3/24/2017 LiteratureReview|USCAppleGroupProject

LiteratureReview

SocialIdentityTheoryandtheMakingofApplePeople

SocialIdentityTheory

Attainingpositiveselfimageandselfdefinitionisperhapsoneoftheforemostobjectivesforindividualsinsociety(Tajfel,1974).Anindividualsperceived
skillsandvalueformhisorherselfimage(Selfesteem,2012)andexpandtoencompassrelationstootherpeople(Humanbehaviour,2012).
Observablefeaturescharacterizetheveryyoungchildsidentity,andduringthematurationprocess,thatidentityevolvestoincludeintangibleconcepts
(Humanbehaviour,2012).

Inthelate1960sand1970s,psychologistsHenriTajfelandJohnTurnerhypothesizedthatintergrouprelations,andthewaysinwhichindividuals
categorizethemselvesrelativetothosegroups,playaroleincreatingindividualspositiveselfimage(Jackson,2010).Theysuggestthatamongthe
intangibleconceptsthathelpformasenseofidentityarethesocialgroupstowhichonebelongs(Scott,2011).Individualsplaceavalueonbelongingtoa
particulargroupandthatvaluehasanemotionalbasis(Reed,2002).Thegroupmaybeformalorinformal.Forexample,astudentmayadmirethe
membersofaclubororganizationaformal,definedgroupandmembershipinthatorganizationprovidesthestudentasenseofselffulfillmentand
personalcomfort.Oragroupcouldbemoreinformalgroupingssuchasresidentsofcity,state,countryorneighborhood,peoplewhorootforasports
team,liveinaparticulartypeofhomeordriveaparticulartypeofcar.Itistheindividualsperceptionofthatgroupandtheirrelationtoitthatiskeyto
selfdefinition.

Selfdefinitionderivedfromsocialgroupmembershipformsthebasisofsocialidentitytheory(Jackson,2010).Socialidentitytheorycontendsthat
individualsacquireasenseofselfthroughtheirengagementingroupsituations(Brown,1999).Accordingtothetheory,individualsbecomepartofgroups
orseektojoingroupsthatwillcontributetoapositiveselfperception,andanindividualwillleaveagroupthatceasestomeetthoseneedsforpositive
selfperception(Tajfel,1974).Groupsoperatewithinabroadersociety,amidnumerousothergroups,andthepositiveornegativeperceptionsor
competitionbetweengroupsimpactanindividualsselfperception(Tajfel,1974).Socialidentitytheorysuggeststhatindividualsstriveforapositivesocial
identity,andthatpositivesocialidentityarisesfromjudgmentsmadebetweengroups(Brown,2000).Individualsmayidentifythemselvesinmultiple
groupsandwillmovebetweengroupsasinternalandexternalperceptionsofselfandofthegroupsevolve.Asindividualsjoingroups,theyarenotstatic
withinthegroup,theyinteractandevolve,takingontraitsofthegroup,ultimatelyaddingtotheirselfesteem(West&Hennessey,1999).Conversely,
individualsconstructselfidentificationbyavoidingassociationwithsomesocialgroups(Scott,2007).

Socialidentitytheorysexplanationoftheuseofgroupstodefineonesselfalsooffersinsightintoingroupbiases(Brown,2000).Byassociatingwithone
group,individualsmakeavaluationbetweengroups,andmakedecisionstopromotethegroupthatbringsthatesteem.Whilethisbiascanbuilda
platformforproductiveaction,bigotry,actsofdiscrimination,bias,collectivebehavior,rebellion,andothertopicsareallstudiedthroughthelensofsocial
identitytheoryasresearchseekstounderstandbetterhumanbehavioranddecisionmaking(Jackson,2010).

