u t o u t affection,
A ll b o n d a n d p riv ileg e o f n a tu re break;
L et it be v irtu o u s to b e o bstin ate.
W h at is th a t cu rtse y w o rth ? O r th o se d o v e 's eyes
W h ich c a n m ak e g o d s fo rsw o rn ? I m elt, an d am not
O f stro n g er e a rth th an o th ers: m y m o th er b o w s
A s if O ly m p u s to a m o le hill sh o u ld
In su p p licatio n n od : and m y y o u n g boy
H ath an asp e ct o f in tercessio n , w hich
G reat N a tu re crie s, 'D e n y n o t'. L et th e Volsces
P lo u g h R o m e , and harrow Italy; I'll n ever
B e su ch a g o slin g to o b ey in stin ct: b u t stand

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A s if a m a n w ere au th o r o f him self,

A n d knew n o o th e r kin.
(C oriolan u s, F tex t, w ith m o d ern ized sp e llin g , 5 . 3 . 2 2 -3 7 )

C o rio la n u s o b serv es a s h is w ife w alk s in to view , fo llo w ed b y h is m o th e r

h o ld in g th e hand o f th e bo y h e d en o te s n o t a s h is so n , b u t a s h e r g ran d so n . He
d escrib es a su ccessio n o f actio n s: h is w ife cu rtsie s; h e r g en tle e y es m ak e him
'm e lt'. H e su rp rises h im se lf by this. H e is n o t o f 'stro n g e r earth th an others
a fte r all. H is m o th e r b o w s to h im , h e r aristo cra tic b earin g a n d h is lifelong
feelin g s o f n o t b ein g good en o u g h exp ressed in 'A s if O ly m p u s to a M ole-hill,
sh o u ld / In su p p lica tio n n o d '; h is little b o y , p e rh a p s ju st b ec a u se he is a child ,
and p e rh ap s b ecau se a s in so m e p ro d u ctio n s h e lifts u p h is a rm s in su p p lica
tion , ex e rts a p ressu re on h im 'w h ic h g rea t N a tu re ' cries, 'D e n y n o t'. T h ose
train ed to o b ey th e lin e len g th s in the p o etry , m ig h t also n o tice the w a y in
w h ich th e fin al w o rd in so m an y o f th e se lin es ca rrie s a stron g stress, d em a n d
ing to b e lin g ered over, e v e n w h ile th e sen se p u sh es o n in to th e n ex t line. T h e
lo n g sy llab les and co n secu tiv e stresses o f 'P lo u g h R o m e ' a re co u n terp o ised by
the sh arp stresses on the first sy lla b les o f th e tw o w o rd s 'h a rro w Ita ly ', co m
p letely d isru p tin g th e m etre, w h ile th e su rp risin g id ea th at h e co u ld liken
h im self to a g o slin g (even th o u gh it w as g e e se th at d efen d ed th e R o m an
ca p ito l) co m b in es w ith th e e x p lo siv e sou nd o f th e w ord , and in this case
read ily le n d s itse lf to the ex p ressio n o f ex asp eratio n . It is in ten sely em otion al;
n ev erth eless h e co m p o ses h im se lf on th e stressed w ord 's ta n d ' at the en d o f
the line, an d the follo w in g lin e and a h a lf is, for the first tim e in th is sp eech
s in c e 'B u t o u t a ffe ctio n ', in reg u lar iam bs.
B u t w hen v erse lin es a re sh ared b etw een ch a ra cte rs, o th e r tech n iq u es in the
w ritin g and p resen tatio n o f d ialo g u e for actors co m e in to p lay, w h ic h w e
h a v e o n ly recen tly b eg u n to ap p reciate. E xp erien ced a cto rs w o u ld realize that
p ay ing a tten tio n to the w ay in w hich an acco m p lish ed w riter fo r the theatre
a rra n g es w o rd s in lin e len g th s th at v ario u sly rein force and in tercu t patterns
o f b o th rh eto ric and rh y th m w o u ld h elp them to crea te a p e rfo rm a n ce (see
T u ck er 20 0 1 , w h ich is based o n his w o rk sh o p s an d ex p erim en ta l prod uction s
w ith th e O rig in a l Sh ak esp eare C o m p an y ; also P a lfrey and S tern 2007).
In th e fo lio text the lin eatio n is a s follow s:

A s if a m an w ere au th o r o f h im self, and knew no o th e r kin.

V irgilia M y lord and husband.
C oriolan u s T h e se ey es are n o t th e sam e I w ore in R om e.
V irgilia T h e so rro w th a t d eliv ers u s th u s ch an g ed
M akes y o u think so.
C oriolan u s L ike a d u ll a cto r now , I h a v e forgot m y part,
A nd I am our, ev en to a full d isg race. B est o f m y Flesh

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The Shakespeare H andbook

F o rg iv e m y tyrann y: b u t d o n o t say
F or th a t fo rg iv e o u r R om an s. (F tex t, T L N 3 3 8 5 -9 3 ; 5 . 3 . 3 5 -4 4 )

A g o o d acto r w ill h ear ech o es and co u n te rp a rts to h is o w n lin es in the lin es o f

an oth er. V irg ilia's cu e w ord is 'k in ', and h e r g reetin g 'M y lord a n d h u sb an d '
m a tch es the m ean in g o f th a t w ord and co n tin u es the m e tre seam lessly .
Iro n ically , sh e th u s d en ies C o rio la n u s's d en ia l o f kinship . H is reg u la r 'T h ese
e y es a rc n o t th e sam e I w ore in R o m e ' is secre tly tru e , in th at h e h a s ju st b een
w eep in g , bu t o v ertly it is a n a ttem p t to try to co n v in ce h er h e n o lo n g er cares.
H er resp onse p ick s up h is tru e m ean in g in th e w ord 'so rro w ' w h ile co n cu r
ring w ith o n e a sp e ct o f h is o vert m ean in g : they to o a re 'c h a n g e d '. M etrically
h er first lin e h ere a g a in m atch es his, b u t the su b seq u en t h a lf lin e tu rn s th at on
its head. 'M a k es y o u th in k s o ' rev erse s th e stress p a tte rn and a ls o tells h im he
is w rong. V irg ilia's lin e is m e trically in co m p lete, b u t h e is n o n -p lu ssed and
c a n th in k o f n o th in g to sa y . T h e re h as to be a p au se h ere, b o th b eca u se the
sen se o f w h a t h e sa y s n ex t d em an d s it - h e is lik e an a cto r w h o h a s forgotten
h is lin es - and b ec a u se o f th e rhy thm ic form th o se w o rd s create. T h e rhythm
is n o t iam bic; in d eed it is n o t ev en m etrical. In the F olio h e co n tin u es for
a n o th e r eleven n o n -m etrical sy llab les, scrab b lin g a ro u n d , p e rh a p s g estu rin g,
a s b a d acto rs d o w h en th e y d ry . W h en h e co m p o ses h im s e lf a g a in , how ever,
h e first p ick s up o n V irg ilia's s tre s s /u n s tre s s rh y th m , 'B e s t o f m y fle sh ', thus
effectiv ely co m p letin g h e r u n finish ed h alf lin e o f v erse, a n d o v errid in g the
n o n -m etrical h iatu s in b etw ee n , b e fo re rev ertin g to regu lar iam bics.
T h is w o n d e rfu lly th eatrical p ro so d y w h ich su g g ests ton e o f v o ice, pace,
p a u se and g estu re is in v ariab ly sm o o th e d o u t in m o d ern ed ition s:

V irgil in T h e so rro w th a t d eliv ers u s thu s ch an g ed

M akes y o u think so.
C oriolan u s L ik e a d u ll a cto r now
I h a v e forgot m y p art, and I am o u t
E v e n to a fu ll d isg race. [R ising] B e s t o f m y flesh . . . (5. 3. 3 9 -4 2 )

H ow ev en , d u ll, a n d in co m p reh en sib le th at so u n d s in com p arison .

A s a n acto r a n d p e rfo rm e r h im self, Sh ak esp eare w o u ld h a v e k n o w n how
im p o rta n t it is fo r th e p e rfo rm e r to b e allo w ed , in d eed en co u ra g ed , to p u t his
o w n stam p on the w o rk . A good p la y -te x t n ee d s to e x c ite (n o t co rra l) the
im ag in atio n o f its first e n d user, th e actor. O f co u rs e Sh a k esp e a re w ro te to
b e read : read in g is a n ecessary p relim in ary to sp e a k in g and p e rfo rm in g his
w o rk . A s a w rite r he n eed ed to en su re th at h is p lays co u ld b e v iv id ly in ter
preted b y acto rs, e v e n w h e n h e w as n o t there to in stru ct th em , and to function
a s a sp rin gbo ard for th e p e rfo rm ativ e im agination .

21 4
Glossary of Critical and
Theoretical Terminology

Peter Sillitoe

A b s o l u t i s m : A continental form o f kingship in w hich the 'absolute w ill' o f the

m onarch takes precedence over all other form s o f authority. In criticism sur
rounding early m odem England, this is often w rongly associated w ith Jam es
I and, more correctly, associated w ith Charles I's reign.
A ccent: T h e stressed syllables in verse, such as in Shakespeare's use o f i a m b i c
PEN TA M ETER.

A l le g o r y : T he term that applies to a m etaphoric reading o f characters in a w ork of

art, as the reader is encouraged to 'read allegorically'. For instance, in Edmund
Spenser's Fairie Queette the portrayal o f m any characters can b e read as gestur
ing tow ards other characters o r historical persons. Thu s, Spenser's portrayal
o f G loriana, the Faerie Q ueene, can be view ed through historical allegory as
m irroring and suggesting Elizabeth I. O ther types o f allegory include moral,
political and biblical/religiou s readings.
A nachronism : W rongly assigning an object, practice, language u se, costum e etc.
to an historical period w here it does not belong.
A n a p a e s t : A m etrical foot, featuring two unstressed syllables and a final stressed
syllable.
A s i d e : Part o f a theatrical character's speech that is designed to b e heard by the
audience, but not the other characters on stage. O w ing to this, the aside is often
seen to privilege th e audience, as witnessed at the opening o f Shakespeare's
Richard III. This differs, however, from the d i r e c t a d d r e s s to the audience.
A t h e is m : Believing that there is no god (from the Greek word meaning 'god-
lessness'). T he connotations o f this in Shakespeare's tim e were profoundly
negative, and it w as m ost often used as a catch-all term for im m oral behaviour
in general.
B ear-B aiting : The spectator sport o f setting dogs on a chained bear, and betting
on the results. In London this took place in dedicated venues such as the Bear
G arden on the South Bank, w hich w ere centred on a roughly circular arena
surrounded on all sides by seating. T h e shape w as very sim ilar to som e o f the
open-air theatres, and indeed the H ope theatre (w hich w as built o n the site of
the dem olished Bear G arden in 1613) w as also licensed for bear-baiting.
B lan k Verse: Unrhym ed i a m b i c p e n t a m e t e r as used b y Shakespeare and h is fellow
playw rights (see 'iam bic pentam eter').

