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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENERGY RESEARCH
Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159
Published online 29 October 2015 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/er.3426
SUMMARY
This study involves investigation of fuel cell hybrid vehicles. The main power source in the dynamic conguration is a
proton exchange membrane fuel cell. An energy performance comparison is conducted between the use of a lithium-ion
battery (Automotive Energy Supply Corporation, Japan) and the UltraBattery (Furukawa Battery Company, Japan) as aux-
iliary power sources. The MATLAB/Simulink for simulation is used to observe dynamic behavior and overall performance.
This study describes the simulation frameworks of the proton exchange membrane fuel cell, ultracapacitor, leadacid
battery, and UltraBattery. Then, the Economic Commission for Europe 40 driving cycle is used to test and investigate
the performance of the fuel cell hybrid vehicle. Four energy output models are adopted to simulate the energy demand
and the energy motor output of the dual power source, namely the high-load demand, general demand, low-load demand,
and charge models. The simulation results indicate that the lithium battery recycles 0.1% more work compared with the
UltraBattery. Regarding fuel economy, the UltraBattery is only 0.1% inferior to the lithium battery. The expected cost
of an UltraBattery with the same specications is 35% less than that of a lithium battery. Considering fuel economy and
cost simultaneously, the UltraBattery can compete with the lithium battery. Copyright 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
KEY WORDS
fuel cell; Economic Commission for Europe 40; system simulation; UltraBattery; hybrid vehicle
Correspondence
*Jenn-Kun Kuo, Department of Greenergy, National University of Tainan, Tainan, 70005, Taiwan.
E-mail: jenn.kun@gmail.com
2. OVERVIEW OF THE FUEL CELL stack. According to Blomen and Mgerwa [12], the Nernst
AND SYSTEM COMPONENTS voltage term can be expressed as
8 RT
> G S
2.1. Power generation principles of the >
> T f c T 0 ln PH 2 PO2
1=2
when T100o C
< zF zF zF
proton exchange membrane fuel cell En 1=2
!
>
> G S RT PH 2 PO2
>
: zF zF T f c T 0 zF ln P when T > 100o C
The proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) uses H2 O
hydrogen as the fuel gas and air or pure oxygen as the ox- (4)
idant. Electrochemical reactions occur within the PEMFC.
The following transport phenomena occur during the For standard ambient conditions of 25 C and 1 atm, the
power generation process: ideal fuel cell voltage is equivalent to the Nernst potential
(En), where G is Gibbs free energy, z is the oxidation or
1. Oxygen is sent to the cathode side via the cathode reduction of the electrode of the stoichiometric coefcient
ow channel. The hydrogen molecules are dissoci- of the electrons in the reaction formula, F is the Faraday
ated using anode catalysis. constant, P is the gas partial pressure, T is the operating
2. Oxygen (or air) reaches the cathode side via the cath- temperature, R is a gas constant, PH 2 is the hydrogen partial
ode ow channel. Simultaneously, the hydrogen ions pressure of the fuel cell stack, PO2 is the oxygen partial
pass through the proton exchange membrane toward pressure of the fuel cell stack, and PH 2 O is the water partial
the cathode. The electrons pass through the external pressure of the fuel cell stack.
circuit (load) toward the cathode. When the parameters are inputted into block A, the ow
3. Through anode catalysis, the oxygen molecules, output is transferred to a fuel cell, as shown in formulas (5)
electrons, and hydrogen ions are catalyzed in the cat- and (6):
alyst, producing an oxygen reduction reaction that nr 2 60; 000RTNif c
U f H2 H (5)
generates water. nin
H2 zFPfuel V lpmfuel x%
4. After the electrons are connected in the circuit, a current
is formed. Power can be output toward the external load. nrO2 60; 000RTNif c
U f O2 (6)
nin
O2 zFP air V lpmair y%
The chemical reaction formula is expressed as follows
[11]:
where n is the mole fraction, U f H2 is the usage ow rate for
Anode : H 2 2H 2e (1)
the hydrogen (for the oxygen ow), Pfuel is the absolute
Cathode : 2H 2e 1 =2 O2 H 2 O (2) pressure of the fuel, Pair is the absolute pressure of the
air, Vlpm(fuel) is the fuel ow rate (air ow rate), x is the fuel
Overall : H 2 1 =2 O2 H 2 O (3) hydrogen fraction, and y is the oxygen fraction.