SocialIdentityTheoryinOrganizations

Recentsocialidentityresearchsuggeststhatonesorganizationalidentityisastrongerfactorinbuildingidentitythaninnonworksettings(Tracy&
Trethewey,2005).Asbusinessorganizationsincreasinglyfocusonteamworkasanoperatingprinciple,theconceptsofsocialidentitytheoryprovidea
frameworkforunderstandinghowteamsorgroupsinteractandperformintheorganizationalenvironment(West&Hennessey,1999).Inthe
organizationalsetting,socialidentitytheoryisevidentinthewayindividualsinteractwithinthevariousgroupsintheorganization,adoptingthelanguage
andcultureofgroupsinmuchthesamewaythatindividualscooptthevaluesandcharacteristicsofthegroup(Scott,2007).Withinorganizations,
individualscanidentifywiththeorganizationitself,withworkgroupsorbroaderindustryandprofessionalgroups(West&Hennessey,1999).Anexample
ofthismightbehowanattorneyinacorporateenvironmentmightidentifywiththeorganizationitself,acrossfunctionalworkgroup,thelegalorganization
withinthatcompany,orabroaderlegalorganizationinthelocalornationallevel,eachofferingadifferentopportunityforselfdefinition.

Whileorganizationalgroupsprovideopportunitiesforindividualstogainidentitywithintheorganization,effortstomitigateandmediatethesegroupscan
sidetrackattentionfromdeliveringonorganizationalobjectives(Hennessey&West,1999).Socialidentitytheorysuggeststhatselfidentificationwitha
groupnecessarilycreatesaningroupandanoutgroup.Attheorganizationallevel,theallocationofresourcescanbeimpactedbythisingroupbiastothe
detrimentoftheoverallorganization(Hennessey&West,1999).Organizationsmustunderstandsocialidentitytheoryandthesepotentialdifficultiesto
theiradvantageinbuildingorganizationalculture.

Marketersusesocialidentitytheorytounderstandconsumerspurchasingdecisionsandcompanyandbrandloyalty(Lam,Ahearne,&Schillewaert,
2010).Lametal.(2010)extendedsocialidentitytheorytoexaminehowcustomersidentifythemselvesorgainapositivesenseofselfrelativetoabrand
orcompany,orcustomerbrandidentification.Customercompanyidentification,whichisbasedonsocialidentitytheory,suggeststhatcustomers
identificationwithacompanyismoredurablewhenconsumersperceivethatthecompanyandownershipofitsproductsfulfillneedsforselfimage
(Bhattacharya&Sen,2003).Furthermore,strongcustomercompanyidentificationderivesfromcustomersperceptionthattheyshareattributeswitha
company(Lam,etal,2010).Thisidentificationwithabrandiscriticalformarketing,asresearchhasshownthatcustomersstrongsocialidentification
withabrandwillsurvivenegativepress,recallsandotherdisruptions(Lametal.,2010).Identityprestige,distinctiveness,knowledgeandtrustworthiness
areallfactorsthathelpbuildcustomercompanyidentificationoraconsumerssocialidentityasamemberofthatcompanysconsumergroup.

SocialIdentityTheoryandConsumers

Earlyconceptualframeworksinconsumerbehavior(Grubb&Hupp,1968Grubb&Stern,1971)triedtolinkselftheoryasitwasdevelopinginthe
behavioralsciences,toproductmeaningsandbrandimages.Thisisanimportantapplication,becauseinthecontextofconsumptionbehavior,somuch
ofwhoweareasindividualsintermsofourselfesteemandoursocialstatusisalsotiedupintheproductsweconsume(Levy,1959).Anypotential
socialidentitybasedtheoryofconsumptiondecisionmakingstartswiththeideathatconsumersmayperceivethemselvesintermsofthesevarious
levelsofabstraction(Tajfel,1959)andatanygivenpointintimewillhaveavailableasubsetofsocialcategoriesthatcanbecomeapartoftheirworking
orspontaneousselfconcept(Markus&Kunda,1986).Suchaperspectiveborrowsfromsocialcognitionsviewoftheself,butwithspecificityastowhat
ismeantbythevarioustypesofselvesthatmaybecomeactivatedinaparticularsituation(Reed,2002).

