Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Submitted to:
Mrs. Astrid Sinco
Submitted By:
Connie Ryan V. Edpalina
Bio 6 EDA
Review of Related Literature
Foreign Setting
The sea-star was first found in Tasmania in 1986, but at the time was mis-identified
as a native species. It was not until 1992 that the sea-star was identified as A. amurensis,
In its native range, the sea-star prefers water temperatures between 7 and 10o C, but has
adapted to warmer waters (up to 22o C) in Australia and other countries."In one year the
12o C when females may carry up to 20 million eggs per adult. Fertilisation is external and
fertilised eggs develop into free swimming larvae that remain in the plankton for around 90
days, before settling and metamorphosing into juvenile seastars. The live-bearing sea star
is restricted to the south eastern coast of Tasmania. Unlike other species whose larval
young may be dispersed great distances by ocean currents, live-bearing sea stars are
restricted to their parental locations. They live in rocky crevices and are often attached to
the underside of rocks where they feed on microscopic algae. They prefer calmer,
sheltered waterways because they are slow moving and can be easily dislodged from rock
"The sea star lives for up to five years and in Japan its numbers increase and reach
outbreak proportions lasting two to three years. These outbreaks tend to occur in three or
ten year cycles and there have been some suggestions that the outbreaks are a symptom
increased in recent years. One theory suggests that their populations bloom several years
after a large typhoon with high rainfall, which produces abundant sediments. These
sediments are thought to contain nutrients that contribute to plankton blooms, which serve
as food for young starfish. Other theories point to the destruction of their major predators
Besides starfish, many other forces play a major role in the destruction of the reefs.
These include overfishing, pollution, typhoons and global warming. In Hawaii, where most
of the coral reefs in the United States are found, coral is being decimated by tourists,
Although sea stars destruct reefs they are often important in community structuring
processes (PAINE 1969a, b, 1976, DAYTON 1971, PAINE et al. 1985, GAYMER et al.
NAVARRETE & MENGE 1996). Most effects are observed in the lowest zones (subtidal)
on rocky substrates, where the starfish are protected from desiccation or other abiotic
influences that echinoderms, in general, do not tolerate well (STICKLE & DIEHL 1987).
Acanthaster planci (Linnaeus, 1758) on coral reefs (CAMERON et al. 1991) and Asterias
sp. on mussels (GAYMER et al. 2002). Not all asteroids, however, are so voracious and
some may maintain heterogeneity and biological diversity of their communities (VERLING
et al. 2003). All starfish survived all water salinity treatments in the summer and the
highest salinity in the winter. In the winter, however, only 57% of the starfish survived the
-1
reduced salinity (10 g kg ) and only 36% righted themselves within 30 minutes.
The starfish usually hunts for shelled animals like oysters and clams. Recently,
there are now 2,000 species of sea star living in all the worlds oceans, from tropical
habitats to the cold seafloor. The primarily carnivorous feeding habits of seastars have
long been recognized (Boolootian 1966, Mauzey et al. 1968) and during the past 20 to 30
yr sea star predation has been shown to be a major factor in structuring many marine
benthic communities (Menge 1982, Duggins 1983). The most detailed studies are those
made in the intertidal zone. For example, Paine (1974) demonstrated that the sea star
Pisaster ochraceus is the key predator in rocky intertidal communities on the Pacific coast
of North America. Its removal shifts the abundance of organisms in lower trophic levels,
structure. One would expect predation by sea stars to be particularly important n the
subtidal zone, where their activities are less limited by physiological stress. However, with
the exception of the studies of seastar Acanthaster planci on coral reefs (Glynn 1976,
B~rkeland 1982), relatively few studies have quantified the impact of asteroid O Inter-
the impact of seastars is the lack of understanding of the dynamics of seastar populations
Since sea stars have been the top most predator, the hard clam Mercenaria
mercenaria burrows deeper into the sediment when the predaceous sea star, Asterias
forbesi is present. The supposition that this increase in burial depth represents an escape
burial depth through manipulation of the amount of sediment available for burial.
