Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CHAPTER 1
THEORIES OF STRESS AND STRAIN
to stresses, strains and displacements. Other names of this subject are strength of
This subject is a vast field of study which covers the materials not only in civil
this book essentially provide the fundamentals to civil engineering students for their
higher level of studies such as theory of structures, structural analysis, soil mechanics
civil engineers to provide safe design of buildings, bridges, dams, retaining walls and
other civil engineering structures. In other words, structures that are designed with a
equations and experimental results are equally important. Most of the theoretical
these equations are used to predict the bahaviour of materials in other events. This
kind of practice is most commonly carried out in the design of civil engineering
structures, as it is not feasible to build the prototype and test it to failure in order to
describe the behaviour in the actual event. Therefore, readers should bear in mind
that we are only using the estimated mechanical behaviour of materials in our design,
and the actual mechanical behaviour of materials in the built structures is never
precisely known.
stresses and strains developed in the structure. In civil engineering, most of the
interest here.
Equilibrium of a Particle
When the resultant of all the forces acting on a particle is zero, the particle is in
P P
This equilibrium condition is not limited to two forces acting in the opposite
condition as well.
A rigid body is said to be in equilibrium when the external forces acting on it form a
system of forces equivalent to zero. In a two-dimensional rigid body, the three basic
equilibrium equations of the rigid body as shown in Fig. 1.2 can be written as
F x =0 (1.1a)
F y =0 (1.2b)
M a =0 (1.1c)
in which Fx = force component of each forces, F1, F2, F3, and F4, in the x Cartesian
coordinate direction; Fy = force component of each forces, F1, F2, F3, and F4, in the y
y
F2 Note: c.g. = centroid
a l2
F3 c.g.
l4
F1
F4
x
be satisfied. Since this subject has no particular interest here, the readers may refer to
Elasticity
Whenever a single force (or a system of forces) acts on a body, it undergoes some
deformation and the molecules offer some resistance to the deformation. A little
consideration will show, that when the external force is removed, the force of
resistance also vanishes; and the body springs back to its original position. However,
this is only possible if the deformation caused by the external force is within a certain
limit, which is known as the elastic limit. The material property of returning back to
the original position after the external forced has been removed is called elasticity.
Stress
deformations, it sets up some resistance to deformation. This resistance per unit area
P
= (1.2)
A
the body (see Fig. 1.3); and A = cross-sectional area of the body.
It should be noted that the intensity of stress is only uniform when the load of
force is acting exactly at the centroid of the cross section of the body. If the force is
eccentric, that is, not acting at the centroid, the intensity of stress is then non-uniform.
Strain
As discussed earlier, whenever a single force (or a system of forces) acts on a body, it
undergoes some deformation. This deformation per unit length is known as strain,
that is,
= (1.3)
L
where = strain; = change in length of the body; and L = original length of the body
P P
Types of Stresses
Although there are many types of stresses, yet the following two types are important
(a) Tensile stresses when a body is subjected to two equal and opposite pulls as
shown in Fig 1.4(a), as a result of which the body tends to lengthen. The stress
induced across the cross section mn as shown in Fig. 1.4(b) is called tensile stress
and the corresponding strain is called tensile strain, where A is the cross-sectional
(b) Compressive stress when a body is subjected to two equal and opposite pushes
as shown in Fig. 1.5(a), as a result of which the body tends to shorten its length.
The stress induced across section pq as shown in Fig. 1.5(b) is called compressive
stress and the corresponding strain is called compressive strain, where A is the
P P
n
(a) Tensile forces
m
P
P
A
n
(b) Tensile stress across section mn
Fig. 1.4 A body subjected to tensile force and the cross-sectional stress
P P
q
(a) Compressive forces
p
P
P
A
q
(b) Compressive stress across section pq
Fig. 1.5 A body subjected to compressive force and the cross-sectional stress
Hookes Law
Hookes Law states that, when a material is loaded, within its elastic limit, the stress
Stress
= =E (1.4)
Strain
Fig. 1.6 shows a typical stress versus strain curve of a material. Within the
elastic limit, that is, part OA of the curve which is straight, the Youngs modulus E is
given by the slope of the curve. The values of E for some common engineering
materials are shown in Table 1.1. A material with high Youngs modulus is regarded
Stress,
B
E=
O Strain,
Strength
The strength of a material is the stress required to break a piece of the material
itself. It will generally be the same regardless of the size for a given solid material.