Additionally,asocialcategorypointofviewalsohastheadvantagethatittakesintoaccountthedevelopmentalimportanceofthevariousidentitiesthat
mayguideconsumerdecisions(Reed,2002).Socialcategoriesareinternalmentalrepresentationsthatcanbecomeabasicpartofhowconsumersview
themselves,andsoatheoryofconsumptiondecisionmakingthatinvolvessocialidentitymightusethetermsaliencetorefersimplytotheextentthata
socialidentityisanactivatedconceptualstructureintheconsumersworkingselfconcept(Reed,2002).Evenifasocialidentityissalientandself
importanttotheconsumer,itmightnotbeabasisforaconsumerdecision.Thesocialidentitymustberelevanttotheobjectthatistobeevaluatedorthe
judgmentthatistobemade(Reed,2002).

Holt(2004)suggeststhatorganizationsneedtoutilizethreemethodstocreateaniconicbrand.Firstly,thereneedstobemindshare.Holtprovidesthe
beercompanyCoronasrelatableimageofsittingonabeachsippingaCoronaassomethingconsumerscanrelatetoanddesire.Secondly,thereneeds
tobeanemotionalconnectiontothebrand.HoltprovidesCokeasexampleduringWWIICokewasabletoidentifyitselfaspartofthewareffort,and
representedwhatsoldiersoverseasmissedabouthome.Finally,Holtreferstoviralbranding.Consumersattachthemselvestobrandsstronglywhen
theyfindthebrandontheirown,andarenotsoldonthebrandorproduct,thuscreatingidentityvalueforthebrand.Ifthesestepsarefollowed,itis
possibletocreateaniconicbrand,somethingthatcanberememberedthroughouthistory,whichalsokeepsthebrandmovingahead,asitintertwines
withintheculturalfabric(Holt,2004).
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3/24/2017 LiteratureReview|USCAppleGroupProject
withintheculturalfabric(Holt,2004).

Appleisnotablebothasaniconicbrandandforitsconnectiontosocialidentitytheory(Bhattacharya&Sen,2003).Withitsmarketingcampaignsinprint
andonTV,uniqueproductdesignandapublicrelationsstrategythatbuiltacultlikefollowing,Appledevelopedasubcultureofconsumersknownas
ApplePeople.Howdoessocialidentitytheoryprovideatheoreticalframeworkforthisphenomenon?

TheMakingofApplePeople

Ina2008survey,Appletoppedthelistofbrandsthatconsumerscantlivewithout(Sanderson,2008).Thesurveyof2,000respondentsin107countries
demonstratesApplesglobalreach,itsinspiringbrandqualitiesandthedegreetowhichithasbecomeinextricablywovenintocontemporaryculture.The
perceptionofbeinghiphadahugeimpactonthissuccess,andmanyofApplesadvertisingcampaignsidentifyandcrossoverwellwithalargeand
diversenumberofconsumers.Throughinnovativemarketingcampaigns,Applecreatedaniconicbrandthatisperceivedaship,whoseconsumersare
technologicallysavvyandaloyalcustomerbase(Jenkins,2008).Bartholomew(2010)affirmsthatadvertising,suchasApplesenergeticsilhouetteads
fortheiPodorfamous1984commercial,playsanactiveroleinshapingouridentityandpullingusinaparticulardirectionthroughsymbolsthat
representwhoweareorembodythedefinitionofwhowewouldliketobecome.

PerhapsApplesmostusefultacticforbuildingbuzzisunderstandingitsaudience.Inrecentyears,advertisershavehonedinontargetaudiencesso
closelythattheyareabletocustomizemessagestoresonatewithuniquegroupsandsubgroups(Bartholomew,2010).Apple,however,doesnot
generatebuzzbyattackingasegregatedtargetmarketinfact,itdoesnthaveatargetmarket.Scott(2011)saysthatAppleisnotsuccessfulbecauseof
itsproducts,persehebelievesthatthecompanyisagamechangerbecauseitsolvesproblems,e.g.,aneedforsimplicity,lessvirusesandfeeling
morehip(Scott,2011).