Mercenaria maintained at zero depth were eaten by Asterias at greater rates than those
held at ordinary burial depths (2.53.0 cm). These clams in turn were eaten at greater
rates than those maintained at escape depths (4.04.5 cm). The results unambiguously
establish an anti-predator function for the burrowing response, as well as underscoring the
protective function of the fossorial habit. They are not confounded by behavioral predator
food preferences, inherent differences between prey species, or debilitating side effects of
preventing prey from escaping. Mechanisms by which the burrowing response may reduce
predation are discussed and observations on the unreported clam-digging behavior of
Leptasterias polaris detect and locate their major prey, large infaunal bivalves, in the
sediment bottom community. A field survey using SCUBA diving showed that 95% of the
locations where L. polaris dug into the sediment bottom were over bivalves and this
success rate was much greater than if digging was done at random (22%). Furthermore,
when sea stars were provided with a low density of randomly distributed prey in a
laboratory arena, they dug exclusively in locations where a clam had been buried. These
observations indicated that L. polaris locates infaunal prey prior to investing energy into
digging. Studies in a laboratory flow tank showed that L. polaris readily detected and
moved towards its preferred prey Ensis directus whereas its responses to less preferred
prey Mya truncata and Spisula polynyma were much weaker. The degree to which it
oriented towards these three common prey seemed to reflect potential energy intake
relative to foraging costs (which likely increase with the depth of the different prey) and
risks from interactions with other carnivores (which are greatest when feeding on large
prey). This is the first study to clearly demonstrate that sea stars use prey odours to locate
infaunal prey (Thompson et. al.). Furthermore, some sea stars live on the reef, and the sea
star is actually a predator of coral polyps, which means that too many sea stars can
damage the reef and leave behind only calcium carbonate. This breakdown in the food
chain, affects the population of deep-sea fish in the area, and will reduce the amount of
Sea stars as part of the Phylum Echinodermata, captures around 0.1 gigatonnes of
carbon per year1. This is less than the global capture resulting from pelagic organisms
a figure that ranges from 0.4 to 1.8 gigatonnes depending on the sources considered
but still represents a sizeable carbon pump. By comparison, human activities lead to
around 5.5 gigatonnes of carbon being pumped into the air every year ( Lebrato, 2010)
"Echinoderms are found in all ecosystems at all depths worldwide and have bodies that
can be composed of more than 80% calcium carbonate. A new study published in Nature
credits these abundant invertebrates with sequestering 100 million tons of carbon in their
Also, the starfish is sensitive to reduced salinity (10g kg 1), especially during winter.
Echinoderms are typically osmoconformers and stenohaline, and very permeable to water
and ions (review in STICKLE & DIEHL 1987) and so it is expected that they not be active
predators when exposed during low tide. Indeed, no starfish was ever seen consuming
prey while exposed during low tide. However, physiological limitation does not completely
explain the apparent lack of predatory influence on the community, since predation could
A new study finds that a species of sea star stays cool using a strategy never before
seen in the animal kingdom. The sea stars soak up cold sea water into their bodies during
high tide as buffer against potentially damaging temperatures brought about by direct
stars were assumed to be at the mercy of the sun during low tide "This work shows that
some sea stars have an unexpected back-up strategy." Sea stars need to endure rapid
changes in temperature. During high tide, they are fully submerged in cool sea water. But
when tides receded, the stars are often left on rocky shorelines, baking in the sun.