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B om bast: Heightened, bu t also overblow n, use o f language b y a character on

stage usually em ployed to show anger a n d /o r rhetorical violence.
B ook o f C om m on Prayer: A standardized collection o f prayers from the period
o f the English Reform ation (see R e f o r m a t i o n ) . T h e book w as published in
the m id-sixteenth century and so becam e sym bolic for the P r o t e s t a n t faith
throughout the early m odern age.
C aesura: A pause o r halt in a line o f poetry.
C atholicism /R om an C atholicism : T h e dom inant C hristian faith in Europe until
the R e f o r m a t i o n and the birth o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m . T h e belief is marked b y a
com m itm ent to the Virgin M ary and the divinely-inspired pow er o f the Pope as
the head o f the Rom an Church. In Shakespeare's lifetim e, England w as isolated
from m ainland European pow ers, such as Spain, in term s o f a preference for the
Protestant faith over Catholicism .
C haracter: T he actual persona assum ed by an actor during the perform ance. Thus,
w e m ight discuss 'Prince Ham let, or 'the actor's portrayal o f the character of
Prince H am let'.
C hronicle: See h i s t o r y .
C hu rch o f E ngland: T h e official English Protestant church as founded by its
subsequent head, H enry VIII in 1534, w hen the king broke w ay from the Roman
C atholic C hurch (see P r o t e s t a n t i s m and C a t h o l i c i s m ) .
C low n: The title often given to com edic figures in Shakespearean dram a, includ
ing Touchstone in A s You L ike It. H ow ever, the character m ight offer perceptive
guidance to m onarchs and courtly figures (see f o o l ) .
C o-authorship: A critical term that signifies dual authorship o f a Renaissance
text. For instance, there is now strong evidence that Shakespeare collaborated
w ith G eorge P eele on Titus A ndronicus. Indeed, m any scholarly studies are now
increasingly interested in Shakespeare's literary position as a co-author in early
m odern London.
C on ceit: T he au thor's use o f a com bination o f m etaphors a n d /o r sim iles in order
to construct a verbal picture during an entire poem o r section o f verse in poetry
and dram a. U sually taken to be clever and w itty as a rather 'learn ed ' literary
device.
C onversion: The act of undergoing a religious conversion, from the C atholic faith
to the Protestant faith or vice versa.
C ross-D ressing: O n the Shakespearean all-m ale stage, b o y actors w ould be
required to cross-dress in order to play the fem ale roles, ow ing to the barring of
fem ale actors on the public stage until 1660.
C ultural M aterialism : British-based version o f n e w h i s t o r i c i s m (see below ) as
exem plified by the politically inflected w ork o f Jon ath an D ollim ore and Alan
Sinfield.
D irect A ddress: W hen a character addresses the audience, thus bridging the gap
betw een actor and spectator, illusion and reality.
Editor: T h e ed itor o f a (Shakespearean) text literally 'ed its' the available material.
In the past, Shakespearean editors have claim ed that they were aim ing to pro
d uce a version o f the text as close a s possible to the au thor's original idea o f the
script.

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E f f e m in a c y : T h e term used to d escribe the possession o f stereotypically 'fem inine'

characteristics by a m ale, often with negative connotations. However, in
Renaissance England the label w as often applied to m en who displayed a fond
ness for the supposedly fem inine vice o f pleasure-seeking and recreational
gratification.
E liz a b e t h a n : Refers to cultural events during the reign o f Q ueen Elizabeth I
(1558-1603).
E m p ir e : This signifies the expansion o f one country at the expense o f others and is
therefore usually linked w ith the early m odem colonialism , even though there
w as no English em pire to speak o f in the period. T h e phrase also has connota
tions o f R om an classicism and w as therefore im portant to Jam es 1 and his failed
project o f the union o f England w ith Scotland.
E n lig h t e n m e n t : T h e cultural, intellectual and artistic m ovem ent o f the eighteenth
century w hich included a renew ed and re-energized interest in classicism , par
ticularly in architecture and literature, a s well as a flourishing o f scientific
and intellectual pursuit and debate. This European-based m ovem ent boasts key
figures such as D avid H um e and Isaac Newton.
E t h n ic it y : Suggests a person's ethnic and cultural grouping and her o r his racial
identity. For instance, w e m ight refer to O thello's ethnicity w hen com pared to
those around him in the play.
E x e m p la : Exempla is the plural form o f the Latin word 'exem plum ', w hich means
'exam ple'. It is usually used o f a short story intended to m ake a m oral point.
F e m in is m : G ender-based approach to the stud y o f literature and its cultural
contexts as exem plified in the w ork o f C atherine Belsey.
F ir s t F o lio : T he first printing o f Shakespeare's collected w orks, published post
hum ously in f o l i o form at in 1623. Texts o f Shakespeare's plays taken from the
First Folio are often referred to as F texts.
F li g h t o f t h e E a rls : See also the Nine Y ears W a r in Ire la n d (below ). In 1607, the
defeated Irish earls, Hugh O 'N eill o f Tyrone and R ory O 'D on n ell o f Tyrconncll,
fled Ireland for the continent in order to gain support from Spain against the
English, though this w as eventually not possible.
F o lio : A printed w ork consisting o f one fold o f the paper used.
F o o l: A n often com edic figure in Shakespearean and Renaissance dram a (see also
c l o w n ) . How ever, the fool i s occasionally used as a figure o f sage and astute
counsel and w isdom , particularly in King Lear.
F o u l P a p e rs: A w orking draft o f the author's finished version o f a play.
G r a m m a r Refers to sentence construction in the m odern sense, bu t early modern
u sage im plies rhetorical persuasion and even classical learning and hum anism .
G u i c c ia r d i n i : Highly influential political thinker from the Italian Renaissance and
o n e o f the first m ajor historians i n the m odern sense. See also M a c h i a v e l l i .
G u i l d : A collective o f people associated w ith a particular craft o r trade, often
connected w ith London in the early m odern period.
H e g e m o n y : This refers to the authority and dom inance o f one group o f people
over m any others. For instance, it m ight be argued that the Protestant faith
in Renaissance England controlled those that follow ed the C atholic faith, or that
an aristocratic elite enjoyed w h at they perceived as a political and cultural
suprem acy over the rest o f the nation.

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H istoricism : A brand o f intellectual inquiry defined by a rigorous com m itm ent to

historical and contextual cultural investigation. In literary studies, the practis
ing critic might attem pt to 'contextualize' a Shakespearean text in term s o f its
historical background and transm ission. See also 'new historicism '.
H uguenot: French Protestants from the new Reform ed C hurch o f Calvin in
the early m odern period w ho w ere associated w ith strong feelings of anti-
Catholicism .
H um anism : T h e C hristian and educational m ovem ent know n as Renaissance a n d /
o r sixteenth-century hum anism refers to the grow th o f interest in classical learn
ing alongside C hristian belief in the full, unique potential o f all hum an beings.
Key figures include Erasm us and Thom as M ore at the court o f Henry VIII.
Iam b /Iam bic: A m etrical foot featuring an unstressed syllable follow ed by a
stressed syllable.
Iam b ic P entam eter: Poetic m etre o f five iam bic feet. O ften used by Shakespeare
and his contem poraries.
Im age/Im agery: Language used by the playw right to construct a verbal picture
in the m ind o f the audience a n d /o r reader.
In ternet Sh ak esp eare Editions: An internet w ebsite that provides digital repro
d uctions o f Shakespearean texts in their original printed form s, including
q u a r t o and f o l i o versions.

Islam /Islam ic: M uslim religion usually associated w ith the O ttom an Empire in
R enaissance literary discourse. See also o t h e r s .
Jaco b ean : Refers to cultural events during the reign o f King Jam es I.
Jo in t-S to ck : See also 'guild'. Sim ilar to the guilds of Renaissance London, bu t the
joint-stock com panies consisted o f shareholders and are view ed a s forerunners
o f capitalist enterprise and m ercantile trade.
Jon so n , B en : Along w ith Shakespeare and M arlow e, probably o n e o f the best-
know n Renaissance playw rights. Jonson w rote and published poetry as well
as plays for the public theatre, including the Rom an tragedy Sejcmus (1603) and
the city com edy Volpone (1606). However, Jonson is associated w ith the Jacobean
court more than any other dram atist, as he w rote m asques for the co u rt at
W hitehall Palace and beyond, including The M asque o f Blackness (1605) for
Q ueen Anna. Jonson's career spanned the late Elizabethan period through to
the reign o f C harles I, and h e published, along the w ay, h is collected Works
in 1616.
M ach iav elli, N iccolo: Enorm ously influential Italian political thinker associated
w ith statecraft through h is im portant 1513 text The Prince, a w ork o f political
theory. M achiavelli fam ously urged rulers to dom inate through fear and vio
lence, though h is m essage w as often exaggerated and taken out o f context by
English Renaissance writers. M any dram atic villains may be seen a s stereo
typical 'stag e M achiavels', including Shakespeare's Richard III and Iago.
M aterialism : An influential aspect o f M arxism that prioritizes the physical and
m aterial form s o f existence over spiritual thought. For instance, a m aterialist
reading o f a Shakespeare play m ight foreground the depiction o f industrial
a n d /o r labour forces in the text. See also c u l t u r a l m a t e r i a l i s m .
M etadram a/M etatheatre: A m ode o f dram a w hich com pels audiences to reflect
the m echanics o f play-m aking and perform ance. An exam ple o f this is a 'play

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w ithin a play' scene in a text such a s the fam ous 'M ousetrap' in Ham let. In such
a scenario, the real audience w ill be w atching an onstage audience o f actors
'w atching' a play.
M id d leton, T hom as: H ighly influential Renaissance dram atist, know n particu
larly for his Jacobean tragedies and city com edies. M iddleton often collaborated
w ith other playw rights, particularly W illiam Row ley, and, alm ost certainly,
Shakespeare. H is best-know n plays include the controversial G am e at Chess
(1624) and the Revenger's Tragedy (1606), though the authorship o f the earlier
play has often been questioned. Like Ben J o n s o n (see above), M iddleton also
w rote Jacobean m asques and civic entertainm ents for the city o f London.
M etaphor: figurative trope in w hich two things are com pared that would
usually be seen to have little in com m on w ith the oth er (such as, for instance,
'su n ' and 'king').
M on archical: Refers to the dom inance o f a king o r queen. For instance, 'm onar
chical discourse' a s opposed to 'republican discourse'.
M orrano: Spanish Jew s forced to conceal their cultural identity in the period.
M ystery C ycles/M ystery Plays: H ighly didactic religious plays performed
through the m edieval period until the 1560s. Surviving exam ples include those
from York, C oventry, W akefield and Chester. Su ch plays fell o u t o f favour
during and after the R e f o r m a t i o n , though they were perform ed during the
early part o f Shakespeare's life. Along w ith the m orality tradition, this genre
w as influential o n early Elizabethan public theatre, including the w ork of
M arlow e.
N ew H istoricism : C ritical theory that places the literary text in a deep-rooted
historical narrative draw ing upon the ideas o f the cultural theorist Michel
Foucault. Best exem plified by the w ork o f Stephen G reenblatt and Stephen
Orgel.
N ine Years W ar in Irelan d (1594-1603): The conflict betw een the native Irish,
guided by H ugh O 'N eill, and the Elizabethan settlers and soldiers. See also
F l i g h t o f t h e E a r l s (above) for inform ation on the Irish defeat and the resulting

problems.
O thers: A relatively recent critical term that suggests the opposite o f the 'se lf'. For
instance, an Elizabethan traveller m ight be the 'self' to the colonized 'other' in
an Am erican settlem ent. Sim ilarly, critics often refer to the period's fascination
w ith the 'se lf/o th e r dichotom y'.
Patriarchy: Refers to any m ale-dom inated society in w hich equality betw een the
sexes is not prioritized. Thus, the rule o f Q ueen Elizabeth I m ay be seen to have
problem atized the p eriod 's patriarchal codes.
P lan tation : A settlem ent on foreign soil in w hich the m em bers have to farm
crops for sustenance. In the early m odern period there w ere various American
plantations, including the first, Jam estow n.
P ostcolonialism : C ritical and cultural theory' influenced by the w ork o f Edward
Said, particularly h is volum e Orientalism (1978). O ften applied to Shakespeare's
Othello, and , particularly, The Tempest. T he use o f this theory w ould typically
include an exam ination o f early m odem England a n d /o r Europe and an
encounter w ith the 'N ew W orld' su ch as the Americas.

