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A new application of the UltraBattery to hybrid


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DOI: 10.1002/er.3426

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENERGY RESEARCH
Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159
Published online 29 October 2015 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/er.3426

A new application of the UltraBattery to hybrid fuel cell


vehicles
Pei-Hsing Huang1, Jenn-Kun Kuo2,*, and Chun-Yen Huang2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 912, Taiwan
2
Department of Greenergy, National University of Tainan, Tainan 70005, Taiwan

SUMMARY
This study involves investigation of fuel cell hybrid vehicles. The main power source in the dynamic conguration is a
proton exchange membrane fuel cell. An energy performance comparison is conducted between the use of a lithium-ion
battery (Automotive Energy Supply Corporation, Japan) and the UltraBattery (Furukawa Battery Company, Japan) as aux-
iliary power sources. The MATLAB/Simulink for simulation is used to observe dynamic behavior and overall performance.
This study describes the simulation frameworks of the proton exchange membrane fuel cell, ultracapacitor, leadacid
battery, and UltraBattery. Then, the Economic Commission for Europe 40 driving cycle is used to test and investigate
the performance of the fuel cell hybrid vehicle. Four energy output models are adopted to simulate the energy demand
and the energy motor output of the dual power source, namely the high-load demand, general demand, low-load demand,
and charge models. The simulation results indicate that the lithium battery recycles 0.1% more work compared with the
UltraBattery. Regarding fuel economy, the UltraBattery is only 0.1% inferior to the lithium battery. The expected cost
of an UltraBattery with the same specications is 35% less than that of a lithium battery. Considering fuel economy and
cost simultaneously, the UltraBattery can compete with the lithium battery. Copyright 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
KEY WORDS
fuel cell; Economic Commission for Europe 40; system simulation; UltraBattery; hybrid vehicle

Correspondence
*Jenn-Kun Kuo, Department of Greenergy, National University of Tainan, Tainan, 70005, Taiwan.

E-mail: jenn.kun@gmail.com

Received 27 June 2015; Revised 7 August 2015; Accepted 5 September 2015

1. INTRODUCTION hydrogen is low in density and dissipates quickly, even


though it is difcult to accumulate after leakage, it is con-
Numerous countries have been actively developing hy- sidered one of the safest energy sources for power
drogen technology as a form of renewable energy. The generation.
fuel cell is a novel energy technology based on hydrogen. Hydrogen energy has a wide range of applications.
When hydrogen is used as the fuel of a fuel cell, virtu- Among these, the high-energy conversion efciency and
ally, no pollution is created during the power generation broad application market of fuel cells are prominent.
process. Hydrogen is light, has the most favorable ther- Among the numerous developments in fuel cell technol-
mal conductivity of all gasses, and has a higher energy ogy, fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) have received the most at-
density compared with other fossil fuels. Therefore, hy- tention. Several automakers worldwide have predicted
drogen has a substantial chance of replacing fossil fuels that FCVs will be commercialized by 2015 [5,6]. FCVs re-
as the worlds main energy carrier in the future [14]. quire auxiliary power sources to overcome their high
In addition, multiple methods for obtaining hydrogen fuel power load needs. Batteries, ultracapacitors [7], ywheel
exist. Simple water electrolysis can be performed to pro- batteries [8], and solar cells can currently serve as the aux-
duce hydrogen, which is then stored using appropriate iliary power sources of FCVs [9,10]. This simulation re-
equipment. Furthermore, steam reforming can be used search used the UltraBattery as the auxiliary power
to convert hydrogen-rich fossil fuels or natural gas and source of an FCV from MATLAB software. The
mixed gasses containing hydrogen into hydrogen. Bio- UltraBattery produces low noise and environmental pollu-
mass energy technology can be used to decompose or- tion, reduces fuel consumption, extends working life, and
ganics and convert them into hydrogen. Because overcomes limitations in traveling short distances.

146 Copyright 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.


Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang

2. OVERVIEW OF THE FUEL CELL stack. According to Blomen and Mgerwa [12], the Nernst
AND SYSTEM COMPONENTS voltage term can be expressed as
8  RT  
> G S
2.1. Power generation principles of the >
> T f c  T 0 ln PH 2 PO2
1=2
when T100o C
< zF zF zF
proton exchange membrane fuel cell En 1=2
!
>
> G S  RT PH 2 PO2
>
: zF zF T f c  T 0 zF ln P when T > 100o C
The proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) uses H2 O