In a material, we are most often concerned with the tensile strength, or sometimes
called the ultimate tensile stress, which is the maximum stress at point B of the stress
The tensile strengths of some engineering materials are given in Table 1.2. A
weak.
Tensile strength
Item No. Material
(MN/m2 or N/mm2)
1. Steel 250 to 2000
2. Wrought iron 100 to 300
3. Cast iron 70 to 300
4. Copper 140
5. Brass 120 to 400
6. Aluminium 70
7. Timber 3 to 100
After we have gone through the basic properties of materials, stress should not be
confused with strain; and strength should not be confused with stiffness.
In common terms, stress can be regarded as how hard the atoms at a point in a
solid material are being pulled apart or pushed together by a load. In a like manner,
strain can be expressed as how far the atoms at a point in a solid material are being
Strength on the other hand can generally be regarded as the maximum stress
that a material can sustain before it breaks; and stiffness can be expressed as the
resistance to deformation under load. For instances, a cookie is stiff and weak; a
steel bar is stiff and strong; nylon is flexible and strong; and butter is flexible and
weak.
It was discussed earlier that a body will deform under load and stress will be induced.
Substituting Eqs. (1.2) and (1.3) into Eq. (1.4), the elongation of the body under load
is given as
PL
= (1.5)
AE
force.
Consider a bar AB hanging freely under its own weight as shown in Fig. 1.7. Let L =
length of the bar; A = cross-sectional area of the bar; E = modulus of elasticity for the
bar material; and w = specific weight (weight per unit volume) of the bar material.
The normal stress (tensile stress) over any horizontal cross section is caused
by the weight of the material below that section. The elongation of the element
( wAx)dx
d = (1.6)
AE
( wAx)dx wA L2 ( wAL) L WL
l
= = = = (1.7)
0
AE AE 2 2 AE 2 AE
in which W = total weight of the bar = w A L. Note that the total elongation
produced by the weight of the bar is equal to that produced by a load half of its weight
dx
L
x
B
Fig. 1.7 A bar hanging freely and deform under its own weight
Example 1.1. A brass bar with cross-sectional area of 1000 mm2 is subjected to the
system of forces as shown in Fig. 1.8. Determine the total elongation of the bar. For
A B 140 kN 40 kN C D
80 kN 20 kN
Solution.
acting on its outer edges as well as at some other sections along the length of the
body, the forces are split out, and their effects are considered on individual segments.
The resulting deformation of the body is equal to the algebric sum of the deformations
of the individual segments. The relation for the resulting deformation is given as
PL 1
= = ( P1 L1 + P2 L2 + P3 L3 + .... + Pn Ln ) (1.8)
AE AE
80 kN 80 kN
A B
60 kN 60 kN
B C
20 kN 20 kN
C D
Fig. 1.9 A single bar seperated into several segments in equilibrium and their internal forces
For the sake of simplification, the force of 140 kN acting at B may be split up
into two forces of 80 kN and 60 kN as shown in Fig. 1.9. Similarly, the force of 40
direction. Now it is clearly seen that segment AB of the bar is subjected to a tension
subjected to a compression of 20 kN. Using Eq. (1.8), the total elongation of the bar
is given as (with usual notations and using +ve for elongation and ve for shortening)
1
= ( P1 L1 + P2 L2 + P3 L3 )
AE
1
= (80 450 60 750 20 900)
1000 80
= 0.34 mm
Negative sign indicates that there will be net decrease in length of the bar, that
Example 1.2. A member ABCD is subjected to point loads P1, P2, P3 and P4 as
shown in Fig. 1.10. Calculate the force P2, necessary for equilibrium, if P1 = 45 kN,
P3 = 450 kN and P4 = 130 kN. Determine the total elongation of the member by
A2 = 2500 mm2
B C
D
A
P1 A1 = 625 mm2 A3 = 1250 mm2 P4
P2 P3
Solution.