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G lossary o f Critical an d Theoretical Terminology

P r o s c e n iu m A r c h : The front section o f a theatre w here part o f the architecture

forms an arch across and above the location o f theatrical activity, that bein g the
physical stage w hich the actors occupy. As such, this approach to theatre
building is the m ost w idely used form o f staging.
Prosody: Refers to the study o f verse and m etre. In Renaissance England a n u m
b er o f w orks were published that discussed the them e, including G eorge
Puttenham 's influential The A rte o f English Poesie (1589).
Protestant/Protestantism : The C hristian faith that broke aw ay from Catholicism
in the sixteenth century during the Reform ation. Key figures include Martin
Luther and John Calvin. See also 'R eformation', 'C atholicism ' and 'B ook of
C ommon P rayer'.
P sychoanalytic Th eory: Critical theory that is often applied to w orks such as
H am let and is usually based on the w ork o f Sigm und Freud and , particularly,
h is Interpretation o f Dreams (1900). T h is critical m ethodology w ill tend to exam
ine the psychological 'character' o f a literary creation, such a s the complex
intellectualism o f Prince H am let in Shakespeares play.
Purgatory: In C atholic belief, an otherw orld in w hich the soul o f the recently
deceased aw aits a placem ent in heaven o r hell.
P u r it a n / P u r it a n is m : T h e Puritans w ere the m ost extrem e group o f Protestants (see
P ro te sta n t/P ro te sta n tism ). The m ovem ent steered aw ay from the cerem ony of
the C hurch o f England and so becam e the most extrem e Protestant alternative to
Catholicism .
Q uarto: A cheaper version o f a printed book or pam phlet, as the paper is folded
tw ice, creating a sm aller size. The texts o f those o f Shakespeare's plays first
published in this size are often referred to as Q l , Q 2 etc.
Q ueer T h eory: Critical theory th at builds on the w ork o f theorists su ch as Eve
Kosofsky Sedgw ick and Judith Butler, as well as the cultural historian Alan
Bray and various literary critics, including the w ork o f Jonathan G oldberg. This
critical m ethodology attem pts to uncover expectations surrounding gender per
form ance and norm ative/non-norm ative representations o f sexuality from the
literary text and m ight be fruitfully applied, for instance, to Shakespeare's As
You L ike It.
R ecusancy: The term applied to secret C atholics (see C atholicism ) in England
w ho w ould not convert to P rotestantism and the C hurch of E ngland during
the Renaissance period.
R eform ation: The religious changes brought about by the m ove from C atholicism
to P rotestantism during the reigns o f Henry VIII and Edward VI. T h e Catholic
Mary I brought about a Catholic C ounter-Reform ation (1553-58) before
Elizabeth I restored the Protestant religion.
R e p u b lic a n : C ultural and political view point that abandons the need for a king or
queen as the head o f state. B est exem plified by the period after the civil w ars in
England (1649-60) before the restoration o f the monarchy.
R evenge Tragedy: Popular Elizabethan and Jacobean genre influenced by Senecan
dram a. Am ong the first surviving exam ples in Elizabethan dram a is Thomas
Kyd's Spanish Tragedy (c. 1588-92). Shakespeare produced two plays o f this
nature, the early Titus A ndronicus (c. 1592) and the more com plex Hamlet
(c. 1600-01).

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 G lossary o f Critical a n d Theoretical Terminology

S e l f - F a s h i o n i n g : A term first used by the 'new historicist' critic Stephen G reenblatt

(sec above) in his 1980 m onograph, Renaissance Self-Fashioning. O w ing to the
influence o f this critical w ork, 'self-fashioning' has becom e an approved term in
Renaissance scholarship. The expression refers to m om ents o f self-creation and
assertion by individual w riters and literary characters.
Sen tentiae: This is the plural of 'senten tia', w hich m eans 'judgem ent' in Latin.
It refers to a short saying carrying a clear m essage (and so covers proverbs,
epigram s and quotations). P olonius's 'N either a borrow er n o r a lender b e ' is
a sententia - and, indeed, w as highlighted for the reader's special attention
in the first quarto o f H am let (none o f H am let's were). A nother form of
sententia in plays is the use o f a couplet at the end o f a long speech or a
scene.
S o l i l o q u y : A lengthy, form al speech in verse, usually spoken by an im portant
character in a play, and often by the central protagonist. For instance, H am let's
' be, or not to be . . . ' speech in Shakespeare's tragedy. O ften, the character is
alone on stage a s the audience is given a unique glim pse o f h is o r her thoughts
and feelings.
Son n et: Poetic form o f 14 lines, often dealing w ith the issues o f love and success at
court. Shakespeare's sequence o f Sonnets w as published in 1609 though prob
ably w ritten (at least in part) in the early 1590s. O th er sonneteers include
Hdmund Spenser and Philip Sidney.
S o v e r e ig n t y : T h e idea that the monarch or 'sovereign ' possesses pow er o v er his or
her subordinate subjects, so that decisions can be m ade on behalf o f the people
and the realm by that one person.
S p a n i s h A r m a d a : T h e failed attem pt at the invasion o f England by the Catholic
Philip II o f Spain in 1588.
Spon d ee: T h is refers to tw o stressed syllables in a row in a line o f poetry.
S t y lo m e t r y : A mode o f inquiry that often seeks to identify the authorship o f a
literary text, ow ing to a supposedly distinctive literary style.
Su b jectiv ity : A theoretically-loaded term that applies to a person's selfhood a n d /
o r interiority. In criticism , m any studies have seen Hamlet as the birth o f a
m odern subjectivity o r 'subjective self', and the term cam e to prom inence
through psychoanalytical criticism , and, particularly, Am erican N ew H istori
cism and British C ultural M aterialism in the 1980s.
Su ccession : A ny king o r queen must have a 'su ccessor' in order to continue the
m onarchical governance o f a realm. Thus, early m odem society w a s constantly
interested in debates about the 'succession', particularly tow ards the end of
E lizabeth's reign, as the childless queen had not nam ed an heir.
Tragi-Com edy: A generic m ixture o f tragedy and com edy, and, possibly, the
third m ajor genre in Renaissance theatre, a Shakespearean exam ple being
M easure fo r M easure. However, this is often a problem atic term as the First
Folio' o f Shakespeare's w orks (1623) only divides plays into com edies, histor
ies and tragedies. H ow ever, various critics have tended to see som e plays as
too 'lig h t' for tragedy, yet too serious for com edy, w ith potential tragedy
hovering o ver m uch o f M easure fo r M easure. Because a play such a s this does
not becom e w holly tragic, the label tragi-com edy is often used as a useful
go-betw een.

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G lossary o f Critical an d Theoretical Terminology

T r a n s - G e n d e r : Refers to a m ale or fem ale w ho does n o t conform to a society's

cultural expectations o f his or her gender, in term s o f behaviour, d ress and other
life choices.
T r a n s g r e s s io n : The term applied to a person's actions w hen that act breaks either
the official law s o f a state o r a cultural expectation that is view ed as im portant
and supposedly correct. Thu s, w e m ight speak o f Lady M acbeth's 'gender
transgression' or King Edw ard's 'sexual transgression' in M arlow e's Edw ard II
(1592).
T r a n s s e x u a lit y : T h is indicates the conflicted sexual status o f an individual when
that person's ow n interpretation o f h is o r her gender differs from the biological
gender o f the physical body.
T r a n s v e s t is m : Refers to the act o f cross-dressing in the clothes o f the opposite sex.
Therefore, the all-m ale, cross-dressing early m odem stage w as also a site of
constant transvestism .
T ro c h e e : In this m etrical feature, the iam b is reversed (see i a m b / i a m b i c ) . T hus the
poetic foot consists o f a stressed syllable and then an unstressed syllable.
U l s t e r P la n t a t io n : R efers to the establishm ent in 1609 o f a num ber o f settlers from
mainland Britain, effectively forming an English and Protestant colonial com
m unity in C atholic Ireland, though the enterprise enjoyed little success.
U n i o n o f C r o w n s : In 1603 Q ueen Elizabeth 1 died, so becom ing the last o f the
Tudor monarchs. K ing Jam es VI o f Scotland thus becam e Jam es 1 o f England as
the crow ns w ere unified under on e m onarch. However, in reality Scotland and
England continued to be thought o f as two kingdom s that ju st happened to
share the sam e head o f state.
U s u r p a t io n : A king, queen or any ruler m ight have her o r his rule challenged b y a
'usurping' enem y w ho w ishes to displace that m onarch and take the crow n and
accom panying pow er for his or herself.
U t o p ia : A classical concept th at im agines the perfect, ideal w orld o r society.
Thom as M ore's Utopia from the early sixteenth century w as the m ajor literary
v ersion o f the idea in the Renaissance.
V e rse : Poetic text w ith a recognized structure o f non-stresses and stresses/accents,
as used in Shakespearean theatre in contrast w ith p r o s e . In R enaissance theatre,
v erse is usually spoken by the 'higher' aristocratic and m onarchical characters.
Fam ous exam ples include H am let and King Richard II.
W o r d - P la y : A technique often used by Shakespeare and h is contem poraries in
w hich the rhetorical construction o f an expression plays on the actual meaning
being signified.

222
Appendix: Shakespeare: Teaching,
Curriculum and Learning

D avid W ebb

C h a p t e r O v e r v ie w

C ore Topics
W ays o f Teaching

T h is ch a p te r is a v a ila b le o n lin e at
\v>y^::.cimtinuumbi>Qk^,..c.Qm/^gQyxcg.A9Z$0$26495785

223
Notes on the Contributors

G a b r i e l E g a n is a Reader in Shakespeare Studies at Loughborough U niversity and

a co-editor o f the journals Shakespeare and Theatre N otebook. H is books include
Shakespeare an d M arx (2004; Turkish translation 2006), Green Shakespeare (2006),
and the Edinburgh Critical G uide to Shakespeare (2007). He w rites the 'Shakespeare:
Editions and Textual Studies' section for the Year's Work in English Studies and is
currently w orking on a book about the theory and practice o f editing Shakespeare
in the tw entieth century.

W i l l i a m E n g e l is an A ssociate Professor o f English at T h e U niversity o f the South

in Sew anee, Tennessee. In addition to contributing chapters in collections such as
The Shakespeare Yearbook (2007), he is the author o f several books on intellectual
history, including M apping M ortality: The Persistence o f M em ory and M elancholy in
Early M odern England (U niversity o f M assachusetts Press, 1995), Death an d Drama
in Renaissance England (Oxford U niversity Press, 2002), and C hiastic Designs in
English Literature fro m Sidney to Shakespeare (Ashgate, 2009).

R o b e r t C. E v a n s , w ho has taught at Auburn University, M ontgom ery since 1982,

received his PhD from Princeton U niversity in 1984. A t AUM he has been selected
as Distinguished Research Professor, D istinguished Teaching Professor and Uni
versity Alum ni Professor. The recipient o f g rants from the ACLS, the N EH , the
M ellon Foundation and the UCLA C enter for Renaissance Studies and from the
Beinecke, Folger, H untington and Newberry Libraries, he has also won various
teaching aw ards. H e is the author o f num erous articles and the author o r editor of
o v er tw enty books.

S t u a r t H a m p t o n - R e e v e s is a Professor o f Research-inform ed Teaching at the

University o f C entral Lancashire. H e is the author o f The Shakespeare Handbooks:
M easure fo r M easure (Palgrave, 2007) and, with C arol Chillington Rutter,
Shakespeare in Performance: the 'Henry VV Plays (M anchester U niversity Press,
2007).

A n d re w H i s c o c k is a Professor o f English at Bangor University, Wales. He

has published w id ely on early m odern literature and h is m ost recent monograph
is entitled The Uses o f this World: T hinking Space in Shakespeare, M arlowe, Cary
and Jonson. H e is series co-editor for the Continuum Renaissance Drama, edited

224
 N otes on the Contributors

the M H R A 's 2008 Yearbook o f English Studies devoted to Tudor literature and
co-editcd Palgrave's Teaching Shakespeare an d Early M odern Dramatists. H e is also
Co-Hditor for the journal English (OUP).