hydrogen as the fuel gas and air or pure oxygen as the ox- (4)
idant. Electrochemical reactions occur within the PEMFC.
The following transport phenomena occur during the For standard ambient conditions of 25 C and 1 atm, the
power generation process: ideal fuel cell voltage is equivalent to the Nernst potential
(En), where G is Gibbs free energy, z is the oxidation or
1. Oxygen is sent to the cathode side via the cathode reduction of the electrode of the stoichiometric coefcient
ow channel. The hydrogen molecules are dissoci- of the electrons in the reaction formula, F is the Faraday
ated using anode catalysis. constant, P is the gas partial pressure, T is the operating
2. Oxygen (or air) reaches the cathode side via the cath- temperature, R is a gas constant, PH 2 is the hydrogen partial
ode ow channel. Simultaneously, the hydrogen ions pressure of the fuel cell stack, PO2 is the oxygen partial
pass through the proton exchange membrane toward pressure of the fuel cell stack, and PH 2 O is the water partial
the cathode. The electrons pass through the external pressure of the fuel cell stack.
circuit (load) toward the cathode. When the parameters are inputted into block A, the ow
3. Through anode catalysis, the oxygen molecules, output is transferred to a fuel cell, as shown in formulas (5)
electrons, and hydrogen ions are catalyzed in the cat- and (6):
alyst, producing an oxygen reduction reaction that nr 2 60; 000RTNif c
U f H2 H (5)
generates water. nin
H2 zFPfuel V lpmfuel x%
4. After the electrons are connected in the circuit, a current
is formed. Power can be output toward the external load. nrO2 60; 000RTNif c
U f O2 (6)
nin
O2 zFP air V lpmair y%
The chemical reaction formula is expressed as follows
[11]:
where n is the mole fraction, U f H2 is the usage ow rate for
Anode : H 2 2H 2e (1)
the hydrogen (for the oxygen ow), Pfuel is the absolute
Cathode : 2H 2e 1 =2 O2 H 2 O (2) pressure of the fuel, Pair is the absolute pressure of the
air, Vlpm(fuel) is the fuel ow rate (air ow rate), x is the fuel
Overall : H 2 1 =2 O2 H 2 O (3) hydrogen fraction, and y is the oxygen fraction.
The parameters were inputted into block B to dene the
2.2. Proton exchange membrane fuel cell partial pressure, as shown in formulas (79).
 
simulation model PH 2 1  U f H2 x%Pfuel (7)
MATLAB/Simulink simulation was used to establish the  
model. The SimPowerSystems (Mathwork company, PH 2 O w 2y%U f O2 Pair (8)
USA) fuel cell module was adopted. This module is the  
PO2 1  U f O2 y%Pair (9)
most common general model of hydrogen fuel cells. Figure
1 shows the equivalent circuit of the PEMFC. where w is the oxidant vapor fraction and k is the
When fuel cell parameters, such as pressure, tempera- Boltzmann constant.
ture, the blended proportion of fuel gas and air, and ow A fuel cell standard voltage equation (4) can be used to
rate, change, this model can display the state of the fuel cell calculate the reversible potential by combining the gas

Figure 1. The equivalent circuit of the proton exchange membrane fuel cell.

Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 147
DOI: 10.1002/er
P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system

partial pressure of the reversible potential open-circuit electrolyte move rapidly toward the electrodes because of
voltage and the exchange current, as shown in formulas the inuence of the electrical eld. They form close charge
(10) and (11). E oc K c E n (10) layers on the surfaces of the two electrodes. These layers
are electric double layers.
zFk PH 2 PO2 G Chemical reactions do not occur in ultracapacitors dur-
i0 e RT (11) ing the charge and discharge processes. Thus, they have a
Rh
relatively high power density, and their energy density is
The nominal conversion rate was calculated using for- higher than that of the typical capacitor. They can be
mulas (12) and (13).   charged and discharged repeatedly tens of thousands of
h H 2 Ogas N times. When high-energy batteries or fuel cells are com-
U f H2 nom (12)
zFV nom bined with ultracapacitors, high power characteristics and
extended working life can be realized.
60000RT nom NI nom
U f O2 (13)
2zFPairnom V lpmairnom 0:21 2.3.2. Equivalent circuit and simulation model of
the ultracapacitor
where nom is the low heating value efciency of the fuel The equivalent circuit of the ultracapacitor comprises
cell stack, ho(H2O(gas)) is the steam enthalpy change, numerous resistors and capacitors, which consist of two
Vnom is the rated voltage, Vlpm(air)nom is the rated air ow surfaces of porous activated carbon, multiple types
rate, Pairnom is the rated air absolute pressure, and Tnom is of material with similar resistance and capacitance
the rated operating temperature. effects, collector plate resistors and self-discharge drain
The peak usage (UF O2 peak) and the corresponding volt- resistors on both ends, and partition resistance that
age drop (Vu) are used to measure the oxygen consumption enable the passage of only ions in the middle. The
of the fuel cell output voltage model (delayed) that results internal structure of this ultracapacitor can be used to
from the air compressor. The reversible potential can be derive an equivalent circuit of a single ultracapacitor,
modied as follows: as shown in Figure 2.
8   The complex ultracapacitor circuit diagram shown in
< En  K U f  U U f O2 > U f O2 nom
f O2 nom Figure 2 is equivalent to three circuit elements: a capacitor
En O2