Given area A1 = 625 mm2; A2 = 2500 mm2; A3 = 1250 mm2; L1 = 1200 mm; L2 = 600
From equilibrium, the magnitude of force P2 may be found out by equating the
P2 + P4 = P1 + P3
P2 + 130 = 45 + 450
P2 = 365 kN
Similar to the solution of Example 1.1, the body is again seperated into three
segments for the calculation of total elongation as shown in Fig. 1.11. In Eq. (1.8),
the cross-sectional area for the whole body is the same. With a little consideration,
Eq. (1.8) can be modified so that it can be used for a bar with different cross-sectional
1 P1 L1 P2 L2 P3 L3 PL
= + + + ..... + n n (1.9)
E A1 A2 A3 An
45 kN 45 kN
A B
320 kN 320 kN
B C
130 kN 130 kN
C D
Fig. 1.11 A body seperated into three segments in equilibrium and their internal forces
Using Eq. (1.9), the total elongation of the body is given as (with usual
1 P1 L1 P2 L2 P3 L3
= + +
E A1 A2 A3
= 0.491 mm
Positive sign indicates that there will be net increase in length of the bar, that is,
shown in Fig. 1.12. Assuming that the bars are prevented from lateral buckling,
compute the magnitude of force P that will cause the total length of the member to
decrease by 0.5 mm. Take Youngs modulus for steel and aluminium as 210 kN/mm2
Steel bar
450 mm
60 x 60
Aluminium bar
580 mm
120 x 120
Solution.
Given area of steel bar, As = 60 60 = 3600 mm2; area of aluminium bar, AA = 120
120 = 14400 mm2; length of steel bar, Ls = 450 mm; length of aluminium bar, LA =
580 mm; Youngs modulus for steel, Es = 210 kN/mm2; and Youngs modulus for
aluminium, EA = 70 kN/mm2.
The composite bar may be separated into two segments and isolated as
In Eq. (1.9), the Youngs modulus for the whole body is the same. With a little
consideration, Eq. (1.9) can be modified so that it can be used for a bar with different
P1 L1 P2 L2 PL PL
= + + 3 3 + ..... + n n (1.10)
A1 E1 A2 E 2 A3 E3 An E n
Ps = P
PA = P
B B
Ps = P
PA = P
Fig. 1.13 A composite bar in series separated into two free bodies and their internal forces
Let P be the magnitude of the required force. So, by using Eq. (1.10) and P =
L LA
= P s +
As E s AA E A
450 580
0.5 = P + 3
3600 210 10 14400 70 10
3
0.5 = 1.1706 10 6 P
0.5
P=
1.1706 10 6
= 427.1 10 3 N
= 427.1 kN
As seen in Example 1.3, the compressive force in each of the segments can be
determined statically using just the useful equilibrium equation the equation for
statically determinate.
Most structures are more complex than Example 1.3, and their reactions and
internal forces cannot be found statically using the equilibrium equations alone. This
situation is illustrated by the bar as shown in Fig. 1.14(a), which shows a bar ABC
fixed at both ends. There are now two reactions, RA and RC, but only one useful
equation of equilibrium the equation for summing forces in the horizontal direction
(with self-weight of the bar neglected). Since this equation has two unknowns, it is
not sufficient for finding the reactions. Structures of this kind are classified as
the analysis.
equilibrium. From Fig. 1.14(b), we can only write one equilibrium equation, that is,
F horizontal = 0 : R A + P RC = 0 (1.11a)
The equilibrium equation may also be written based on the internal bar segment
R A + Rc = P (1.11b)
An additional equation is needed in order to solve for the two unknown reactions, and
this equation will come from the compatibility of the displacements (elongation or
shortening).