L isa H o p k in s is a Professor o f English at Sheffield Hallam U niversity and co

editor o f Shakespeare, the journal of the British Shakespeare Association. H er pub
lications include T he Cultural Uses o f the Caesars on the English Renaissance Stage
(Ashgate, 2008), Shakespeare on the Edge: Border-crossing in the Tragedies an d the
H enriad (A shgate, 2005) and Beginning Shakespeare (M anchester U niversity Press,
2005).

R os K in g is a Professor o f English Studies at the U niversity o f Southam pton,

as well as a theatre director and dram aturge. She is the editor o f a range of
Shakespearean and pre-Shakespearean play texts, and co-ed itor o f the collection
o f essays, Shakespeare and War. H er other books include The Works o f Richard
Edwards: Politics, Poetry and Perform ance in Sixteenth-Century England, Cymbeline:
Constructions o f Britain, and T he Winter's Tale.

S tep h en Longstaffe is a Senior Lecturer in English at the U niversity o f Cum bria.

He has published an edition o f the Elizabethan history play The Life and Death
o f Jack Straiu and on topics including M arlow e in perform ance, Bakhtin and
Shakespeare, editing Shakespeare, clow ning, and various aspects o f early modern
radical traditions. He is currently w orking again on clow ning and the politics
o f early m o d em perform ance, and in his spare tim e plays around w ith his local
co m ed y/d ram a improvisation group.

W illy M aley is a Professor o f Renaissance Studies a t G lasgow University. He

is author o f A Spenser Chronology (1994), Salvaging Spenser (1997), and Nation,
State and Empire in English R enaissance Literature (2003), and editor o f Representing
Ireland: Literature and the O rigins o f Conflict, 1534 660 (1993), Postcolonial Criticism
(1997), A View o f the Present State o f Ireland (1997), British Identities and English
Renaissance Literature (2002), Shakespeare an d Scotland (2004), and Spheres o f Influ
ence: Intellectual and Cultural Publics fro m Shakespeare to Haberm as (2007).

K irk M e ln ik o ff is an Assistant Professor o f English at the U niversity o f North

Carolina at C harlotte. H is essays have appeared in M osaic, Studies in Philology
and T he Library, and he is ed itor o f W riting Robert G reene: Essays on England's
First N otorious Professional Writer. H e is currently finishing a book project on
Elizabethan publishing practices.

M ark R obson teaches at the U niversity o f Nottingham . H e is the author o f Stephen

G reenblatt (2007) and The Sense o f E arly M odern W riting: Rhetoric, Poetics, Aesthetics
(2006), co-author o f Language in Theory (2005), editor o f Hester Pulter, Poems
(forthcom ing) and Jacques Ranciere: Aesthetics, Politics, Philosophy (2005) and co
editor o f The Limits o f D eath: Between Philosophy and Psychoanalysis (2000). He is
currently com pleting (with Jam es Loxley), Shakespeare, Jonson, and the Claims o f the
Performative (forthcoming).

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N otes on the Contributors

P e te r S i l l i t o e studied English literature at the Bangor University, W ales, before

com pleting a PhD on R enaissance co u rt entertainm ents at the U niversity of
Sheffield. He has taught at Sheffield, De M ontfort, and W olverham pton uni
versities and is currently com pleting a m onograph entitled Defining Elite Space in
Early Stuart England.

A d r i a n S tre e te is a Lecturer in English at Q ueen's U niversity Belfast. H e is the co-

editor o f R efiguring M im esis: Representation in Early M odern Literature (University of
Hertfordshire Press, 2005) and has published essays in journals such as The Reuiezu
o f English Studies, Textual Practice and Literature an d History. H is book Protestantism
and Drama in Early M odem England is forthcom ing w ith C am bridge U niversity
Press.

D a v i d W e b b is currently teaching for the O pen U niversity and is involved in

research projects in the D epartm ent o f Education, O xford University. He taught
Renaissance literature and w as responsible for English for intending primary
and secondary teachers at St M artin's College, Lancaster (now the U niversity of
C um bria). He has published on M arlow e, Shakespeare and educational topics,
and w as w inner o f the Calvin H offm an prize for publication on Marlowe.

226
Notes

C h a p te r 2
1 The author wishes to express his gratitude to W. B. Patterson for offering helpful
suggestions on this essay.

C h a p te r 9
1 You can take a 'virtual tour' o f the interior of the Globe at h ttp ://
www.shakespeares-globe.org/virtualtour/stage/.

C h a p te r 11
1 The production, in a French prose translation, w as performed in London at the
Adelphi in June 1899.
2 h t t p :/ / uk.youtube.com/watch?v=7jiAs5gGl A A, accessed 1 September 2008.
3 Shaksper, 11 June 2008; http://w w w .shaksper.net/archives/2008/0349.htm l.
4 Productions by Tower Shakespeare Company in London in the 1980s, and
Shenandoah Shakespeare Express, touring campuses in the US have performed
uncut Folio text versions of even the longest plays in approximately three hours;
see also the almost entirely uncut production of Cymbeline by Shakespeare Santa
Cruz (2000); discussed by King (2005:173-80) and rgel (2001).
5 Copious descriptive stage directions are found in the works of Henrik Ibsen and
George Bernard Shaw, but this was an innovation forced on those playwrights
who had found it difficult to get their plays performed for reasons o f censorship
and had prepared their texts specifically for the reading public.

227
Annotated Bibliography

Robert C. Evans

T h e follow ing bibliography, w hich o f course can only skim the surface o f valuable
scholarship on Shakespeare, attem pts to focus (a) on classic studies; (b) on recent
overview s and on com prehensive guides; (c) on m ulti-author collections offering
a v ariety o f critical perspectives; (d) on critical controversies; and (e) on works
likely to be especially helpful to new er students o f Shakespeare. T h e bibliography
is broken into the following sub-sections: (1) one-volum e editions; (2) multi
volum e editions; (3) reference w orks; (4) biographies; (5) history o f criticism ;
(6) criticism : im portant general studies; (7) perform ance on stage and film; (8) the
plays: com edies; (9) the plays: histories; (10) the plays: rom ances and other late
plays; (11) the plays: tragedies; (12) the poems.

E d itio n s: O n e -v o lu m e V ersio n s

Shakespeare, W. (1996), The Riverside Shakespeare (2nd edn), ed. G. B. Evans. New
York: I Ioughton Mifflin. Includes essays on m o d em criticism and on the plays
in perform ance.
------ (2001), Arden Shakespeare: Com plete Works (revised edn), ed. D. S. Kastan,
R. Proudfoot and A. Thom pson. London: A rd en /T h om son Learning.
Em phasizes historical attitudes tow ards the w orks, Shakespeare's life and
reading and the w ays h is plays were originally performed.
------ (2004), Com plete Works o f W illiam Shakespeare (5th edn), ed. D. Bevington.
N ew York: Pearson Longman. Em phasizes historical data, language, cultural
contexts and interpretive issues.
------ (2005), The O xford Shakespeare: The Com plete Works (2nd edn), ed. S. Wells,
G. Taylor, J. Jow ett and W. M ontgom ery. Oxford: O xford U niversity Press. C on
troversial bu t highly influential edition em phasizing textual dilemmas.
------ (2008), T he Norton Shakespeare: Based on the O xford Edition (2nd edn), ed. S.
G reenblatt, W. Cohen, J. E. Howard and K. E. M aus. N ew York: W. W. Norton.
Em phasizes Shakespeare's w orld, theatrical environm ent, life and art and text
ual issues.

E d itio n s: M u lti-v o lu m e V e rsio n s

Shakespeare, W. (1982-), The O xford Shakespeare, ed. S. Wells. Oxford: Oxford

U niversity Press. Each volum e offers a detailed introduction, a rigorously
edited text, copious notes and, often, various helpful appendices. Wells

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 Annotated Bibliography

edits the series; individual volum es are edited by particular experts. See also
the Oxford School Shakespeare series, w hich em phasizes w ays to engage
students.
------ (1984-), N ew Cam bridge Shakespeare, ed. B. G ibbons. C am bridge: C am bridge
U niversity Press. Thorough introductions and notes; em phasizes theatrical
issues. See also T he Neiu Cam bridge Shakespeare Q uartos as well the C am bridge
School Shakespeare series (general editor: Rex G ibson), w hich em phasizes ways
to teach the plays.
------ (1992-2006), N ew Folger Library Shakespeare, ed. B. M ow at and P. Werstine,
P. 31 vols. N ew York: W ashington Square Press. N otes and splendid illustrations
appear on pages facing the texts. Each volum e presents detailed plot sum m ar
ies, copious textual notes, annotated lists o f secondary sources and an essay
offering a 'M od em Perspective'.
------ (1995-), The Arden Shakespeare (3rd series), ed. R. Proud foot, D. S. Kastan
and A. Thom pson. Volumes offer m eticulously edited texts, substantial introduc
tions, helpful appendices and volum inous notes.

R e fe re n c e W o rks

Andrew s, J . F. (ed.) (1985), Shakespeare: H is World, H is Work, H is Influence. 3 vols.

N ew York: Scribner's sixty essays on num erous topics.
Baldw in, T. W. (1944), W illiam Shakespere's Sm all Latine an d Lesse Greeke. 2 vols.
Urbana: U niversity o f Illinois Press. Exhaustive study o f Shakespeare's likely
education, including extensive discussion o f required books.
Bentley, G. E. (1941-68), T he Jacobean and Caroline Stage. 7 vols. Oxford: Clarendon
Press. Data on nearly every aspect o f the theatrical world.
Bergeron, D. and d e Sousa, G . U. (1995), Shakespeare: A Study and Research Guide
(3rd edn). Law rence: U niversity Press o f Kansas. An exceptionally helpful
g uide covering criticism , reference m aterials and editions. Extremely useful for
beginning students.
Berm an, R. (1973), A Reader's G uide to Shakespeare's Plays (revised edn). Glenview:
Scott, Foresman. Dated bu t still useful.
Bullough, G. (ed.) (1957-75), N arrative and D ram atic Sources o f Shakespeare. 8 vols.
London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Extremely useful; discusses and reprints
m ajor sources.
C am pbell, O. J. and Q uinn, E. G. (1966), The Reader's Encyclopedia o f Shakespeare.
N ew York: Thom as Y. Crowell. I luge, if som ew hat dated; especially valuable
for its excerpts from im portant critics.
C ham bers, E. K . (1923), The Elizabethan Stage. 4 vols. O xford: Clarendon Press. A
standard w ork em phasizing facts, figures and docum ents.
C ham pion, L. S. (1993), Essential Shakespeare: An Annotated Bibliography o f M ajor
M odern Studies (2nd edn). N ew York: G. K. Hall. An indispensable overview.
C harney, M. (1993), A ll o f Shakespeare. Colum bia: C olum bia University Press.
C om prehensive coverage and sensible interpretations; a good introduction.
d e G razia, M . and Wells, S. (eds) (2001), The Cam bridge Com panion to Shakespeare.
C am bridge: C am bridge U niversity Press. Includes chronologies plus discus
sions o f such topics as Shakespeare's life; the reproduction o f h is texts; his
reading; his use o f language; h is poem s; generic issues; theatrical conditions;
life in London; gender and sexuality; outsiders in Elizabethan England;