: En U f U f nom C, series impedance Rs, and parallel impedance Rp. This


O2 O2
equivalent circuit belongs to an ideal state. Among the
(14) three elements, parallel impedance Rp is extremely large
where K is the voltage drop constant and U f O non is the and is used primarily to investigate the leakage effects of
2
rated oxygen usage. K is dened as follows: ultracapacitors. It can be omitted in certain uses with rapid
charging and discharging. However, if charging and
Vu
K   (15) discharging are separated by multiple days, leakage effects
Kc Uf O peak  Uf O nom must be considered.
2 2
Multiple key factors, such as the inuence of temperature
2.3. Principles and modeling of the on ultracapacitors and capacitance characteristics in differ-
ultracapacitor ent charge states, must be considered in ultracapacitors.
The values of capacitance value C and series impedance
2.3.1. Overview and operating principles of the Rs must be changed. Therefore, in MATLAB/Simulink,
ultracapacitor mathematical expressions are used to isolate the
Ultracapacitors are also known as electrochemical
double-layer capacitors (EDLCs). These products lie be-
tween secondary batteries and capacitors and are formed
from partial physical energy storage and partial chemical
energy storage architecture. The power density and energy
density of ultracapacitors lie between those of the battery
and capacitor. Service life is considerably longer than that
of batteries. In conventional capacitors, charges in the elec-
trical eld receive force and move. When a medium is
present between conductors, the movement of the charges
is blocked, forcing the charges to accumulate in the con-
ductors. Consequently, the accumulation of charges is
stored. The stored amount of charge is referred to as capac-
itance. EDLCs simultaneously insert two electrodes into
the electrolyte, applying a voltage that is lower than the de-
composition voltage of the electrolyte solution between
them. At this time, the cations and anions within the Figure 2. Derive an equivalent circuit of single ultracapacitor.

148 Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang

relationships between the two, as shown in the following current source (0.05 A). The ultracapacitor can provide a
equations [13]: current higher than that of the original current source.
1
vc t it dt (16)
C 2.4. Principles and modeling of the lead
acid battery
V RS I t RS (17)
2.4.1. Overview of the leadacid battery
The capacitance value of the ultracapacitor is not a xed Leadacid batteries have been developed for 150 years
constant but changes according to the voltage across the and are thus technically mature. They provide substantial
capacitor. Thus, the capacitor is expressed as follows: electromotive force and operate at both high and low
temperatures. In addition, they require no maintenance,
C C0 K u (18) are inexpensive, and have an exceptional cycle life.
Thus, the output value of leadacid batteries holds a
critical position among all batteries. Leadacid batteries
The ultracapacitor has two models in its battery terminal
can be applied to uninterruptible power systems, emer-
operations: charge and discharge.
gency lighting, industrial equipment, and backup power
supplies.
(1) Charge model:
The basic structure of leadacid batteries comprises
positive plates, negative plates, partitions, battery slots,
Another power source outputs charge at a xed voltage to
electrolytes, and terminals. The positive and negative
the ultracapacitor. When the potentials on both sides are
plates comprise grids and active materials. The positive
identical, charging stops. Capacitor charging can be
plate is composed of lead dioxide (PbO2), and the nega-
expressed as follows:
tive plate is composed of lead (Pb). The two electrodes
1 are immersed in a solution of 35% sulfuric acid and
V Cin IR Idt (19)
C 65% water (H2SO4 + H2O). In the electrolyte, H2SO4 is
divided into free hydrogen ions and sulfate ions. The
(2) Discharge model: partitions in leadacid batteries lie between the positive
plates and the negative plates. They serve primarily to
Capacitors change when loads differ. Therefore, when con- isolate the plates and to prevent short circuits between
sidering discharging, the discharge equation required for the plates. During the chemical reaction, the voltage
the use efciency of the load can be expressed as follows: between the lead plates and the lead dioxide plates is
approximately 2.1 V. Figure 4 illustrates the chemical
1 reaction of the leadacid battery.
V Cout Idt (20)
C

Figure 3 shows the simulation model of the ultra- 2.4.2. Equivalent circuit and simulation model of
capacitor. The module charges the ultracapacitor by apply- the leadacid battery
ing a 0.05-A direct current (DC) power supply. Voltage Figure 5 shows the equivalent circuit and charge and
increases continually during charging and decreases drasti- discharge models of the leadacid battery.
cally after energy is released. The released current pulses to The charge and discharge models of the leadacid bat-
the load. The current then drops gradually to the provided tery are presented as follows:

Figure 3. MATLAB/Simulink simulation model of the ultracapacitor.

Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 149
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P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system

Qb is the maximal capacity (Ah) of the battery, A is the ex-


ponential voltage (V), and B is the exponential capacity
(Ah)1.
The equation for the residual capacity (state of charge
(SOC)) of the battery is

1 t
SOC 100 1  0 it dt (23)
Q

Figure 6 shows the simulation model of the leadacid


battery [14].

2.5. Principles and modeling of the


UltraBattery
Figure 4. Schematic illustration of the leadacid battery chemi-
cal reaction. 2.5.1. UltraBattery overview
Conventional leadacid batteries differ substantially in
Charge model (i* < 0): their high-current discharge performance and relatively
Qb short life cycle. Capacitors have a relatively low capacity,
f 1 it; i ; i; Exp E 0  K b  i
it 0:1Qb but their lives are long, and they perform well with high
Qb currents. Therefore, Lam et al. [15] designed and produced
 Kb it
Qb  it  a new energy storage device to overcome the disadvantages
Exps 1 and combine the advantages of electrochemical devices.
Laplace1  (21)
Sels s Leadacid batteries are combined with ultracapacitors to
Discharge model (i* > 0): create the UltraBattery. In recent years, the development
Qb of idle-stop vehicles, light hybrid vehicles, and regenerative
f 2 it; i ; i; Exp E 0  K b  i braking vehicles has lead to increases in engine power.
Qb  it
Qb However, conventional leadacid batteries are unsuitable
 Kb it for such conditions of use. The UltraBattery, which com-
Qb  it 
Exps bines ultracapacitors with leadacid batteries, is compatible
Laplace1 0 (22) with these conditions. Ultracapacitors can be used to pro-
Sels
cess high-current pulses of energy, protecting the leadacid
where Ebatt is the rated voltage (V) of the battery, E0 is the batteries and substantially increasing their life.
standard voltage (V), Exp(s) is the exponential dynamic
voltage (V), and Sel(s) represents the battery mode. When 2.5.2. Structure and operating principles of the
the battery discharges, Sel(s) = 0, and when the battery UltraBattery
charges, Sel(s) = 1. Kb is the polarization constant (Ah1) The UltraBattery evolves the parallel use of ultracapacitors
or polarization resistance (), i* is the low-frequency dy- and leadacid batteries (this can be referred to as external par-
namic current (A), it is the available power capacity (Ah), allel) in an internal parallel (a combination of leadacid

Figure 5. The equivalent circuit and charge and discharge models of the leadacid battery.

150 Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang

Figure 6. MATLAB/Simulink simulation model of the leadacid battery.

batteries and carbon ultracapacitors). The high specic power and discharge reactions smaller than that of the activated
and long life of EDLCs are integrated into leadacid batteries carbon electrode, which reduces the damage caused by
to maintain the external parallel, increasing power and extend- high currents to the electrodes [16].
ing battery life. Circuits are simplied, specic energy is in-
creased, and costs can be reduced. Figure 7 illustrates the 2.5.3. UltraBattery simulation model
principle structure of the UltraBattery. Figure 8 illustrates the detailed simulation model of the
The UltraBattery is a hybrid energy storage device. Its thermal and SOC within the UltraBattery system. The
anodes comprise capacitor and leadacid battery anodes foundation for this model is the original leadacid battery
(Pb). The addition of an external electronic control system module. An ultracapacitor is connected in parallel in the
is unnecessary. Because leadacid batteries and asymmet- leadacid battery module to simulate the UltraBattery.
ric capacitors both adopt PbO2 in their cathodes, Lam The simulation results revealed that the parallel connection
et al. [15] placed the anodes of both in an internal parallel of the ultracapacitor substantially inuenced voltage dur-
for integration as a single battery. The anodes of both use a ing the discharging and charging processes.
single PbO2 cathode. Thus, two electrodes bear the current
on the anodes. One electrode is the lead negative plate, and
the other is the activated carbon electrode. The current 3. VEHICLE DYNAMIC MODEL AND
borne by the capacitor has a buffering effect on the lead ENERGY CONTROL
negative plate, making its actual current during the charge
3.1. Vehicle dynamics

Vehicles can travel because of the driving force of the


ground acting on the tires. After this driving force over-
comes the effects of drag resistance, tire rolling resistance,
and grade resistance if climbing on the vehicle body, the
remaining force is used for acceleration. Figure 9 presents
a schematic of the force on the vehicle body in slope
climbing. In this gure, Ft is the driving force, F1 is the
rolling resistance of the front wheels, F2 is the rolling resis-
tance of the rear wheels, Fi is the grade resistance, Fw is the
drag resistance, Fj is the inertial resistance, mg is the vehi-
cle body weight, N1 is the normal force of the front wheels,
and N2 is the normal force of the rear wheels. The unit of
measure for all of these forces is the newton (N).