A B C
P
LAB LBC
RA A B C RC
P
RA A B RA
RC B C RC
From Fig. 1.14(c), it can be seen that segment AB is subjected to tensile force
experiences elongation and segment BC experiences shortening. Using Eq. (1.5) with
R A L AB
AB = (1.12a)
AE
and
RC LBC
BC = (1.12b)
AE
Since both ends A and C are fixed, the total elongation should be equal to zero,
that is,
AC = AB + BC = 0 (1.12c)
R A L AB RC LBC
=0
AE AE
R A L AB RC LBC
= (1.13)
AE AE
which contains the two reactions as unknowns. Solving Eqs. (1.11) and (1.13)
Example 1.4. A square bar of 20 mm 20 mm is held between two rigid plates and
loaded by an axial force P with a magnitude of 300 kN and direction as shown in Fig.
1.15. Find the reactions at the ends A and C and the extension of the portion AB.
20 mm
A B C
P
300 mm 200 mm
Solution.
Area of the bar, A = 20 20 = 400 mm2; force on the bar, P = 300 kN; length of bar
segment AB, LAB = 300 mm; length of bar segment BC, LBC = 200 mm; Youngs
From Fig. 1.16, we can see that segment AB of the bar is subjected to tension
A B C
P
A B
RA RA
B C
RC RC
Fig. 1.16 Free-body diagrams of the bar segments and their internal forces
R A + RC = 300 kN (a)
R A 300 R 200
= C
400 200 400 200
3
RC = RA (b)
2
3
RA + R A = 300
2
R A = 120 kN
and
RC = 180 kN
= 0.45 mm
different materials as shown in Fig. 1.17(a) where P = total load on the bar; A1, E1, P1
= area, Youngs modulus and load shared by bar 1 respectively; A2, E2, P2 = area,
Youngs modulus and load shared by bar 2 respectively; L = length of the composite
P = P1 + P2
P1
1 =
A1
and
P2
2 =
A2
respectively.
1
P
2
n
L
(a) Deformation
P1 1
P
P2 2
n
(b) Forces at cross section mn
Fig. 1.17 Deformation of a composit bar and force in each bar in parallel under load
The corresponding elongations for bars 1 and 2 with reference to Eq. (1.5) are
given as
P1 L
1 =
A1 E1
and
P2 L
2 =
A2 E 2
respectively. Since both the elongations are equal, the compatibility equation for the
= 1 = 2 (1.14)
Therefore,
P1 L PL
= 2
A1 E1 A2 E 2
P1 P
= 2 (1.15a)
A1 E1 A2 E 2
A E
P2 = P1 2 2 (1.15b)
A1 E1
A E AE
P = P1 + P1 2 2 = P1 1 + 2 2
A1 E1 A1 E1
A1 E1
P1 = P (1.16a)
A1 E1 + A2 E 2
Similarly,
A2 E 2
P2 = P (1.16b)
A1 E1 + A2 E2
From Eq. (1.16), we can find out the loads shared by the different materials.
1 2
=
E1 E2
Therefore,
E1
1 = 2 (1.17a)
E2
and
E2
2 = 1 (1.17b)
E1
The ratio of the Youngs modulus of material 1 to the Youngs modulus of material 2,
E1
E2
reinforced with 4 steel bars of 25 mm diameter, one in each corner as shown in Fig.
1.18. The column is carrying a compressive load of 2000 kN. Find the stresses in the
concrete and steel bars. Given E for steel = 210 kN/mm2 and E for concrete = 21
kN/mm2. If the effective height of the column is 3 m, compute the elastic shortening
400 mm
400 mm
Solution.
4 25 = 1963 mm 2 ; area of concrete, Ac = 160000 1963 = 158037 mm2; height
4
21 kN/mm2
Es 210
s = c = c = 10 c (c)
Ec 21
P = Ps + Pc = s As + c Ac
= c = s
Pc L PL
= = s
Ac E c As E s
c L 0.0113 3000
= =
Ec 21
= 1.61 mm
If a plane is passed through a body, a force acting along this plane is called a shear
force or shearing force. The shear force, divided by the area over which it acts, is
Fs
= (1.18)
A
where = intensity of shear stress (normally known as shear stress); Fs = shear force;
and A = cross sectional area of the plane passing through the body.