Consumersaremorelikelytoembraceproductsthatalignwiththeirsocialidentity.Themajorityofsocialidentitydevelopmentoccursconsciously
(Bartholomew,2010).ManyAppleadscontainneutralvisuals,suchasaTVspotthatshowsahanddemonstratingiPhonefeatureswithwhimsicalmusic
inthebackground,iPodsilhouetteadsandtheiMacChic.Notgeek.ad.Bynotincludingimagesofaspecifictargetaudience,thecompanyeffectively
portraysimagesthatallowaudiencestorelatetoorgravitateto,withoutalienatingorexcludingpeoplewhodonotfitthatparticularprofile(Chalmers,
2009).

Bycreatingauniquesubculture,anorganizationisabletocommunicateandbuildrelationshipswithitsconstituents(Heereetal.,2011).Throughahighly
dedicated,motivated,emotionallyattachedaudience(Crane&Ruebottom,2011),Appleisabletocaptureawordofmouthmarketthatexhibitstrustand
camaraderie.Inanageof24/7consumption,theneedforconsumerstofeelconnectedhasbeenamplifiedand,consequently,sohastheapplicationof
socialidentityinadvertising(Chalmers,2009).

TajfelandTurner(1979)notethatundersocialidentitytheoryindividualsbandtogetherbecauseofasharedidentityoraffiliation.Asapopculture
phenomenon,Applesgrowthandmarketpenetrationcarriedanalmostreligioustone.Lindstrom(2008)citesastudythattrackedMRIresponsesbetween
Appleandotherbrandfansandfoundparallelstotheresponsesfoundinreligiouszealots.Similartraitsincludeasenseofconviction,afeelingof
belongingtoasharedcommunityofbelievers,alinktoacommonenemy,sensoryappeal,grandeur,theworshipofsymbolsandasenseofevangelism
amongbelievers,allofwhichmaybebroadlyappliedtoApplepeople.

Hogg(2006)definesapsychologicalgroupasthreeormorepeoplewhoconstrueandevaluatethemselvesintermsofsharedattributesthatdistinguish
themcollectivelyfromotherpeople(p.28).ApplesTVadvertisingcampaign,whichbeganin1984,activelyembracedthesocialidentityofApple
people.ItsfirstmajorTVadvertisementpublicizedthelaunchofitsMacintoshcomputer.TheadsuggestedtheendofanOrwellianworldofblackand
whiteauthoritarianconformitywithalltheTechnicolorpossibilitiestobeunleashedintheMacintosh(Apple:ahistoryinads,2011).Atthesametime,it
paradoxicallyimpliedthatthisbravenewAppleworldwouldcreateanewsocialidentificationthroughtheirrepudiationofconformity.TheApplesocial
identitywasmoreaggressivelyreinforcedthroughanadcampaignthatcomparedAppleuserstoPCusers.InthiscampaignAppleplayfullytookonits
rivalMicrosoft,contrastingthecreative,laidbackMacaficionadototherigid,uptightWindowsuser.

Jenkins(2008)definediconsnotonlyasancientitemsfoundinhistorybooksbutanydisavowalofthestatusquo.Throughatargetedmarketing
campaignthatdevelopedaniconicbrand,Applecreatedaninformalgroupofconsumersthatmanyaspiredtojoin.Socialidentitytheorysuggeststhat
peopleseekgroupsthatwillenhancetheirselfperception(Tajfel,1974).Theliteratureaboutsocialidentitytheory,andApplesmarketingstrategies
providecontextforunderstandingthesuccessofApplesmarketingeffortsincreatingApplePeople.

References

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