3.1.1. Driving force


The torque Tq output of the engine is magnied by the
gearbox and the differential in the transmission and be-
comes Tt when transmitted to the driving wheels. This
force exerts a tangential force on the ground. The reaction
to this tangential force is the driving force Ft, as shown in
Figure 7. Illustrates the principle structure of UltraBattery. Figure 10.

Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 151
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P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system

Figure 8. MATLAB/Simulink simulation model of the UltraBattery.

T q ig id E i
Ft (26)
r

3.1.2. Rolling resistance


When a car travels, tire rolling is subject to rolling
resistance Ff:
F f r N (27)

In this equation, r is referred to as the rolling resistance


coefcient and is also known as the coefcient of friction.
N is the normal force acting on the tires. If the rolling resis-
Figure 9. Forces action on the vehicle body in slop climbing. tance coefcients of the four tires are identical, the rolling
resistance acting on the entire vehicle is
Tt F f r mg (28)
Ft (24)
r
3.1.3. Drag resistance
ig is expressed as the transmission ratio of the gearbox, and A car is subject to drag resistance Fw during traveling:
id is expressed as the transmission ratio of the differential.
Ei is transmission efciency. The relationship between the 1
torque Tq output by the engine and the torque Tt acting on F w As C D V  V w 2 (29)
2
the driving wheels is [17]

T t T q ig id E i (25) where is the air density (1.23 kg m3), As is the normal


area of the direction of travel (m2), CD is the drag coef-
Substituting this into Eq. (23), the driving force is cient, V is the vehicle speed (m s1), and Vw is the wind
obtained: speed (m s1).

Figure 10. Hybrid fuel cell vehicle management control system.

152 Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang

3.1.4. Grade resistance dynamic conguration structure of the vehicle management


When a car travels uphill, the weight of the vehicle control system. Table I lists the parameters of the fuel cell.
body on the slope is resistance that must be overcome. This The energy management system provides reference
is called grade resistance Fi: signals for the motor, fuel cell, and DCDC converter to
F i mg sin (30) allocate the energy that derives from the two power
where mg is the weight of the vehicle body and is the sources. These signals come from the commands of the ac-
slope angle. celerator and are values between 1 and 1. To maintain the
overall system efciency, the SOC of the UltraBattery is
3.1.5. Inertial resistance monitored to determine energy ow. The energy manage-
Inertial resistance Fj is produced by vehicle body inertia ment system applies a function to allocate the available
when a car accelerates and decelerates. The direction of power from the UltraBattery and fuel cell, meeting the
inertial resistance is opposite to that of the acceleration a power demands of the motor. The current from the
of the car. Thus, inertial resistance is also referred to as DCDC converter controls the energy.
acceleration resistance. Inertial resistance is calculated as Fuel cells are unsuitable for operation in excessively
follows: low or high power output ranges [18]; therefore, standard-
F j ma (31) izing the output energy of the fuel cell is critical. Regard-
less of whether the primary energy source is the fuel cell
3.1.6. Vehicle travel equation or UltraBattery, different control strategies must be used.
By applying dAlemberts principle to the vehicle The following sections describe the high-load demand
traveling direction shown in Figure 9, the following can model, low-load demand model, general demand model,
be obtained: and charge model.