Let us consider a bar cut by plane a-a perpendicular to its axis, as shown in
Fig. 1.19. A normal stress is perpendicular to this plane. This is the type of stress
A shear stress is one acting along the plane, as shown by the stress . Hence
the distinction between normal stresses and shear stresses is one of direction.
of shear stresses, and for lack of any more precise knowledge it will be taken to be
uniform in all problems discussed later in this section. Thus Eq. (1.18) indicates an
Now let us consider the deformation of a plane rectangular element cut from a
solid where the forces acting on the element are known to be shearing stress in the
The faces of element parallel to the plane of the paper are assumed to be load
free. Since there are no normal stresses acting on the element, the lengths of the sides
of originally rectangular element will not change when the shearing stresses assume
the value . However, there will be a distortion of the originally right angles of the
element, and after this distortion due to the shearing stresses the element assumes the
defined as the shear strain. It must be expressed in radian measure and is usually
denoted by .
(a) Shear stress (b) Deformation
the modulus of elasticity in shear is the ratio of the shear stress to the shear strain
G= (1.19)
The dimension of G is the same as those of the shear stress, that is, in kN/mm2
or GN/m2, since the shear strain is dimensionless. The moduli of rigidity for some
Modulus of rigidity
Item No. Material
(GN/m2 or kN/mm2)
1. Steel 80 to 100
2. Wrought iron 80 to 90
3. Cast iron 40 to 50
4. Copper 30 to 50
5. Brass 30 to50
6. Timber 10
Example 1.6. A single rivet made of steel is used to join two plates as shown in Fig.
1.21. If the diameter of the rivet is 20 mm and the load P is 30 kN, what is the
average shear stress and shear strain developed in the rivet? Assume modulus of
Solution.
d 2 (20) 2
Cross-sectional area of rivet, A = = = 100 mm2. From Eq. (1.18), the
4 4
P 30 1000
= = = 95.49 N/mm 2 or MPa
A 100
P
P
d = 20 mm
95.49 10 3
= = = 1.061 10 3 radian
G 90
of a body, it causes the body to expand or contract. If the body is allowed to expand
or contract freely, with the rise or fall of the temperature, no stress is induced in the
induced in the body. Such stresses are called thermal stresses. The corresponding
The thermal stresses or strains in a simple bar may be found out using the steps given
below:
2. Calculate the load required to bring the deformed bar to the original length.
3. Calculate the stress and strain in the bar caused by this load.
The thermal stresses or strains may also be found by finding out the amount of
deformation due to change in temperature first. Then by finding out the thermal strain
due to deformation, the thermal stress can be determined from the thermal strain.
linear expansion. So, the increase or decrease in length due to increase or decrease in
t = L t (1.20)
A B
Pushed back
L t =
A B
Pulled back
t =
If both ends of the bar are fixed to rigid supports, that is, no displacement of
t Lt
= = = = t (1.21)
L L L
= E = tE (1.22)
then the net expansion or or contraction that needs to be brought back to the support is
= t y = L t y (1.23)
y
A B
Pushed back
L t
y
A B
Pulled back
Fig. 1.23 Virtual deformation of a restrained body subjected to temperature changes and
displacement of support
L t y y
= = = t (1.24)
L L L
y
= E = t E (1.25)
L
Example 1.7. Two parallel walls at 6 m apart, are tied up with a steel rod with a
diameter of 20 mm passing through metal plates and nuts at each end as shown in Fig.