The parameters were inputted into block B to dene the
2.2. Proton exchange membrane fuel cell partial pressure, as shown in formulas (79).
simulation model PH 2 1 U f H2 x%Pfuel (7)
MATLAB/Simulink simulation was used to establish the
model. The SimPowerSystems (Mathwork company, PH 2 O w 2y%U f O2 Pair (8)
USA) fuel cell module was adopted. This module is the
PO2 1 U f O2 y%Pair (9)
most common general model of hydrogen fuel cells. Figure
1 shows the equivalent circuit of the PEMFC. where w is the oxidant vapor fraction and k is the
When fuel cell parameters, such as pressure, tempera- Boltzmann constant.
ture, the blended proportion of fuel gas and air, and ow A fuel cell standard voltage equation (4) can be used to
rate, change, this model can display the state of the fuel cell calculate the reversible potential by combining the gas
Figure 1. The equivalent circuit of the proton exchange membrane fuel cell.
Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 147
DOI: 10.1002/er
P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system
partial pressure of the reversible potential open-circuit electrolyte move rapidly toward the electrodes because of
voltage and the exchange current, as shown in formulas the inuence of the electrical eld. They form close charge
(10) and (11). E oc K c E n (10) layers on the surfaces of the two electrodes. These layers
are electric double layers.
zFk PH 2 PO2 G Chemical reactions do not occur in ultracapacitors dur-
i0 e RT (11) ing the charge and discharge processes. Thus, they have a
Rh
relatively high power density, and their energy density is
The nominal conversion rate was calculated using for- higher than that of the typical capacitor. They can be
mulas (12) and (13). charged and discharged repeatedly tens of thousands of
h H 2 Ogas N times. When high-energy batteries or fuel cells are com-
U f H2 nom (12)
zFV nom bined with ultracapacitors, high power characteristics and
extended working life can be realized.
60000RT nom NI nom
U f O2 (13)
2zFPairnom V lpmairnom 0:21 2.3.2. Equivalent circuit and simulation model of
the ultracapacitor
where nom is the low heating value efciency of the fuel The equivalent circuit of the ultracapacitor comprises
cell stack, ho(H2O(gas)) is the steam enthalpy change, numerous resistors and capacitors, which consist of two
Vnom is the rated voltage, Vlpm(air)nom is the rated air ow surfaces of porous activated carbon, multiple types
rate, Pairnom is the rated air absolute pressure, and Tnom is of material with similar resistance and capacitance
the rated operating temperature. effects, collector plate resistors and self-discharge drain
The peak usage (UF O2 peak) and the corresponding volt- resistors on both ends, and partition resistance that
age drop (Vu) are used to measure the oxygen consumption enable the passage of only ions in the middle. The
of the fuel cell output voltage model (delayed) that results internal structure of this ultracapacitor can be used to
from the air compressor. The reversible potential can be derive an equivalent circuit of a single ultracapacitor,
modied as follows: as shown in Figure 2.
8 The complex ultracapacitor circuit diagram shown in
< En K U f U U f O2 > U f O2 nom
f O2 nom Figure 2 is equivalent to three circuit elements: a capacitor
En O2
148 Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang
relationships between the two, as shown in the following current source (0.05 A). The ultracapacitor can provide a
equations [13]: current higher than that of the original current source.
1
vc t it dt (16)
C 2.4. Principles and modeling of the lead
acid battery
V RS I t RS (17)
2.4.1. Overview of the leadacid battery
The capacitance value of the ultracapacitor is not a xed Leadacid batteries have been developed for 150 years
constant but changes according to the voltage across the and are thus technically mature. They provide substantial
capacitor. Thus, the capacitor is expressed as follows: electromotive force and operate at both high and low
temperatures. In addition, they require no maintenance,
C C0 K u (18) are inexpensive, and have an exceptional cycle life.
Thus, the output value of leadacid batteries holds a
critical position among all batteries. Leadacid batteries
The ultracapacitor has two models in its battery terminal
can be applied to uninterruptible power systems, emer-
operations: charge and discharge.
gency lighting, industrial equipment, and backup power
supplies.
(1) Charge model:
The basic structure of leadacid batteries comprises
positive plates, negative plates, partitions, battery slots,
Another power source outputs charge at a xed voltage to
electrolytes, and terminals. The positive and negative
the ultracapacitor. When the potentials on both sides are
plates comprise grids and active materials. The positive
identical, charging stops. Capacitor charging can be
plate is composed of lead dioxide (PbO2), and the nega-
expressed as follows:
tive plate is composed of lead (Pb). The two electrodes
1 are immersed in a solution of 35% sulfuric acid and
V Cin IR Idt (19)
C 65% water (H2SO4 + H2O). In the electrolyte, H2SO4 is
divided into free hydrogen ions and sulfate ions. The
(2) Discharge model: partitions in leadacid batteries lie between the positive
plates and the negative plates. They serve primarily to
Capacitors change when loads differ. Therefore, when con- isolate the plates and to prevent short circuits between
sidering discharging, the discharge equation required for the plates. During the chemical reaction, the voltage
the use efciency of the load can be expressed as follows: between the lead plates and the lead dioxide plates is
approximately 2.1 V. Figure 4 illustrates the chemical
1 reaction of the leadacid battery.