Ft  F1  F2  Fw  Fi  Fj 0 (32) 3.2.1. High-load demand model


To enable the fuel cell to operate within its effective
range, when load demand is high, if the power demand ex-
or F t F f F w F i F j ; where F f F 1 F 2 (33) ceeds the maximal output power of the fuel cell, the
UltraBattery begins to provide energy to the motor to sup-
This equation is referred to as the vehicle travel equa- port the fuel cell. The combined output energy satises
tion and is the equation used for calculating the dynamic load demand, as shown in Figure 11(a).
performance of a vehicle traveling straight.
The transmission mechanism and system in the body
3.2.2. Low-load demand model
structure apply Newtons second law of motion. The
When total system power requirements are low or 0, the
vehicle dynamic model is simplied as follows:
fuel cell is regarded as the primary power source. At this
dV point, the controller charges the battery. Thus, some of
Fj m Ft  Fb  Fr (34)
dt
where m is the vehicle body mass, Fb is the brake force,
Table I. Proton Exchange Member Fuel Cell (PEM Fuel Cell)
and Fr is the sum of the various types of resistance acting parameters.
on the vehicle body, namely rolling resistance Ff, drag
resistance Fw, and grade resistance Fi. These can be Specication Value Unit
expressed as follows: Stack power Nominal 100 kW
Fr Ff Fw Fi (35) Fuel cell resistance 0.17572
Nernst voltage 1.1729 V
By substituting Eqs. (2830) into the Eq. (35), it can be
Nominal utilization Hydrogen 95.24 %
rewritten as follows:
Oxidant 50.03 %
1 Nominal consumption Fuel 794.4 lpm
F r r mg As CD V  V w 2 mg sin (36)
2 Air 1891 lpm
Assuming a windless state (Vw = 0) and travel on a at Exchange current 0.024152 A
Exchange coefcient 1.1912
surface ( = 0), this equation can be simplied as follows:
Fuel composition 99.95 %
1
F r r mg As CD V 2 (37) Oxidant composition 21 %
2 Fuel ow rate at nominal Nominal 374.8 lpm
hydrogen utilization Maximum 456.7 lpm
3.2. Energy management and control strategy
Air ow rate at nominal Nominal 1698 lpm
In this study, the MATLAB/Simulink simulation software oxidant utilization: Maximum 2069 lpm
was used as a foundation to construct a fuel cell hybrid System temperature 368 K
vehicle module. The size of fuel cell is 100 kW, and the size Fuel supply pressure 3 bar
Air supply pressure 3 bar
of UltraBattery pack is a 25-kW peak. Figure 10 shows the

Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 153
DOI: 10.1002/er
P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system

the energy from the fuel cell charges the UltraBattery 3.2.3. General demand model
directly, as shown in Figure 11(b). When load demand is within the operating range of the
fuel cell and the SOC of the UltraBattery remains in a state
of high power, the required load power is provided by the
fuel cell alone, as shown in Figure 11(c).

3.2.4. Charge model


When the vehicle is stopped and the motor does not re-
quire power and if the SOC of the UltraBattery is between
50% and 80%, the fuel cell charges it to 80%, as shown in
Figure 11(d).

3.3. Control module

The energy management system controls energy input and


output. The input parameters are charging power, upper and
lower limits on battery power, drive torque, drive power, mo-
tor speed, and the voltage and current of the fuel cell. Figure
12 shows the model of the energy management system.

3.4. Overall driving architecture model

Figure 13 is the MATLAB/Simulink driving architecture


model. The auxiliary power source is the UltraBattery.
The power management uses changes in the state of the
fuel cell, including the current and voltage of the fuel cell,
drive power, drive torque, and driving speed, to determine
the driving model and control energy output. Table II pre-
sents the driving parameters.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION


4.1. System module verication

The numerical analysis software, MATLAB/Simulink, is


used to establish the simulation module and to select ap-
propriate parameters. This section details the calculation
Figure 11. (a). High-load demand of model vehicle. (b). Low-load of the equations of individual subsystems and verication
demand model of vehicle. (c). General demand model of vehicle. of the feasibility and accuracy of the simulation model. Fi-
(d). Charge model of vehicle. nally, the Economic Commission for Europe 40 (ECE40)

Figure 12. MATLAB/Simulink simulation control model for energy management system.

154 Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang

Figure 13. Driving dynamic model for fuel cell vehicle system.