229
Annotated Bibliography

Shakespeare and history; the p lays' theatrical history; films; relations between
p age and stage; Shakespeare's w orldw ide im pact; the history o f Shakespeare
criticism and im portant reference books.
Dobson, M. and W ells, S. (eds) (2005), O xford Companion to Shakespeare (new edn).
Touches on nearly all things Shakespearean.
Donker, M. and Muldrow, G. M. (1982), D ictionary o f Literary-Rhetorical Conventions
o f the English Renaissance. D iscusses num erous kinds o f w riting o f the era.
H arbagc, A. (1963), W illiam Shakespeare: A Reader's Guide. N ew York: N oonday
Press. (A lso published a s A Reader's G uide to William Shakespeare.] Provides
sensible close readings; especially valuable for beginners.
Kastan, D. S. (ed.) (1999), A Com panion to Shakespeare. Oxford: Blackwell. Covers
such topics as Shakespeare's culture; Shakespeare the m an; Shakespeare's
England and London; religious identities; the family and household; political
thought and culture; readers and reading; reading the bible, the classics, history
and vernacular literature; playw righting; the English language; dram atic verse;
rhetorical culture; genre; the econom ics o f playing; Shakespeares acting com
panies; his repertory; his playhouses; licensing and censorship; Shakespeare in
print, 1593-1640; m anuscript playbooks; the craft o f printing; the book-trade;
press censorship; and Shakespeare: the myth.
Klin, P. C . (1991), Shakespeare and Feminist Criticism : An A nnotated Bibliography
and Commentary. New York: G arland. C overs the years 1975-1988.
M cDonald, R. (2001), The Bedford Com panion to Shakespeare: An Introduction with
Docum ents (2nd edn). Boston: B ed fo rd /St M artin's. An exceptionally helpful
overview, w ith chapters on the life and the authorship controversy; dram atic
language; theatre and dram atic genres; perform ance, playhouses and players;
textual issues; Shakespeare's reading; life in Shakespeare's England; gender
issues and social structure; politics and religion; and the history o f perform
ances. C ontains num erous excerpts from prim ary docum ents as well as many
illustrations.
Q uinn, E. G ., Ruoff, J. and G rennen, J. (1973), The M ajor Shakespearean Tragedies:
A Critical Bibliography. N ew York: Free Press. Dated bu t still valuable.
Rivers, I. (1994), Classical and Christian Ideas in English Renaissance Poetry: A
Student's Guide. London: Routledge. Intelligently organized chapters deal w ith
the gold en age and the G arden o f Eden; the pagan gods; Platonism and neo-
Platonism ; stoicism ; view s o f history; cosm ology; Reform ation and C ounter-
R eform ation; Protestant theology; hum anism ; biblical exegesis and typology;
theories o f poetry; allegory; and numerology.
Shaughnessy, R. (ed.) (2007), The Cam bridge Com panion to Shakespeare and Popular
Culture. Cam bridge: C am bridge U niversity Press. Topics include relations
betw een popular entertainm ent and literature; Shakespeare abbreviated;
Shakespearean stars; Shakespeare illustrated; Shakespeare: m yth and bio
graphical fiction; narration and staging in H am let and its after-novels;
Shakespeare serialized; m usical Shakespeares; rad io adaptations and perform
ances; Shakespeare and tourism ; perform ing Shakespeare in digital culture;
and Shakespeare's popular face: from playbill to poster.

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 Annotated Bibliography

B io g rap h ies

C ham bers, E. K . (1930), W illiam Shakespeare: A Study o f Facts and Problems. 2 vols.
Oxford: C larendon Press. C lassic early biography; the second volum e brim s w ith
contem porary docum ents and data, including early references to Shakespeare
and evidence concerning the developm ent o f h is reputation into the mid
nineteenth century.
H onan, P. (1998), Shakespeare: A Life. O xford: O xford U niversity Press. A sane,
thorough stud y that em phasizes Shakespeare's life as a theatrical professional.
Acknow ledges the lim its o f our know ledge and deals sensibly w ith the stand
ard controversies.
Schoenbaum , S. (1975), W illiam Shakespeare: A D ocum entary Life. N ew York: Oxford
U niversity Press. Includes and discusses photographic reproductions o f more
than 200 documents.
------ (1981), William Shakespeare: Records and Images. N ew York: O xford University
Press. A dds more than 150 further docum ents to those included in Schoen-
b au m 's 1975 volume.
------ (1991), Shakespeare's Lives (new edn). O xford: Clarendon. Traces the bio
graphical tradition and discusses claim s that various other persons may have
been the 'real' authors o f Shakespeare's works.

H isto ry o f C r itic is m

Eastman, A. M. (ed.) (1968), A Short H istory o f Shakespearean Criticism . N ew York:

Random House. A standard overview w ith extensive excerpts.
R alli, A. (1932), A H istory o f Shakespeare Criticism. 2 vols. Oxford: O xford University
Press. A m assive com pendium m oving from the seventeenth to the early
twentieth centuries and featuring British, French and G erm an thinkers.
Taylor, G. (1991), Reinventing Shakespeare: A Cultural H istory fro m the Restoration
to the Present. Explores the w ays Shakespeare's reputation has been affected
by differing historical conditions.
Taylor, M . (2001), Shakespeare Criticism in the Twentieth Century. Oxford: Oxford
U niversity Press. Topics include the era o f F. H. Bradley, the rise o f form alism ,
theatrical approaches, historical approaches and approaches stressing marginal
groups and marginal perspectives.
Vickers, B. (1974-81), Shakespeare: The Critical Heritage. 6 vols. London: Routledge
and Keegan Paul. O ffers excerpts from com m entary published betw een 1623
and 1 8 0 1 .

C r it ic is m : Im p o rta n t G e n e ra l Stud ies

Battenhouse, R. (ed.) (1994), Shakespeare's Christian D im ension: An A nthology o f

Com m entary. Bloom ington: Indiana U niversity Press. A huge collection arguing
for the im portance o f C hristian backgrounds and meanings.
Bradshaw, G. (1993), M isrepresentations: Shakespeare and the M aterialists. Ithaca:
C ornell U niversity Press. Skeptical responses to 'new h istoricist' and 'cultural
m aterialist' approaches.

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Annotated Bibliography

Calderw ood, J. (1971), Shakespearean M etradram a. M inneapolis: U niversity of

M innesota Press. Focusing on five w orks, suggests how they reflect on drama
itself as a central topic.
C allaghan, D. (ed.) (2001), A Feminist Companion to Shakespeare. O xford: Blackwell.
Topics include the history o f feminist Shakespeare criticism ; text and language;
social econom ies; race and colonialism ; perform ing sexuality; and religion.
Clem en, W. H. (1951), The Developm ent o f Shakespeares Im agery. Cambridge:
Harvard U niversity Press. A classic study.
------ (1964), Shakespeare's Soliloquies. Cam bridge: C am bridge U niversity Press.
Still a standard work.
Dollimore, J. and Sinfield, A. (eds) (1985), Political Shakespeare: Neiv Essays in
Cultural M aterialism . Ithaca: Cornell U niversity Press. An influential collection
o f leftist essays. 2nd revised edition (1994).
D rakakis, J . (ed.) (1985), A lternative Shakespeares. London: M ethuen. Challenges
older views by offering a variety o f recent, politically-oriented perspectives.
2nd edition (2002).
Dusinberre, J. (1975), Shakespeare an d the N ature o f Women. London: M acmillan.
Suggests that Puritan ideas helped shape Shakespeare's sym pathetic portrayal
o f women.
Erne, L. (2003), Shakespeare a s Literary Dramatist. Cam bridge: C am bridge U niversity
Press. A rgues that Shakespeare often w rote his plays to b e read as w ell as
perform ed, contends that longer 'literary' versions w ere often trim m ed for
perform ance.
French, M. (1981), Shakespeare's Division o f Experience. N ew York: Sum m it. Suggests
the w ays m asculine and fem inine tendencies are em phasized to different
d egrees in the com edies, tragedies and romances.
Frye, R. M. (1963), Shakespeare and Christian Doctrine. Princeton: Princeton
U niversity Press. Warns against excessively doctrinaire readings o f the plays.
G oddard, H. C. (1951), The M eaning o f Shakepeare. 2 vols. Chicago: U niversity of
C hicago Press. D etailed readings of num erous plays.
G reenblatt, S. (1980), Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From M ore to Shakespeare.
Chicago: U niversity o f C hicago Press. Extremely influential 'new historicist'
text; em phasizes how subversive im pulses are both generated and contained.
------ (1988), Shakespearean Negotiations: The Circulation o f Social Energy in Renais
sance England. Berkeley: U niversity o f C alifornia Press. Influential bu t contro
versial essays.
Gurr, A. (2004), P laygoing in Shakespeare's London (3rd edn). Cam bridge: C am bridge
U niversity Press. Suggests that variou s kinds o f people - not predom inantly
either com m oners or the privileged - attended plays.
H all, K. F. (1996), Things o f D arkness: Econom ies o f Race and G ender in Early Modern
England. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Influential study o f tw o topics greatly
em phasized by recent critics.
Jardine, L. (1983), Still H arping on Daughters: Women and Drama in the A g e o f
Shakespeare. Sussex: Harvester. Em phasizes oppressive forces.
Kott, J. (1964), Shakespeare O u r Contemporary. G arden City: D oubleday. Argues for
the relevance o f Shakespeare to m odern culture.
Levin, R. L. (2003), Looking fo r an Argum ent: Critical Encounters with the Neiv
Approaches to Shakespeare an d I lis Contem poraries. M adison: Fairleigh Dickinson
U niversity Press. Sceptical responses to recent m ethods and interpretations.

232
 Annotated Bibliography

M urphy, A. (ed.) (2007), A Concise Com panion to Shakespeare and the Text. Twelve
essays on histories o f the books, theories o f editing and practicalities.
N eely, C. T. (1985), Broken Nuptials in Shakespeare's Plays. N ew Haven: Yale
U niversity Press. D iscusses m arriage in plays from various genres.
O rgel, S. (1996), Im personations: The Perform ance o f G ender in Shakespeare's England.
C am bridge: C am bridge U niversity Press. A n influential critic considers such
m atters as cross-dressing and boy-actors playing fem ale roles.
Parker, P. and H artm an, G. (eds) (1985), Shakespeare and the Question o f Theory.
London: M ethuen. Em phasizes recent linguistic, political and fem inist
perspectives.
Paster, G. K. (1993), The Body Em barrassed: Drama an d the Disciplines o f Sham e in
Early M odern England. Ithaca: Cornell U niversity Press. Em phasizes the im port
an ce o f contem porary 'hum ours' theory.
Pechter, E. (1995), W hat Was Shakespeare?: Renaissance Plays and Changing Critical
Practice. Ithaca: Cornell U niversity Press. C onfronts and com m ents on the
dizzying variety o f approaches that have arisen in recent decades.
Rabkin, N. (1967), Shakespeare and the Com m on Understanding. New York: Free
Press. Em phasizes the paradoxical nature of the plays.
------ (1981), Shakespeare and the Problem o f M eaning. Chicago: U niversity o f Chicago
Press. Em phasizes the com plexities and contradictions the plays em body.
Righter [Barton], A. (1962), Shakespeare and the Idea o f Play. London: Chatto and
W indus. Relates the plays to both earlier and Elizabethan ideas about theatre.
Skura, M . (1993), Shakespeare the A ctor and the Purposes o f Playing. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press. Explores depictions o f acting in various plays
and the w ays Shakespeare's experiences as an actor m ay have helped shape
his texts.
Spurgeon, C . F. E. (1935), Shakespeare's Im agery and What It Tells Us. Cam bridge:
Cam bridge U niversity Press. A pioneering study.
Styan, J . L. (1967), Shakespeare's Stagecraft. Cam bridge: C am bridge U niversity
Press. Influential early study o f the plays a s w orks for the theatre.
Tillyard, E. M . W. (1943), The Elizabethan World Picture. London: Chatto and Windus.
B rief bu t highly influential overview em phasizing order and orthodoxy;
frequently attacked by m ore recent critics.
Vickers, B. (1968), T he A rtistry o f Shakespeare's Prose. London: M ethuen. Examines
d ifferent uses o f prose in the com edies and tragedies and in different periods
o f Shakespeare's career.
------ (1993), A ppropriating Shakespeare: Contem porary Critical Quarrels. Criticizes
short-com ings of recent approaches, especially deconstruction, new historicism,
fem inism and M arxism as w ell a s psychological and C hristian perspectives.
Wayne, V. (ed.) (1991), The M atter o f Difference: M aterialist Feminist Criticism o f
Shakespeare. Ithaca: Cornell U niversity Press. Essays em phasizing the political
dim ensions o f feminism.