Clearly the stars had some way of beating the heat, but scientists were unsure how
they did it. Pincebourde and his team thought it might have something to do with fluid-filled
cavities found in the arms of sea stars. So he set up an experiment to test it. The
researchers placed sea stars in aquariums and varied the water level to simulate tidal
patterns. Heat lamps were used to control temperature, with some stars experiencing
hotter temperatures than others. The researchers found that stars exposed to higher
temperatures at low tide had higher body mass after the high tide that followed. Since the
stars were not allowed to eat, the increased mass must be from soaking up water. "This
reservoir of cool water keeps the sea star from overheating when the tide recedes again
the next day, a process called 'thermal inertia,'" Pincebourde said. What appears to be
happening, the researchers say, is that a hot low tide serves as a cue telling the star to
soak up more water during the next high tide. And the amount of water the stars can hold
is remarkable. "It would be as if humans were able to look at a weather forecast, decide it
was going to be hot tomorrow, and then in preparation suck up 15 or more pounds of water
into our bodies," said co-author Brian Helmuth of the University of South Carolina in
Columbia (University of Chicago Press Journals: Sea Stars bulk up to beat the heat)
Not only that, according to the study conducted by Scottish Association for
Marine Science (SAMS), a non-stick slime made by starfish may lead to new treatments
for asthma, athritis, hay fever and other inflammatory conditions, say marine biologists in
Scotland. The scientists, from the (SAMS) in Oban, Argyll, have been studying the slime
produced by the spiny starfish, Marthasterias glacialis, commonly found in the waters
around Scotland and other parts of the British Isles, and say it could be vital for treating
human infections. Lead researcher Dr Charlie Bavington, founder and managing director
of Glycomar, a marine biotechnology company based at SAMS, has been talking to the
media about their work. In an interview with the BBC aired on Thursday 9 December, he
demonstrated how the starfish produced the slime: he took a starfish with a span of about
30 cm or 12 in out of a tank, held it, after a few seconds the slime began visibly to ooze
from the creatures spiny body. The slime is a defence mechanism and also prevents
used to lure starfish away from coral reefs, an endangered ecosystem they are devouring
at an alarming rate. The finding was presented here today during the 2000 International
Society, The poisonous crown-of-thorns starfish, which feasts on coral and whose
in the tropical zones of the Indian and Pacific oceans, including Hawaii. The problem is
acute in Japan, where extensive, costly efforts to control the creature have met with little
success.
Philippine Setting
In 1984 Janssen, Orosco, Largo, Ayson and Uy, students of University of San
Carlos conducated a study in the unique mating behaviour of Archaster typicus (Muller et
Troschel, 1840) they were able to find that there is no macroscopic feature that allows a
definite determination of sex. Male Archaster typicus are able to recognize the sex of
another individual by crawling over the center of another species on its center within a few
On Diversity
It was reported by Choi that the Class Asteroidea was found in sandy substrate in
Gitagum, Misamis Oriental. Sea stars were located on rocky coralline substrate.
Another similar study was conducted in the intertidal zone of Tagcatong, Carmen,
Agusan del Norte. Archaster typicus was the most abundant that had 42 individuals
(Paculba, 1995) conducted a study on the species diversity of sea stars in Bolo
nodosus and Linkia laevigata were the species found in the area. In the computations on
Shannons Index of general diversity, the diversity was 0.528, which indicated that the area
was diversified with respect to the presence of sea stars. Archaster typicus was the most
abundant, followed by Archaster angulatus (33%0, then by Oreaster nodosus (12%) and
finally by Linkia laevigata which comprised only 11% of the collected species.
References
Internet Sources
Study: Sea stars bulk up to beat the heat, January 3, 2011: by Kevin Stacey
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2009-11/uocp-sss111709.php
Carbon-Slurping Sea Stars, January 2, 2011: by Sea Notes, Monterey Bay Aquarium
http://montereybayaquarium.typepad.com/sea_notes/2010/01/carbonslurping-sea-
stars.html
Sea Stars endemic to Tasmania, January 3, 2011: by Marine and Coastal Research
Tasmania
http://www.parks.tas.gov.au/file.aspx?id=6917
Starfish Slime Could Hold Key To New Treatment For Asthma, Arthritis, January 3,
2011: by Apex Global
http://www.agnetworksolution.com/2010/12/11/starfish-slime-could-hold-key-to-new-
treatment-for-asthma-arthritis/
Reduction of sea star predation by the burrowing response of the hard clam
Mercenaria mercenaria (Mollusca: Bivalvia), January 3, 2011: by Peter H. Doering
http://www.springerlink.com/content/u778223084213140/
Chemical May Deter Starfish From Devouring Endangered Coral Reefs, January
2, 2011: by Science Daily
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2000/12/001218073146.htm
Unpublished Sources
Acenas, Ron Dreyfus L., Species Duversity on Echinoderms in the Intertidal Zone of
Barangay Mabini, Binuangan, Misamis Oriental Biology Department Research; Xavier
University, Cagayan de Oro City, 2009.