Table II. Vehicle driving parameters. 15% accelerator command is used to brake and end the
simulation.
Vehicle parameters Value Unit
To analyze the driving conditions, the initial SOC is at
Total weight (W) 1710 kg 40.3% of the UltraBattery. At 0 s, the FCV is in an idle
Friction coefcient (r) 0.009 state. At this time, the motor requires no power. Thus, after
3
Air density () 1.23 kg m approximately 1 s, the charge model is entered, and the fuel
2
Frontal area (As) 2.7 m cell charges the UltraBattery. After 5 s, the accelerator pro-
Drag coefcient (CD) 0.26 pels the vehicle to 40%. Fuel cell power in the preliminary
stage is 1.92 kW, which is sufcient for supplying the di-
[19] driving simulation cycle is used by one and only driv- rect operation of the motor. The motors power must climb
ing cycle. continually. At 5.45 s, because the response time of the
fuel cells power output is relatively slow, power cannot
4.2. Vehicle module verication and driving be provided to the motor immediately. At this time, the in-
simulation sufciency lies in the power provided by the UltraBattery.
At 9.1 s, the fuel cell power can nally equal the motor
4.2.1. Dynamic simulation of the fuel cell vehicle power. Simultaneously, the UltraBattery stops providing
The FCV module is used to perform simulation testing. power. At 10 s, the accelerator commands release to 15%.
An accelerator pedal state that commands for 25 s is used At this time, the power demand of the motor drops instan-
to change the load in the module. Testing comprises four taneously. The additional power from the fuel cell is stored
driving states in different operating models: acceleration, in the UltraBattery. At 12 s, the fuel cell power and motor
slow driving, sudden acceleration, and braking. Figure 14 power are consistent. The fuel cell alone provides power to
shows the simulation results. The operations of the acceler- the motor. At 15 s, the accelerator commands an increase
ator pedal commands are discussed as follows: When the to 60%. The power required by the motor increases drasti-
simulation begins, the vehicle is stationary for 5 s. After cally. The fuel cells supply is insufcient. At this time, the
starting, the accelerator pedal is maintained at 40% for UltraBattery provides supplementary power to meet the
5 s. The accelerator pedal is then released slightly and motors demand. At 16 s, the degree to which motor power
maintained at 15% for 5 s before suddenly accelerating to demand increases slows. However, because the fuel cell
60%. This is similarly maintained for 5 s. Finally, a has a relatively long response time, fuel cell power con-
tinues to increase as the motor power slows. The fuel cell
stabilizes at only 18 s. At this time, the excess power is
stored in the UltraBattery. The braking stage begins at
20 s. Because the motor power increase rapidly, its PEM
fuel cell power not readily available electricity, therefore,
inadequate power by the UltraBattery to supply. However,
the UltraBattery cannot receive excessive power at one
time. A portion of the excess fuel cell power maintains
the descent of the motor for several seconds before the mo-
tor power decreases. At this stage, the power of the
UltraBattery becomes negative. The negative work behav-
ior of the motor is similar to that of a generator. The kinetic
energy for deceleration is converted into electrical energy
and stored in the UltraBattery, which has an absorption
Figure 14. UltraBattery auxiliary power for fuel cell vehicle. rate of approximately 28 kW.

Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 155
DOI: 10.1002/er
P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system

4.2.2. Driving cycles


The new European driving cycle is a test driving cycle
used for light vehicle certication in the European Union
and is also known as the Motor Vehicle Emissions Group
A driving cycle. This cycle consists primarily of a four-
stage ECE40 driving cycle (representing urban driving)
and a one-stage extra-urban driving cycle (representing
suburban driving). Table III shows the morphological pa-
rameters of the driving. In this study, a single cycle
(195 s for a driving distance of 1.03 km) of the ECE40 ur-
ban cycle from the new European driving cycle for simula-
tion is used to observe performance. Figure 15 presents a
comparison of the timespeed relationships in the ECE40
simulation and actual driving. The ECE40 tolerance value is
2 km h1. The absolute error between the simulation and ac-
Figure 16. Fuel cell and lithium-ion battery auxiliary power out-
tual results is 1.12 km h1. The highest speed during this cy-
put for fuel cell vehicle.
cle is 50 km h1, and the average speed is 18.7 km h1. The
total run time is 195 s, and the driving distance is 1.03 km.
Figure 16 indicates that the output power of the fuel cell power source. The motor outputs 384,233 J of positive
and lithium battery generally matches the motor output work and can recycle 163,818 J of negative work. The fuel
power. Because the fuel cell requires a relatively long re- cell and UltraBattery together output 625,547 J of positive
sponse time, when the power required by the motor work and can recycle 399,722 J of negative work. On aver-
changes, the fuel cell cannot react immediately. During de- age, 0.6391 J of negative work can be recycled for every
celeration, the excessive power produced by the fuel cell is 1 J of positive work output.
stored in the lithium battery. The simulated motor outputs
83,941 J of positive work and can recycle 399,981 J of neg-
ative work. On average, 0.6397 J of negative work can be 4.2.3. Fuel economy
recycled for every 1 J of positive work output. Fuel economy is dened as the distance (km L1) a
Figure 17 shows the powertime diagram of the driving motor vehicle can travel for each unit of fuel (gasoline
simulation when using the UltraBattery as the auxiliary and light oil). In fuel cell hybrid vehicles, fuel economy
is dened as the distance the vehicle can travel for each
Table III. New European driving cycle parameters. kilogram of hydrogen consumed, as shown later [20]:

ECE40 EUDC Unit distance of the driving cyclekm


f e (38)
hydrogen consumedkg
Distance 4*1.03 = 4.052 6.955 km
Time 4*195 = 780 400 S Figures 18 and 19 show the hydrogen consumption of
1
Average speed 18.7 62.6 km h the fuel cell hybrid vehicle during the ECE40 driving cycle
1
Maximum speed 50 120 km h when a lithium battery and UltraBattery are used as auxil-
ECE40, Economic Commission for Europe 40; EUDC, extra-ur- iary power sources, respectively. Hydrogen is regarded as
ban driving cycle. an ideal gas. At a normal temperature and pressure, the

Figure 15. Comparison of the timespeed relationships in the Figure 17. Fuel cell and UltraBattery auxiliary power output for
Economic Commission for Europe 40. fuel cell vehicle.