V Cout Idt (20)
C
Figure 3 shows the simulation model of the ultra- 2.4.2. Equivalent circuit and simulation model of
capacitor. The module charges the ultracapacitor by apply- the leadacid battery
ing a 0.05-A direct current (DC) power supply. Voltage Figure 5 shows the equivalent circuit and charge and
increases continually during charging and decreases drasti- discharge models of the leadacid battery.
cally after energy is released. The released current pulses to The charge and discharge models of the leadacid bat-
the load. The current then drops gradually to the provided tery are presented as follows:
Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 149
DOI: 10.1002/er
P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system
Figure 5. The equivalent circuit and charge and discharge models of the leadacid battery.
150 Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang
batteries and carbon ultracapacitors). The high specic power and discharge reactions smaller than that of the activated
and long life of EDLCs are integrated into leadacid batteries carbon electrode, which reduces the damage caused by
to maintain the external parallel, increasing power and extend- high currents to the electrodes [16].
ing battery life. Circuits are simplied, specic energy is in-
creased, and costs can be reduced. Figure 7 illustrates the 2.5.3. UltraBattery simulation model
principle structure of the UltraBattery. Figure 8 illustrates the detailed simulation model of the
The UltraBattery is a hybrid energy storage device. Its thermal and SOC within the UltraBattery system. The
anodes comprise capacitor and leadacid battery anodes foundation for this model is the original leadacid battery
(Pb). The addition of an external electronic control system module. An ultracapacitor is connected in parallel in the
is unnecessary. Because leadacid batteries and asymmet- leadacid battery module to simulate the UltraBattery.
ric capacitors both adopt PbO2 in their cathodes, Lam The simulation results revealed that the parallel connection
et al. [15] placed the anodes of both in an internal parallel of the ultracapacitor substantially inuenced voltage dur-
for integration as a single battery. The anodes of both use a ing the discharging and charging processes.
single PbO2 cathode. Thus, two electrodes bear the current
on the anodes. One electrode is the lead negative plate, and
the other is the activated carbon electrode. The current 3. VEHICLE DYNAMIC MODEL AND
borne by the capacitor has a buffering effect on the lead ENERGY CONTROL
negative plate, making its actual current during the charge
3.1. Vehicle dynamics
Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 151
DOI: 10.1002/er
P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system
T q ig id E i
Ft (26)
r
152 Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang
Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 153
DOI: 10.1002/er
P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system
the energy from the fuel cell charges the UltraBattery 3.2.3. General demand model
directly, as shown in Figure 11(b). When load demand is within the operating range of the
fuel cell and the SOC of the UltraBattery remains in a state
of high power, the required load power is provided by the
fuel cell alone, as shown in Figure 11(c).
Figure 12. MATLAB/Simulink simulation control model for energy management system.
154 Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang
Figure 13. Driving dynamic model for fuel cell vehicle system.
Table II. Vehicle driving parameters. 15% accelerator command is used to brake and end the
simulation.
Vehicle parameters Value Unit
To analyze the driving conditions, the initial SOC is at
Total weight (W) 1710 kg 40.3% of the UltraBattery. At 0 s, the FCV is in an idle
Friction coefcient (r) 0.009 state. At this time, the motor requires no power. Thus, after
3
Air density () 1.23 kg m approximately 1 s, the charge model is entered, and the fuel
2
Frontal area (As) 2.7 m cell charges the UltraBattery. After 5 s, the accelerator pro-
Drag coefcient (CD) 0.26 pels the vehicle to 40%. Fuel cell power in the preliminary
stage is 1.92 kW, which is sufcient for supplying the di-
[19] driving simulation cycle is used by one and only driv- rect operation of the motor. The motors power must climb
ing cycle. continually. At 5.45 s, because the response time of the
fuel cells power output is relatively slow, power cannot
4.2. Vehicle module verication and driving be provided to the motor immediately. At this time, the in-
simulation sufciency lies in the power provided by the UltraBattery.
At 9.1 s, the fuel cell power can nally equal the motor
4.2.1. Dynamic simulation of the fuel cell vehicle power. Simultaneously, the UltraBattery stops providing
The FCV module is used to perform simulation testing. power. At 10 s, the accelerator commands release to 15%.