P e rfo rm a n ce o n Stage a n d Film

G ranville-Barker, H. (1946), Prefaces to Shakesepeare. 4 vols. Princeton: Princeton

U niversity Press. C lassic theatre-oriented studies by a noted director.
Gurr, A . (1992), The Shakespearean Stage, 1574-1642 (3rd edn). Cambridge:
Cam bridge U niversity Press. A standard study.

233
Annotated Bibliography

H enderson, D. (ed.) (2005), A Concise Com panion to Shakespeare on Film. Oxford:

Blackw ell. Twelve essays on various topics.
H odgdon, B. and VVorthen, VV. (eds) (2005), A Companion to Shakespeare and
Performance. Oxford: Blackwell. Perform ance is discussed in term s o f writing,
histories, cultural technologies and teaching.
Jackson, R . (ed.) (2007), The Cambridge Com panion to Shakespeare on Film. Cambridge:
Cam bridge U niversity Press. Topics include the m arketplace; from play-script
to screenplay; video; screen history: Richard III; Hamlet; M acbeth; King Lear; the
com edies; the histories; the tragedies o f love; various directors; women;
national and racial stereotypes; the supernatural; and Shakespeare's cinem atic
offshoots.
W ells, S. and Stanton, S. (eds) (2002), T he Cam bridge Com panion to Shakespeare
on Stage. Topics include Renaissance stagings; later adaptations; Romantic
Shakespeare; pictorial Shakespeare; reconstructive Shakespeare; tw entieth-
century perform ances; tragic and com ic actors; w om en and perform ance;
touring Shakespeare; m odern political stagings; and Shakespeare in North
Am erica, Asia and Africa.

T h e P lay s: C o m e d ie s

Barber, C . L. (1959), Shakespeare's Festive Com edy. Princeton: Princeton U niversity

Press. Relates the plays to celebratory traditions.
Berry, R. (1972), Shakespeare's Com edy: Explorations in Form. Princeton: Princeton
U niversity Press. Em phasizes appearance vs reality.
Brown, J. R. (1962), Shakespeare an d His Com edies (2nd edn). London: M ethuen.
Em phasizes different treatm ents o f love.
C arroll, W. C. (1985), The M etam orphoses o f Shakespearean Com edy. Princeton:
Princeton U niversity Press. Explores various kinds o f change.
C ham pion, L. S. (1970), The Evolution o f Shakespeare's Com edy: A Study in Dramatic
Perspective. Cam bridge: Harvard U niversity Press. Especially valuable for
sum m arizing and assessing previous criticism.
Charlton, H. B. (1938), Shakespearean Com edy. London: M ethuen. A n influential
early study.
Dutton, R. and How ard, J. (2003), A Com panion to Shakespeare's W orks, Volume III:
T he Comedies. Oxford: Blackwell. Topics include stage com edy; festive com edies;
social discipline; class; social relations; cross-dressing; hom oerotics; material
life; com ic geographies; rhetoric and com ic personation; Falstaff; film and genre;
and individual plays.
Evans, B. (1960), Shakespeare's Comedies. O xford: Clarendon Press. Em phasizes the
them e o f ignorance vs knowledge.
Frye, N. (1965), A Natural Perspective: The Development o f Shakespearean Comedy
and Romance. New York: C olum bia U niversity Press. Em phasizes the im port
an ce o f reconciliations, often in marriage.
H assell, R. C., Jr (1980), Faith an d Folly in Shakespeares Rom antic Comedies. Athens:
U niversity o f G eorgia Press. Relates the plays to C hristian ideas about
foolishness.
Hunter, R. G. (1965), Shakespeare an d the Comedy o f Forgiveness. N ew York: Colum bia
U niversity Press. Relates a half-dozen plays to ideals o f Christian charity.

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H uston, J. D. (1981), Shakespeare's Com edies o f Play. N ew York: C olum bia U niversity
Press. Em phasizes playfulness and playing.
Kirsch, A. C . (1981), Shakespeare an d the Experience o f Loue. Cam bridge: C am bridge
U niversity Press. Em ploys both religious and psychoanalytical approaches.
Leggatt, A. (ed.) (2002), The Cam bridge Companion to Shakespearean Comedy.
C am bridge: C am bridge U niversity Press. Topics include traditional theories
o f com edy; Rom an com edy; Italian stories on the stage; Elizabethan com edy;
popular festivity; Shakespeare's forms o f confusion; love and courtship; lau gh
ing at 'others'; com edy and sex; language and com edy; sexual disguise and
the theatre o f gender; m atters o f state; and the experim ent o f romance.
------ (1973), Shakespeare's Comedy o f Love. London: M ethuen. D iscusses the dis
tinctiveness o f each play by relating it to standard patterns.
M cFarland, T. (1972), Shakespeare's Pastoral Com edy. C hapel Hill: U niversity of
North Carolina Press. Relates a handful o f plays to ideals of rural life.
Nevo, R. (1980), Com ic Transformations in Shakespeare. Exam ines the ways
Shakespeare transform s earlier traditions o f comedy.
Phialas, P. G. (1966), Shakespeare's Romantic Comedies: The Developm ent o f Their
Form and M eaning. Em phasizes the central them e o f love.
Salingar, L. (1976), Shakespeare and the Traditions o f Com edy. Cam bridge: Cam bridge
U niversity Press. C onnects the plays to classical, m edieval and Renaissance
precedents.
Sm ith, E. (2003), Shakespeares Com edies: A G uide to Criticism. Oxford: Blackwell.
Part I covers 1590-1914; Part II stresses the tw entieth-century studies.
Waller, G. (ed.) (1991), Shakespeare's Comedies. London: Longman. Emphasizes
recent critical trends, especially Freudianism , fem inism and new historicism.
W heeler, R. P. (1981), Shakespeare's Development and the Problem Comedies: Turn
and Counter-Turn. Berkeley: U niversity o f California Press. Relates these plays
to the earlier and later com ic works.
Wilson, J. D. (1962), Shakespeare's Happy Comedies. Evanston: Northwestern
U niversity Press. Em phasizes the joyful, non-satiric aspects o f various plays.

T h e P lay s: H isto ry Plays

C am pbell, L. B. (1947), Shakespeare's 'Histories': M irrors o f Elizabethan Policy. San

M arino: H untington Library. Sees the plays as responses to specific Elizabethan
issues and connects them to history-w riting o f th at period.
C ham pion, L. S. (1980), P erspective in Shakespeare's English H istory Plays. Athens:
U niversity o f G eorgia Press. Em phasizes how points o f view control audience
response; valuable for its overview o f previous criticism.
Chernaik, W. (2007), T he Cam bridge Introduction to Shakespeare's H istory Plays.
C am bridge: C am bridge U niversity Press. Topics include the uses o f history
and the w ars o f the critics. D iscussions o f individual plays em phasize their
distinctive features and also stage and screen performances.
Dutton, R. and H ow ard, J. (eds) (2003), A Companion to Shakespeare's Works,
Volume II: The Histories. Oxford: Blackwell. Topics include Elizabethan history-
w riting, history-plays and dram atists o f history; censorship; nation formation;
Irish contexts; theories o f kingship; recent films; riot and rebellion; m asculinity,
effem inacy and hom oerotics; French m arriages and the Protestant nation; the
first and second tetralogies in perform ance; and studies o f the individual plays.

235
Annotated Bibliography

H attaw ay, M . (ed.) (2003), Cam bridge Companion to Shakespeare's H istory Plays.
C am bridge: C am bridge U niversity Press. Topics include Shakespearean and
o th er early m odern history plays; pageants and m asques; Elizabethan histori
ography and Shakespeares sources; w om en 's roles; relevant royal dynasties;
discussions o f specific plays; Shakespeare's ancient Rom e; h is other historical
plays; and theatrical productions.
Leggatt, A. (1988), Shakespeare's P olitical Drama: The H istory Plays an d the Roman
Plays. London: Routledge. D etailed readings o f eleven plays, focusing on ten
sions betw een realities and ideals and the need for rules to create scripts and
act roles.
Rackin, P. (1990), Stages o f History: Shakespeare's English Chronicles. London:
Routledge. Em phasizes the silenced voices o f w omen and com m on folk.
Reese, M. M. (1961), T he C ease o f M ajesty. London: Edw ard Arnold. R elates the
plays to previous dram as and to preceding w orks o f history; also links them
to Elizabethan issues.
Ribner, I. (1965), The English H istory Play in the Age o f Shakespeare (revised edn).
London: M ethuen. Synthesizing and responding to earlier scholarship, this
w ork em phasizes the influence of previous kinds o f plays about history and
the different purposes they could serve.
Saccio, P. (1977), Shakespeares English Kings: History, Chronicle, an d Drama. London:
O xford U niversity Press. Provides reliable historical inform ation, discusses how
the various reigns w ere view ed by Shakespeare's predecessors, and indicates
how Shakespeare him self shaped and altered previous facts and interpretations.
A standard reference source.
Sm ith, E. (2003), Shakespeare's H istories: A G uide to Criticism. O xford: Blackwell.
Topics covered include the developing critical tradition; genre; language; gen
d er and sexuality; history and politics; and perform ance.
Tillyard, E. M. W. (1944), Shakespeare's H istory Plays. London: M acm illan. Argues
that the plays form an English ep ic in w hich order (culm inating in the Tudor
dynasty) evolved out o f preceding disorder thanks to divine providence. A
highly influential early study that has been significantly challenged b y more
recent scholars.
Traversi, D. A. (1957), Shakespeare: From 'Richard IT to 'Henry V . Stanford: Stanford
U niversity Press. Exam ines traits o f the kings and kingship.

T h e P lay s: R o m a n c e s a n d O t h e r Late Plays

Dutton, R. and H ow ard, J. (eds) (2003), A Com panion to Shakespeare's Works, Volume
IV: The Poems, Problem Comedies, I Ate Plays. O xford: Blackwell. Topics include
the sonnets and sexuality; O vids im pact on Venus and A donis; the problem plays
and the dram a o f Shakespeare's tim e; scatology and satire; early m odern mar
riage; varieties of collaboration; generic issues; Shakespeare and Beaum ont
and Fletcher; place and space in three late plays; politics and the technology
o f spectacle; and explorations o f individual works.
Felperin, H. (1972), Shakespearean Rom ance. Princeton: Princeton U niversity Press.
Exam ines the influence o f classical and m edieval precedents on the romance
genre.