1.24. The nuts are tightened in place at the temperature of 100 C. Neglecting the
thickness of the walls, determine the stress and the force in the rod when the
6m
Solution.
d 2 (20) 2
A= = = 100 mm2; change in temperature (decrement), t = 100 C 20
4 4
12106 C1
Let 1 = stress in the rod; and P1 = force in the rod. From Eq. (1.22),
Let 2 = stress in the rod; P2 = force in the rod; and y = displacement of one end = 1
y
E = 12 x10 6 80
1
2 = t 200 = 0.159 kN/mm
2
L 6000
P2 = 2 A = 0.159 100
= 49.95 kN
Consider a bar ABC fixed at its ends A and C which is subjected to a temperature rise
as shown in Fig. 1.25. Let L1, 1, A1, E1 = length, stress, cross-sectional area and
Youngs modulus for segment AB respectively; L2, 1, A2, E2 = length, stress, cross-
temperature rise.
A A1, E1 B
A2, E2 C
L1 L2
Bar ABC will tend to expand as a result of the temperature rise. Since the ends
A and C are fixed to rigid supports, the expansion is restrained and therefore
compressive stresses are induced (tensile stresses if temperature falls) in the bar. For
equilibrium, the force induced in segment AB must be equal to the force induced in
P1 = P2 1 A1 = 2 A2 (1.26)
and the total deformation due to change in temperature assuming that the bar is free to
P1 L1 P2 L2
= 1 + 2 = + (1.27a)
A1 E1 A2 E 2
1 L1 2 L2
1tL1 + 2 tL2 = + (1.27b)
E1 E2
Example 1.8. A composite bar made up of aluminium and steel is held between two
supports as shown in Fig. 1.26. The bars are stress free at temperature of 38 C.
linear expansion for steel, s = 11.7106 C1; and coefficient of linear expansion for
aluminium, A = 23.4106 C1
600 mm 300 mm
Solution.
Length of steel bar, Ls = 600 mm; diameter of steel bar = 50 mm; area of steel bar,
As = 50 2 = 1963.5 mm2. Length of aluminium bar, LA = 300 mm; diameter of
4
aluminium bar = 25 mm; area of aluminium bar, AA = 25 2 = 490.87 mm2.
4
Let s = stress in steel bar; and A = stress in aluminium bar. From Eq. (1.26),
s As = A AA
As 1963.5
A = s = s
AA 490.87
A = 4 s (a)
Now assume a force P to be applied at the ends of this composite bars so that
s Ls A L A
= +
Es EA
s 600 A 300
0.2386 = + (b)
210 74
s 600 4 s 300
+ = 0.2386
210 74
Now the total extension which the applied force P has to bring back,
s Ls A L A
= +
Es EA
s 600 A 300
0.1386 = + (c)
210 74
s 600 4 s 300
+ = 0.1386
210 74
two or more materials in parallel, it causes the bar to expand or contract. Due to the
Fig. 1.27(a) shows a composite bar consisting of steel and brass with the same
length at certain temperature where there is no stress in either bar. If the temperature
rises and the component members of the bar are free to expand, then no stress will be
induced in either member as shown in Fig. 1.27(b). The free expansion of the brass
bar is more than that of the steel attributed to a larger coefficient of linear expansion.
However, the two members are rigidly fixed and hence the composite bar will expand
by the same amount as seen in Fig. 1.27(c), which is less than the free expansion of
the brass but more than the free expansion of the steel. It this configuration, it is clear
that the brass is subjected to compressive force whereas the steel is subjected to
tensile force.
composite bar in parallel configuration, let us consider a one unit length composite
bar as shown in Fig. 1.28. The composite bar has material 1 with a larger coefficient
of linear expansion than material 2 and the deformations are shown in Fig. 1.28. Now
1t
2
2t
1
1 2
2
1 1 2
what is in Eq. (1.26). From Fig. 1.28, the strain in material 1, 1 = 1t , and the
1 + 2 = t ( 1 2 ) (1.28)
It should be noted that 1 and 2 in Eq. (1.28) should always be arranged in such a
Example 1.9. A steel rod of 20 mm diameter passes centrally through a tight fitting
copper tube of with an external diameter of 40 mm. The tube is closed with the help
of rigid washers of negligible thickness and nuts threaded on the rod as shown in Fig.