An accelerator pedal state that commands for 25 s is used At this time, the power demand of the motor drops instan-
to change the load in the module. Testing comprises four taneously. The additional power from the fuel cell is stored
driving states in different operating models: acceleration, in the UltraBattery. At 12 s, the fuel cell power and motor
slow driving, sudden acceleration, and braking. Figure 14 power are consistent. The fuel cell alone provides power to
shows the simulation results. The operations of the acceler- the motor. At 15 s, the accelerator commands an increase
ator pedal commands are discussed as follows: When the to 60%. The power required by the motor increases drasti-
simulation begins, the vehicle is stationary for 5 s. After cally. The fuel cells supply is insufcient. At this time, the
starting, the accelerator pedal is maintained at 40% for UltraBattery provides supplementary power to meet the
5 s. The accelerator pedal is then released slightly and motors demand. At 16 s, the degree to which motor power
maintained at 15% for 5 s before suddenly accelerating to demand increases slows. However, because the fuel cell
60%. This is similarly maintained for 5 s. Finally, a has a relatively long response time, fuel cell power con-
tinues to increase as the motor power slows. The fuel cell
stabilizes at only 18 s. At this time, the excess power is
stored in the UltraBattery. The braking stage begins at
20 s. Because the motor power increase rapidly, its PEM
fuel cell power not readily available electricity, therefore,
inadequate power by the UltraBattery to supply. However,
the UltraBattery cannot receive excessive power at one
time. A portion of the excess fuel cell power maintains
the descent of the motor for several seconds before the mo-
tor power decreases. At this stage, the power of the
UltraBattery becomes negative. The negative work behav-
ior of the motor is similar to that of a generator. The kinetic
energy for deceleration is converted into electrical energy
and stored in the UltraBattery, which has an absorption
Figure 14. UltraBattery auxiliary power for fuel cell vehicle. rate of approximately 28 kW.
Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 155
DOI: 10.1002/er
P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system
Figure 15. Comparison of the timespeed relationships in the Figure 17. Fuel cell and UltraBattery auxiliary power output for
Economic Commission for Europe 40. fuel cell vehicle.
156 Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang
5. CONCLUSION
In this study, MATLAB/Simulink is used to establish sim-
Figure 18. Hydrogen consumption of the lithium-ion battery ulation models for the components of a fuel cell hybrid ve-
auxiliary power for fuel cell vehicle. hicle. These components are a fuel cell module, leadacid
battery module, ultracapacitor module, and UltraBattery
module. Finally, simulation regarding ECE40 driving cy-
cles with the fuel cell hybrid vehicle module is conducted
to observe simulated power output by applying a lithium
battery and the UltraBattery as auxiliary power sources.
The simulation reveals that the power output curves of
the UltraBattery and lithium battery are extremely similar.
This is because both are auxiliary power sources in the fuel
cell hybrid vehicle and play the same role in the driving
simulation. Thus, they differ little. When the lithium bat-
tery is used as the auxiliary power source, an average of
0.6397 J of negative work can be recycled for every 1 J
of positive work output. When the UltraBattery is used as
the auxiliary power source, an average of 0.6391 J of neg-
ative work can be recycled for every 1 J of positive work
output. The lithium battery recycles approximately 0.1%
more work than does the UltraBattery. The fuel economies
Figure 19. Hydrogen consumption of the UltraBattery auxiliary
of the lithium battery and UltraBattery are 325.93 and
power for fuel cell vehicle.
325.49 km kg1, respectively. The UltraBattery is only ap-
hydrogen consumed during the driving simulation in proximately 0.1% worse compared with the lithium bat-
which a lithium-ion battery is used as the auxiliary power tery. The expected cost of an UltraBattery with the same
source is 3.1602 g for a fuel economy of 325.93 km kg1. kilowatt hour is 35% less than that of a lithium battery.
The hydrogen consumed during the driving simulation in These statistics indicate that the UltraBattery and lithium
which an UltraBattery is used as the auxiliary power battery differ little in the amount of negative work they
source is 3.1644 g for a fuel economy of 325.49 km kg1. can recycle and fuel economy. When considering cost
and popularity, the UltraBattery remains competitive with
the lithium battery.
4.2.4. Cost analysis
Table IV presents a comparison of the expected costs of
the lithium-ion battery and UltraBattery. The data indicate NOMENCLATURE
Table IV. Comparison of UltraBattery and lithium-ion battery En = fuel cell reversible voltage (V)
for costs. G = Gibbs free energy
Energy storage system Cost (US$) F = Faraday constant (96,485 A s mol1)
P = partial pressure of gas (bar)
1-kWh leadacid battery 80100 T = operating temperature (K)
Assembled system (with circuitry) 125 R = universal gas constant (8.3145 J
100-Wh ultracapacitor 225 (mol K)1)
1-kWh UltraBattery 350 PH 2 = partial pressure of hydrogen (atm)
1-kWh lithium-ion battery 300400 PO2 = partial pressure of oxygen (atm)
Assembled system (with circuitry) 500
PH 2 O = partial pressure of water vapor (atm)
Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 157
DOI: 10.1002/er
P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system
158 Int. J. Energy Res. 2016; 40:146159 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/er
Novel UltraBattery on fuel cell vehicles for the hybrid system P.-H. Huang, J.-K. Kuo and C.-Y. Huang
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