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 Annotated Bibliography

Foakes, R. A. (1971), Shakespeare: The D ark Com edies to the Last Plays: From Satire to
Celebration. Charlottesville: U niversity of Virginia Press. Em phasizes perform
an ce issues and changes in characterization.
Frye, N. (1965). A Natural Perspective: The D evelopm ent o f Shakespearean Comedy and
Romance. N ew York: Colum bia U niversity Press. Stresses m ythic patterns of
rebirth and renewal.
H artw ig, J. (c. 1972), Shakespeare's Tragicomic Vision. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State
U niversity Press. Em phasizes the com plex responses these plays provoke and
their com m on elem ents o f plot.
Kay, C. M. and Jacobs, H. E. (eds) (1978), Shakesepeare's Rom ances Reconsidered.
Lincoln: U niversity o f N ebraska Press. Contains eleven essays, a critical over
view and a lengthy bibliography.
Knight, G. W. (1947), T he Crown o f Life: Essays in Interpretation o f Shakespeare's Last
Plays. London: Oxford U niversity Press. Em phasizes the p lays' visionary qual
ities and their real artistic success.
Tillyard, E. M. W. (1938), Shakespeare's Last Plays. Focuses on three plays, linking
them to related kinds o f w riting (particularly tragedy).
Traversi, D. A. (1954), Shakespeare: The Last Phase. N ew York: Harcourt, Brace.
Stresses patterns o f reconciliation.
Yates, F. A. (1975), Shakespeare's Last Plays: A N e Approach. London: Routledge.
C onnects the plays to developm ents in the royal family.

T h e P lay s: Tragedies

Battenhouse, R . W. (1969), Shakespearean Tragedy: Its A rt and Its Christian Premises.

Bloom ington: Indiana U niversity Press. A rgues that the religious dim ension is
crucial.
Bell, M. (2002), Shakespeare's Tragic Skepticism. N ew Haven: Yale U niversity
Press. Em phasizes the conflicts and contradictions within the plays that reflect
Shakespeare's doubts about o u r ability to know w ith certainty.
Bradley, A. C. (1904), Shakespearean Tragedy. N ew York: St M artin's. Highly
influential studying em phasizing the personalities o f the tragic characters.
Brown, J. R . (2001), Shakespeare: The Tragedies. N ew York: Palgrave. Topics include
popular tragedies, historical tragedies, histories and heroes; u nsettling the
audience; sources, contexts and stage actions in Ham let; sexuality and differ
ence; pow er and the im agination; and pow er and uncertainty.
C am pbell, L. B. (1930), Shakespeare's Heroes: Slaves o f Passion. Cam bridge:
C am bridge U niversity Press. Argues that each o f the m ajor tragic heroes is
irrational (and thus im m oral) in som e distinct way.
C ham pion, L. S. (1976), Shakespeare's Tragic Perspective. A thens: U niversity of
Georgia Press. Especially valuable as a guide to earlier criticism.
D illon, J. (2007), The Cam bridge Introduction to Shakespeare's Tragedies. Cambridge:
Cam bridge U niversity Press. Topics include defining 'Shakespearean tragedy';
traits o f the tragic hero; w hether som e plays arc more tragic than others; and the
individual dram as.
Dollimore, J. (2004), Radical Tragedy: Religion, Ideology an d Pow er in the D ram a o f
Shakespeare an d His Contem poraries (3rd edn). Durham: D uke U niversity Press.
Influential 'su bversive' reading; sees the plays as unorthodox and skeptical.

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Annotated Bibliography

Dutton, R. and H ow ard, J. (eds) (2003), A Com panion lo Shakespeare's Works, Volume
I: The Tragedies. Oxford: Blackwell. Topics include the idea o f tragedy; tragedies
o f Shakespeare's contem poraries; em otions; divided subjects; disjointed times;
tragedies o f love; changing conceptions o f H am let; m ultiple-text tragedies;
religious issues; geography; classic films; contem porary film s and individual
plays.
Farnham , W. (1950), Shakespeare's Tragic Frontier: The W orld o f H is Final Tragedies.
Berkeley: U niversity o f C alifornia Press. Stresses the paradoxical nature o f the
flawed bu t noble tragic heroes.
Felperin, H. (1977), Shakespearean Representation: M im esis and M odernity in
Elizabethan Tragedy. Princeton: Princeton U niversity Press. D iscusses how
Shakespeare's use o f dram atic traditions helped him m akes h is plays seem fresh
and realistic.
Frye, N. (1967), Fools o f Time: Studies in Shakespearean Tragedy. Toronto: University
o f Toronto Press. Em phasizes tragedies of order, passion and isolation.
G arner, S. N. and Sprengnether, M. (eds) (1996). Bloom ington: Indiana U niversity
Press. Topics include history and tragedy; m adness and gender; maternal
pow er; various studies o f Othello; liberal hum anism ; and Shakespeares con
tem porary relevance.
G oldm an, M . (1985), A cting an d A ction in Shakespearean Tragedy. Princeton:
Princeton U niversity Press. Argues that each play's great tragic role has its
defining se t o f acting challenges and rewards.
H ollow ay, J. (1961), The Story o f the N ight: Studies in Shakespeare's M ajor Tragedies.
Lincoln: University o f N ebraska Press. Em phasizes how the protagonists are
expelled and scape-goated.
Hunter, R. G. (1976), Shakespeare and the M ystery o f God's Judgm ents. Athens:
U niversity o f G eorgia Press. Em phasizes religious controversies o f the time.
Knight, G. W. (1949), The W heel o f Fire: Interpretations o f Shakespearian Tragedy
(revised edn). O xford: O xford U niversity Press, 1949. Em phasizes imagery,
sym bolism and atm osphere and focuses especially o n m atters o f tim e and space.
Lawlor, J. (1960), T he Tragic Sense in Shakespeare. London: Chatto and W indus.
Em phasizes the dilem m as the protagonists face and the revelations the
plays provide.
M ack, M . (1993), Everybody's Shakespeare: Reflections C hiefly on the Tragedies. Lincoln:
University o f N ebraska Press. N ew and collected essays by a m ajor scholar.
M cEachern, C. (ed.) (2002), The Cam bridge Com panion to Shakespearean Tragedy.
C am bridge: C am bridge U niversity Press. Topics include defining Shakespear
ean tragedy; the language o f tragedy; tragedy in Shakespeare's career;
Shakespearean tragedy printed and perform ed; religion and Shakespearean
tragedy; tragedy and political authority; gender and fam ily; the tragic subject
and its passions; tragedies o f revenge and am bition; tragedies o f love;
Shakespeare's classical tragedies; the tragedies' critical reception; and A ntony
and Cleopatra in the theatre.
M cElroy, B. (1973), Shakespeare's M ature Tragedies. Princeton: Princeton U niversity
Press. Em phasizes the psychological traits and experiences the protagonists
share.
Muir, K. (1972), Shakespeare's Tragic Sequence. London: H utchinson. Resists efforts to
provide hom ogeneous interpretations; em phasizes each play's distinctiveness.

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 Annotated Bibliography

Ribner, I. (1960), Patterns in Shakespearian Tragedy. London: M ethuen. Em phasizes

patterns o f ethical evolution.
Snyder, S. (1979), The Com ic M atrix o f Shaksepeare's Tragedies: Romeo and Juliet',
'Othello,' 'Hamlet', an d King Lear'. Princeton: Princeton U niversity Press. Traces
changes in how Shakespeare explores com ic and tragic im pulses in these plays
and exam ines how their com ic elem ents intensify their tragic designs.
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T h e Poem s

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255
Index
acting 47
Addison, Joseph 7
Aeschylus 5
A k ejam i 205
Alenon, Duke o f 40
Alleyn, Edward 33
Anne of Denmark 40,58
Armstrong, Philip 149
Auden, W. I I. 14
authority 130-4
authorship 48
Bacon, Francis 27, 59, 93,191,193
Bakhtin, Mikhail 134-6,154-5,157
Baldwin, T. W. 17
Barber, C .L . 19,168,171
Barker, Deborah E. 103
Barker, Francis 154,162,194
Barnfield, Richard 4
Bearman, Richard 175
Beaumont, Francis 3-4
Beckett, Samuel 19
Belsey, Catherine 139,150
Bentley, G .E . 17,177
Bernhardt, Sarah 207, 208
Betterton, Thomas 7
Billings, Timothy 202
Billington, Michael 124
Bishops' Bible 57
Blackfriars Playhouse 48
Blayney, Peter 210
blazon 49
Boose, Lynda 198
Booth, Edwin 207
Booth, Stephen 104
Borough, John 34
256
Boy Players 50
Bradbrook, M. C. 18,130
Bradley, A. C. 10-14,15,16-17,18,19,138
British Shakespeare Association 160,162
Brome, Richard 4
Bront, Charlotte 8
Brooks, Cleanth 171
Brown, J. R. 117,120,182
Bry, Theodore de 36
Burbage, James 48
Burbage, Richard 48
Burney, Fanny 5 ,7
Butler, Judith 94,205
Byron, George Gordon 8
Cagney, James 10
Callaghan, Dympna 151-2,163
Calvin, John 34,132
Campbell, Thomas 8
Carlyle, Thomas 8
Cassirer, Ernst 27
Catherine of Aragon 29,31
Cavell, Stanley 108
Cavendish, Margaret 4
Cecil, Robert (Earl of Salisbury) 36, 38,43
Cecil, William (Lord Burghley) 35,39,40,
43
censorship 50
Chambers, E. K. 17,177
Chapman, George 3
Charles II of Austria (Archduke) 40
Charles V 29
Charles, Casey 205
Charnes, Linda 103
Chaucer, Geoffrey 4, 28,75
Chedgzoy, Kate 103
 Index

Christian IV of Denmark 200 Farnese, Alexander (Duke of Parma) 39

Cibber, Colley 5 Ferguson, M. 103
Clark, Stuart 138 Fcrnic, Ewan 161
classical heritage 52 Fielding, Henry 6, 7
Clemen, W. H. 16 Fisher, John 28-9
Clement VII 29 Fitzpatrick, Joan 165-6,205
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 8,11,15 Flcay, F. G. 177
colonialism and race 136-7 Fleetwood, Kate 124
comedy 52 Fletcher, John 3-4,5,174,180,181
commerce 34-6 Forman, Simon 114,116
Cordner, Michael 169-70 Foucault, Michel 94,97-8,196
costumes - theatre 53 Foxe, John 51,180-1
court culture 42-3,54 Francis II of France 37
Cranmer, Thomas 30-1,181 Frederick V 41
Crewe, Jonathan 199,205 Freud, Sigmund 105-7,108,147,149
Cromwell, Thomas 29, 33 Frye, Northop 19
Fukuyama, Francis 109
Damon and Pythias 211 Fumivall, F. J. 8
Daniel, Samuel 4
Davenant, William 4 Galen 138,150
Dawson, Anthony B. 168-9 Garber, Marjorie 108
de Grazia, Margareta 201 Garrick, David 7,121,169
Dckker, Thomas 3 Gates, Jr., Henry Louis 103
Derrida, Jacques 108-10,193 Geneva Bible 34, 57
desire 137-40 Gibson, Mel 177
Devereux, Robert (Earl of Essex) 34, 36,43 Globe Theatre 56
Dieterlc, William 10 Glyndwr, Owain 37
Dollimore, Jonathan 20,105,140,190,193 Gold, Jack 122
Dowden, Edward 9 Goldberg, Jonathan 110-11,159,196, 204
Drake, Francis 39 Goldsmith, Oliver 6 ,7 , 8
Drayton, Michael 4 Goold, Rupert 123-7
Dryden, John 5 Gosse, Edmund 9
Dudley, John 30 Grady, Hugh 160-1
Dudley, Robert (Earl o f Leicester) 33,34, Granville-Barker, Harley 17-18,210
35 Graves, Robert 17
Duncan-Jones, Katherine 173-4 Greenblatt, Stephen 97-100,136,150-1,
153,160-1,171,194,198,203
East India Company 36 Greene, Robert 112,128,178
education 55 Greg.W.W . 17
Edward VI 30-1,131 Grey, Jane 30
Egan, Gabriel 166-8 Grey, Zachary 6
Elam, Keir 205 Griffith, Elizabeth 7
Eliot, George 8 Guise, Marie de 38
Elizabeth I 31-4 ,3 6 -9 ,4 1 -2 ,6 3 , 93,131, Guthrie, Tyrone 10
200, 207
marriage negotiations 39-41 Hadfield, Andrew 133-4,165,200,203
Empson, William 17 Hakluyt, Richard 36
Erasmus 28 Hall, IGm 136,201
Erickson, Peter 199 Harbage, Alfred 17
Erne, Lukas 143,170-1,182,184, 210, 211 Harington, John 204