1.29. The nuts are tightened until the compressive load on the tube is 50 kN.
Determine the stresses in the rod and the tube when the temperature falls by 50 C.
Take E for steel and copper as 200 kN/mm2 and 100 kN/mm2 respectively; and for
Copper tube
Steel rod
Fig. 1.29 A composite bar consists of a steel rod passing through a copper tube
Solution.
Diameter of steel rod = 20 mm; area of steel rod, As = 20 2 = 100 mm 2 ; area of
4
copper tube, Ac = (40 2 20 2 ) = 300 mm 2 ; compressive load on copper tube,
4
steel rod, Es = 200 kN/mm2; E for copper tube, Ec = 100 kN/mm2; for steel rod, s =
Let s1 = stress in steel rod due to tightening and c1 = stress in copper tube
due to tightening. When the nut is tightened, the steel rod is subjected to tension
these two forces must be equal to satisfy equilibrium. Therefore, the tensile stress in
50
s1 = = 0.15915 kN/mm 2 = 159.15 N/mm 2 (tension)
100
50
c1 = = 0.05305 kN/mm 2 = 53.05 N/mm 2 or MPa (compression)
300
When the temperature falls by 50 C, let s2 = stress in the steel rod; and c2 =
stress in the copper tube. As noticed previously that when the temperature falls, the
free contraction of copper will be larger than that of the steel rod because c > s. So,
the copper tube will be subjected to tensile stress and the steel rod will be subjected to
compressive stress. Since the tensile force in the copper tube is equal to the
s 2 As = c 2 Ac
Ac 300
s2 = c2 = c 2 = 3 c 2
As 100
c 2 + s 2 = t ( c s )
c2 s2
+ = 50(18 10 6 12 10 6 )
Ec Es
c2 c2
+ = 300 10 6
100 200
c 2 3 c 2
+ = 300 10 6
100 200
Pressure vessels are structures of cylindrical and spherical forms containing fluids or
gases such as water tanks, gas tanks, boilers, etc. Generally, the walls of such vessels
are very thin as compared to their diameters. These vessels will be subjected to
atmospheric pressure internally and externally when they are empty. In such case,
internal pressure, its wall will be subjected to tensile stresses. In general, if the
thickness of the wall of a pressure vessel is less than 1/10 to 1/15 if its diameter, it is
When a cylindrical shell is subjected to internal pressure, its wall will be subjected to
tensile stresses. If these stresses exceed to permissible limit, the cylinder is likely to
The failure of splitting into two troughs is caused by stresses acting in the tangential
splitting into two cylinders is caused by the stresses acting in the longitudinal
direction termed as longitudinal stress. In thin shell, these stresses are assumed to be
Crack line
Crack line
(a) Splitting into two troughs (b) Splitting into two cylinders
Circumferential Stress
discussed earlier, the cylinder tends to fail in the mode of splitting into two troughs as
p
h h
X X d
h h
p
Fig. 1.31 Pressure and stress distributions of a thin shell in the failure mode of splitting into
two troughs
Let L = length of the shell; d = diameter of the shell; t = thickness of the shell;
a result of the internal pressure p, the shell is likely to be torn away along one of its
symmetrical axes, say X-X as shown in Fig. 1.31. Thus the total bursting force along
= pdL
pdL
=
2tL
pd
h = (1.29)
2t
This is the tensile stress across X-X and it is also known as hoop stress.
Longitudinal Stress
Consider a cylindrical shell similar to the one given earlier subjected to the same
internal pressure, the shell has a tendency to fail in the mode of splitting into two
cylinders as a result of longitudinal stress. Fig. 1.32 shows the longitudinal section of
the thin shell with the internal pressure and stress distributions.