156 Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang

that the cost of a 1-kWh leadacid battery is approximately


$80 to $100. The cost of the overall assembly system in-
cluding a circuit control is $125. The cost of a 100-Wh
ultracapacitor is approximately $225. Therefore, the ex-
pected overall cost of the UltraBattery is approximately
$350. By contrast, the cost of a 1-kWh lithium-ion battery
is approximately $300 to $400. The cost of the overall as-
sembly system is $350. Therefore, the cost of the
UltraBattery is 35% less than that of a lithium-ion battery
with the same specications.

5. CONCLUSION
In this study, MATLAB/Simulink is used to establish sim-
Figure 18. Hydrogen consumption of the lithium-ion battery ulation models for the components of a fuel cell hybrid ve-
auxiliary power for fuel cell vehicle. hicle. These components are a fuel cell module, leadacid
battery module, ultracapacitor module, and UltraBattery
module. Finally, simulation regarding ECE40 driving cy-
cles with the fuel cell hybrid vehicle module is conducted
to observe simulated power output by applying a lithium
battery and the UltraBattery as auxiliary power sources.
The simulation reveals that the power output curves of
the UltraBattery and lithium battery are extremely similar.
This is because both are auxiliary power sources in the fuel
cell hybrid vehicle and play the same role in the driving
simulation. Thus, they differ little. When the lithium bat-
tery is used as the auxiliary power source, an average of
0.6397 J of negative work can be recycled for every 1 J
of positive work output. When the UltraBattery is used as
the auxiliary power source, an average of 0.6391 J of neg-
ative work can be recycled for every 1 J of positive work
output. The lithium battery recycles approximately 0.1%
more work than does the UltraBattery. The fuel economies
Figure 19. Hydrogen consumption of the UltraBattery auxiliary
of the lithium battery and UltraBattery are 325.93 and
power for fuel cell vehicle.
325.49 km kg1, respectively. The UltraBattery is only ap-
hydrogen consumed during the driving simulation in proximately 0.1% worse compared with the lithium bat-
which a lithium-ion battery is used as the auxiliary power tery. The expected cost of an UltraBattery with the same
source is 3.1602 g for a fuel economy of 325.93 km kg1. kilowatt hour is 35% less than that of a lithium battery.
The hydrogen consumed during the driving simulation in These statistics indicate that the UltraBattery and lithium
which an UltraBattery is used as the auxiliary power battery differ little in the amount of negative work they
source is 3.1644 g for a fuel economy of 325.49 km kg1. can recycle and fuel economy. When considering cost
and popularity, the UltraBattery remains competitive with
the lithium battery.
4.2.4. Cost analysis
Table IV presents a comparison of the expected costs of
the lithium-ion battery and UltraBattery. The data indicate NOMENCLATURE
Table IV. Comparison of UltraBattery and lithium-ion battery En = fuel cell reversible voltage (V)
for costs. G = Gibbs free energy
Energy storage system Cost (US$) F = Faraday constant (96,485 A s mol1)
P = partial pressure of gas (bar)
1-kWh leadacid battery 80100 T = operating temperature (K)
Assembled system (with circuitry) 125 R = universal gas constant (8.3145 J
100-Wh ultracapacitor 225 (mol K)1)
1-kWh UltraBattery 350 PH 2 = partial pressure of hydrogen (atm)
1-kWh lithium-ion battery 300400 PO2 = partial pressure of oxygen (atm)
Assembled system (with circuitry) 500
PH 2 O = partial pressure of water vapor (atm)

Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 157
DOI: 10.1002/er
P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system

Eact = activation overpotential (V) = density of air (kg m3)


N = number of single cell As = normal area (m2)
MA = Tafel slope V = vehicle speed (m s1)
MB = slope of concentration overpotential Vw = wind speed (m s1)
I0 = exchange current density (mA cm2)
Ifc = net current density (mA cm2)
= charge transfer coefcient
Eohm = ohmic overpotential (V) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Re = resistance of cathode ()
Rplate = resistance of plate () The current authors gratefully acknowledge the nancial
Rproton = resistance of pass-through proton support provided to this study by the Ministry of Science
exchange member () and Technology no. MOST-103-2221-E-024-015-MY3.
Econc = concentration overpotential (V)
iL = limiting current density (mA cm2)
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