257
Index

Hariot, Thomas 36,99-100 Knox, John 204

I larvey, Gabriel 4 Kott, Jan 19
Hawkes, Terence 156,160,161,166, Kozuka, Takashi 171
187-8,206 Kurland, Stuart 165,200
Hazlitt, William 8,11 Kyd, Thomas 211
I Ieilmann, Robert B. 171
Heinemann, Margot 191, 205 Lacan, Jacques 105,139
I Ienry II o f France 40 Lahr, John 124,127
Henry IV (Henri de Navarre) 39 Lamb, Charles 8,113,114
Henry VII 133 Lambarde, William 37
Henry VIII 29-30,41,43,131 Lapotaire, Jane 122
I-Ienslowe, Philip 35,64,116,187 Laroque, Franois 156
Herbert, William (Earl of Pembroke) 59 Latimer, Hugh 31
Ileyvvood, Thomas 3 Lawson, Nigel 191,205
History Play 56 Lawson, Nigella 205
I Ioghton, Alexander 175 Lee, Sidney 16
Holderness, Graham 157-8,161,171 Levant Company 36
Holland, Peter 122,149,205 Levine, Laura 204
Honigmann, E. . J. 175, 209 Lewes, George Henry 9
Hooker, Richard 32 Liebler, Naomi Conn 135
Hopkins, Lisa 103 London 41-3,57
I Ioward, I Ienry (Earl of Surrey) 75 Loomba, Ania 136,165
Howard, Thomas (4th Duke of Norfolk) 40 Lopes, Rodrigo 33
Ilulme, Peter 162,194 Lord Admiral's Men 33
Hunt, Marvin 201 Lord Chamberlain's Men 3 7,48,60, 61
I Iytner, Nicholas ' 206 Lusardi, James 123
Luther, Martin 28,34,132,176
Imlay, Gilbert 7
Inns of Court 41 Macdonald, Ronald R. 155
Irving, Ilenry 9,169 the Machiavel 66
Maguire, Laurie 171-2
James V I/I 32,33,38, 40,54, 58,195,200 Mahood, M. M. 16,91
Jcnkinson, Anthony 36 Maley, Willy 163-6
Johnson, Samuel 6, 87 Malone, Edmond 6
Jones, Ernest 148,149 Marlowe, Christopher 33, 75,93,178,191,
Jonson, Ben 3-4,41, 52 193,199,211
Joyce, James 194 Marotti, Arthur 204-5
Mary I 30 -1 ,3 5 ,3 6 ,3 9 ,4 0 ,1 3 1
Kamps, Ivo 103 Mar)' (Stuart), Queen of Scots 3 2 ,3 3,38,40
Kastan, David Scott 153, 155,157,165-6 masque 58
Kean, Edmund 9 Maximilian II 40
Keats, John 8,175 Mazer, Cary 208
Kenrick, William 6 McCoy, Richard 121
Kermode, Frank 162 McCurdy, Peter 186
King James Bible (Authorised Version) 33, Meads, Chris 119
34,57, 72 Mendelssohn, Felix 9,10
King's Men 41, 49,54,56, 59,61 Merchant Adventurers, Company of 36
Kliman, Bernice 122 Merriam, Thomas 181
Knight, G. Wilson 16 Middleton, Thomas 117,178,179
Knights, L.C . 15-16 military conflicts 38-9

258
 Index

Milton, John 8 Richardson, Samuel 7

Montagu, Elizabeth 7 Riding, Laura 17
Montaigne, Michel de 150-1 Ridley, Nicholas 31
Montrose, Louis 96 Roberts, Sasha 103
More, Thomas 29 Robertson, J. M. 177
Morgann, Maurice 14 Robins, Elizabeth 207-8
Mucedorus 210 romance 64
Mulryne, J. R. 171 Ronayne, John 186-7
Rooney, Mickey 10
Nashe, Thomas 178 Rose, Jacqueline 148-9
Neville, Charles 32 Rowe, Nicholas 6
Ngugi vva Thiong'o 198 Royle, Nicholas 95
Nijinska 10 Ryan, Kieman 157
Norbrook, David 203 Rymer, Thomas 6
Nussey, Ellen 8
Sanders, Julie 103
Olivier, Laurence 10,106,169 scenery 65
O'Neill, Hugh (Earl of Tyrone) 34, 37 Schlegel, Friedrich von 11
Orgel, Stephen 204 Schluetcr, June 123
Osment, Philip 103 Scott, Walter 7,8
Ovid 138 Seymour, Edward 30
Oxford, Earl of - Edward de Vere' 59 Shakespeare, John 30
Shakespeare societies 8
Palmer, John 210 Shakespeare, William (and others)
Parker, Patricia 194,199-200 Antony and Cleopatra 4, 77,139,165,
pastoral 59 185, 200
patronage 60 As You Like It 60,139,168
Pechter, Edward 184 Cardenio 174,178
Peele, George 178 The Comedy o f Errors 54,141
Pequigney, Joseph 159 Coriolanus 161,211-14
Philip II 31, 36-7,38, 39,40 Cymbeline 64,164
Pius V 32 Hamlet 4 ,1 1 -1 2 ,1 5 ,1 6 ,2 8 ,4 1 ,5 0 ,5 3 ,
plague 60 56, 61,62,63, 65,66, 71,72,73, 74,
players/playing company 61 76, 77-8,80, 82,87, 88-92,94, 95,
Plutarch 52 106,107-9,112-13,117,132,140,
Poel, William 17-18 141-2,143,147-50,154,155,161,
Pollard, . W. 17 164,168-9,171,176-7,179,181,
Pope, Alexander 6, 8 182,184,186,193,197,198,
props 62 199-200,203, 204,207-8
publishing 62 1 Hemy IV 4,18,19, 2 7 ,3 7 ,3 9 ,5 0 ,5 1 ,
54, 76,78-9, 80,81, 85,88,90-1,
Raber, Karen 166 97, 99,127,132,153,155,157-8,
Ralegh, Walter 26,34,36 159,161,165-6,171,191-2,195-6,
Raleigh, Walter Alexander 9,162 202-3
Reinhardt, Max 10 2 Henry IV 8 ,1 3 -1 4 ,1 9 ,9 7 ,9 8
Religious Change 27-34,140-1 Henry V 10,52, 54, 63,97,164,165,
repertoire 63 185, 206-7
rhetoric 64 1 Henry VI 48,176,177-8,179,180
Richard II 133 2 Henry VI 181
Richards, I. A. 14-15 3 Henry VI 181

259
Index

Henry VIII (All is True) 48,56,57, 64, audiences 112-117

113,116,133,174,178,180-1 authorship 48,180-1, 209-10
Julius Caesar 4, 54, 64,134,135-6,161, biography 173-5,182-3
185 catholicism 175-7
King John 10,26, 63,176 collaboration 177-80
King Lear 5, 8 ,9 ,4 7 ,5 4 ,6 1 , 63, 77,106, criticism
113,143,155,164,178,199 Bakhtin/camivalesque 134-6,
Loves Labour's Lost 10,132 154-7
Macbeth 12, 61, 77,106,114-28,141, British studies 163-6,198-203
161,164,165,169-70 cultural materialism 157-8
Measurefo r Measure 148,150,161,179 ecocriticism 166-8
The Merchant o f Venice 33,54,100,103, editing 183
137,165,168, 200 family, lineage, succession 195-8
The Merry Wives o f Windsor 54, 63,135, feminism 150-3
181, 202 gender and sexuality 103-5,204-5
Midsummer Nights Dream 9,10,47, new historicism 96-100, 153-4
100,113,139,168,212 performance studies 117-27,
Much Ado About Nothing 54 168-71,185-9,207-9, 210-14
Othello 12-13,15,50,54,62,100,135, postcolonialism 162-3,198-203
137,161,165,185,186, 200, 203, presentism 16 0 -2
209 psychoanalysis/deconstruction
Pericles 41,48, 64,175,178,179 105-10,147-50
The Rape o f Lucrece 4,42,59,63,134, queer theory 158-60
138, 203 race and ethnicity 100-3,198-203
Richard II 16,37,133,178,181 republicanism 203-4
Richard III 5 ,7 , 9, 61,97,133,141,181 theory 93-5,110-11,171-2
Romeo and luliet 56, 61,140,181,185, dramatic poems (plays as) 86-7
188,193 imagery 84-6
Sonnets 17,49-50,59,61, 73, 75-6, language 72-3, 77-9,87-92, 206-7
77-8,93,104-5,107,196,201, 204 prose 79-84
The Tempest 5,36, 53, 54,58, 60,61,64, sonnet 75-7
65, 76, 78, 80, 81,132, 83-4,101-2, textual transmission 1 8 1 -2
103,116,162-3,164,165,167,174, verse 73-5,82-4
191-3,197-9, 203 Shaw, George Bernard 9,185
Timon o f Athens 178,179 Shelley, Percy Bysshe 7
Titus Andronicus 100,137,165,178, Siddons, Sarah 7
179,180,183, 200 Sidney, Philip 4, 2 6 -7 ,3 9 ,5 2 , 66,75
Troilus and Cressida 5,16,201 Sinfield, Alan 140,190,193
Twelfth Night 41, 50,52,53, 61,73, 74, Singh, Jyotsna 136
78, 80-1, 82-3,87, 88,103,107, Smith, Bruce 104
127,132,150,152,156,159,194, Smith, Thomas 35
199, 201-2, 205 Southey, Robert 8
The Two Gentlemen o f Verona 116,168, Spanish Armada 39
178 Spencer, T. J. B. 183
The Two Noble Kinsmen 64,113,174, Spenser, Edmund 4,72
178 Spurgeon, Caroline 16
Venus and Adonis 42, 51, 59,61, 63 stage directions 65
The Winter's Tale 41,54, 64,106,140, stages - theatre 66
212 Stanyhurst, Richard 201
Shakespeare (William) Stationers, Company of 35

260
 Index

Steevens, George 6 Venice Company 36

Stewart, Patrick 123 Vere, Edward de (Earl of Oxford) 59,93
Stratford-upon-Avon 29,35,41, 62,174-5 Vickers, Brian 177-8
Stuart, Princess Elizabeth 41 Virginia Company 36
Styan, J. L. 114 Vitkus, Daniel 136
sumptuary laws 66
Suzuki, Mihoko 152 Walsingham, Francis 32,33, 34,40
Wanamaker, Sam 185,189
Tate, Nahum 5 Watt, James 166
Tatham, John 4 Webster, John 3-4
Taylor, Gary 178-80,200 Wcimann, Robert 131-2
Taylor, John 4 Wells, Stanley 174,183
Taylor, Neil 142 Whiter, William 7
Tennenhouse, Leonard 154,156 Wilkins, George 178
textuality 141-3 Williams, Raymond 190-1
Thatcher, Margaret 191 Williamson, Nicol 122
Theobald, Lewis 6,7 Wilson, John Dover 10,18,171,183, 200
Thompson, Ann 103,142,162-3 Wilson, Richard 175,177
Thomson, James 8 Winstanley, Lilian 200
Tillyard, E. M. W. 18-19,158,167, Wollstonecraft, Mary 7
191 Womack, Peter 161
Tiramani, Jenny 186 Wordsworth, William 8
tragedy 66 Wriothesley, Henry (Earl of Southampton)
Traub, Valerie 159,196-7 59
Trollope, Anthony 8-9 Wyatt, Thomas 75
Tyndale, William 33-4 Wycliffe, John 28

Valois, Marguerite de 39 Zeffirelli, Franco 106,177

261
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