Let L = length of the shell; d = diameter of the shell; t = thickness of the shell;
result of the internal pressure p, the shell is likely to be splitting into two cylinders,
say along the Y-Y plane as shown in Fig. 1.32. Thus the total bursting force along this
plane is given as
d 2
P = Intensity of stress Area = p
4
pd 2
P=
4
Y
l l
d p p
l l
Y
Fig. 1.32 Pressure and stress distributions of a thin shell in the failure mode of splitting into
two cylinders
pd 2
= 4
dt
pd
l = (1.30)
4t
This is the tensile stress across the Y-Y plane and it is noted that the value is half of
m head of water. Compute the hoop stress and longitudinal stress at the bottom of the
penstock.
Solution.
pressure, p = gh = 1000 9.81 100 N/m2 = 981000 N/m2 = 0.981 N/mm2 or MPa
m/s2).
Hoop stress:
pd 0.981 1000
h = = = 49.05 N/mm 2 or MPa
2t 2 10
Longitudinal stress:
pd 0.981 1000
l = = = 24.53 N/mm 2 or MPa
4t 4 10
the allowable pressure of the gas inside the cylinder if the tensile stress of the material
Solution.
Therefore, the maximum allowable stress will be governed by the hoop stress h.
pd
h =
2t
p 1500
100 =
2 30
25 p = 100
p = 4 N/mm 2 or MPa
From Example 1.10, we can see that the hoop stress is the maximum stress in the
material of the thin cylindrical shell. Therefore the design of thin cylindrical is
pd
h =
2t
pd
t= (1.31)
2 h
Eq. (1.31) is the equation from which we can determine the required thickness of the
shell.
pressure of 12 MPa. Compute the necessary thickness of the pipe if the maximum
Solution.
Diameter, d = 1 m = 1000 mm; p = 12 MPa; and h = 110 MPa. From Eq. (1.31),
pd 12 1000
t= =
2 h 2 110
= 54.55 mm
60 mm
PROBLEMS
1.1. A round copper bar as shown in Fig. Q.1.1 is subjected to a tensile force of 30 kN.
Fig. Q.1.1
1.2. A steel bar of 4 m long is subjected to a system of forces as shown in Fig. Q.1.2. Find
the load P and the total elongation of the bar. Assume E = 200 kN/mm2.
1m 1m 2m
Fig. Q.1.2
1.3. A reinforced concrete column 300mm 300mm has four reinforcing steel bars of 28
mm diameter, one at each corner. Find the safe axial load on the column, when the
concrete is subjected to a stress of 5 N/mm2. Also find the corresponding stress in the
1.4. A single bolt and nut made of steel is used to join two plates as shown in Fig. Q.1.4.
If the diameter of the bolt is 25 mm and the load P is 50 kN, what is the average shear
stress and shear strain developed in the rivet? Assume modulus of rigidity of steel as
90 kN/mm2.
P
P
d = 25 mm
Fig. Q.1.4
1.5. A composite bar made up of aluminium and steel is rigidly fixed between two
supports as shown in Fig. Q.1.5. The two bars are free of stress at 60C. Find the
stresses in the steel and aluminium bars when the temperature falls to 40C if: (a) the
supports do not displace; and (b) one of the supports move nearer to the other by 0.1
mm. Assume E for steel and aluminium as 210 kN/mm2 and 70 kN/mm2 respectively;
and the coefficient of linear expansion for steel and aluminium as 11.7106 C1 and
23.4106 C1 respectively.
[Ans. (a) 49.14 N/mm2, 32.76 N/mm2; (b) 31.64 N/mm2, 21.09 N/mm2]
Aluminium
Steel 200 mm2 300 mm2
600 mm 300 mm
Fig. Q.1.5
diameter with 3 mm thickness. The rod and tube are screwed together at the ends at a
temperature of 150 C with no stresses. Find the stresses in the rod and tube when the
temperature falls to 30 C. Assume E for steel and aluminium as 200 kN/mm2 and 70
kN/mm2 respectively; and coefficients of linear expansion for steel and aluminium as
1.7. A seamless pipe of 1.5 m in diameter is carrying a fluid under a pressure of 15 MPa.
Compute the necessary thickness of the pipe if the maximum allowable stress in the
[Ans. 75 mm]