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ENGINEERING COLLEGE
TIRUCHIRAPALLI 621213
QUESTION BANK
UNIT I- INTRODUCTION
PART A (2 Marks)
01. Why are some fluids classified as Newtonian fluid? Give examples to Newtonian fluids.
(NOV2)
Newtonian fluids are the simplest mathematical models of fluids that account for viscosity. While
no real fluid fits the definition perfectly, many common liquids and gases, such as water and air,
can be assumed to be Newtonian for practical calculations under ordinary conditions.
03. Define the term pressure .What are its units? (Dec05)
The continuous physical force exerted on or against an object by something in contact with it.
06. What is the difference between gauge pressure and absolute pressure? (Dec07)
Gauge pressure is zero-referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to
absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted. To
distinguish a negative pressure, the value may be appended with the word "vacuum" or
the gauge may be labeled a "vacuum gauge."
Absolute pressure is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, so it is equal to gauge
pressure plus atmospheric pressure
12. What are the three major assumptions made in the derivation of the Bernoullis equation?
(Apr03)
The fluid is incompressible and non viscous.
There is no energy loss due to friction between the fluid and the wall of the pipe.
There is no heat energy transferred across the boundaries of the pipe to the fluid as
either a heat gain or loss.
There are no pumps in the section of pipe under consideration.
The fluid flow is laminar and steady state.
PART-B ( 16 Marks )
01. Calculate the specific weight, density, and specific gravity of 1 litre of a liquid which weighs
7N. (APR-03)
09. The velocity distribution over a plate is given by U = (3/4) Y Y2 where U is the velocity in
M/S and at the depth Y in m above the plate. Determine the shear stress at a distance of
0.15m from the top of plate. Assume dynamic viscosity of the fluid is taken as 0.85Ns/m^2.
(APR-05)
or
Where, is the pressure loss
02. What is boundary layer? Give a sketch of boundary- layer region over a flat plate.
(APR-03)
In fluid mechanics, a boundary layer is the layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding
surface where the effects of viscosity are significant. In the Earth's atmosphere, the planetary
boundary layer is the air layer near the ground affected by diurnal heat, moisture or momentum
transfer to or from the surface. On an aircraft wing the boundary layer is the part of the flow
close to the wing, where viscous forces distort the surrounding non-viscous flow.
1. Hydraulic Gradient Line: It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head (p/w)
and datum head (z) of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line or it is the line
which is obtained by joining the top of all vertical ordinates, showing the pressure head (p/w) of
a flowing fluid in a pipe from the centre of the pipe. It is briefly written as H.G.L (Hydraulic
Gradient Line).
2. Total Energy Line: It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head, datum
head and kinetic head of a flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line. It is also
defined as the line which is obtained by joining the tops of all vertical ordinates showing the sum
of pressure head and kinetic head from the centre of the pipe. It is briefly written as T.E.L
(Total Energy Line).
09. What are the losses experienced by a fluid while passing through a pipe? (APR-05)
Head loss is a loss in pressure head due to the viscosity of a fluid and obstructions to a fluid
such as pipe elbows, valves, etc. By knowing the head loss, you can successfully modify
Bernoulli's energy equation accordingly; refer to equation 1. Bernoull's energy equation is
Bernoulli's equation divided by the fluid's specific weight.
NPSH is particularly relevant inside centrifugal pumps and turbines, which are parts of a
hydraulic system that are most vulnerable to cavitation. If cavitation occurs, the drag coefficient
of the impeller vanes will increase drastically - possibly stopping flow altogether - and prolonged
exposure will damage the impeller.
01. The diameter of water pipe is suddenly enlarged from 200mm to 400mm. The rate of flow
through it is 0.25m^3/s. Calculate the loss of head in enlargement. (NOV02)
02. Give the dimensions for physical quantities: Pressure, Surface tension, Dynamic
viscosity, Kinematic viscosity? (APR-03)
2
Pressure - N/m
Surface tension N/m
Dynamic viscosity Ns/m2
Kinematic viscosity Ns/m2
04. What are the similarities between models and prototype? (NOV-04)
Similitude is defined as the similarity between the model and its prototype in every
respect, which means that the model and prototype are completely similar. Three types
of similarities must exit between the model and prototype. They are
1. Geometric Similarity 2. Kinematic Similarity 3. Dynamic Similarity
05. Submarine is tested in the air tunnel .Identify the model law applicable? (NOV-03)
Dynamic similarity means the similarity of forces between the model and prototype.
Thus dynamic similarity is said to exist between the model and prototype if the ratios of
the corresponding forces acting at the corresponding points are equal. Also the
directions of the corresponding forces at the corresponding points should be same.
(Fi)p= Inertia force at a point in prototype,
(Fv)p= Viscous force at the point in prototype,
(Fg)p= Gravity force at the point in prototype,
Dimensionless quantities are often defined as products or ratios of quantities that are not
dimensionless, but whose dimensions cancel out when their powers are multiplied. This
is the case, for instance, with the engineering strain, a measure of deformation. It is
In fluid mechanics, the Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless quantity that is used to
help predict similar flow patterns in different fluid flow situations. The Reynolds number
is defined as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces and consequently quantifies the
relative importance of these two types of forces for given flow conditions. [5] Reynolds
numbers frequently arise when performing scaling of fluid dynamics problems, and as
such can be used to determine dynamic similitude between two different cases of fluid
flow.
They are also used to characterize different flow regimes within a similar fluid, such as
laminar or turbulent flow: laminar flow occurs at low Reynolds numbers, where viscous
forces are dominant, and is characterized by smooth, constant fluid motion; turbulent
flow occurs at high Reynolds numbers and is dominated by inertial forces, which tend to
produce chaotic eddies, vortices and other flow instabilities
Mach number varies by the composition of the surrounding medium and also by local
conditions, especially temperature and pressure. The Mach number can be used to
determine if a flow can be treated as an incompressible flow. If M < 0.20.3 and the flow
is (quasi) steady and isothermal, compressibility effects will be small and a simplified
incompressible flow model can be used.
01. The frictional torque T of disc diameter D rotating at a speed N in fluid of viscosity and
density in a turbulent flow is given by T= D5 N2 [ / D2 N P ] . Prove it by
Buckinghams theorem. (NOV-03)
(APR -10)
Solution:
02. Give example for a low head, medium head and high head turbine.
Low head Screw type, water wheels, hydrokinetic wheels
Medium head propeller type, Francis turbine.
High head Pelton, turbo, cross flow turbines
ideal machine
Where,
01.
03. A pelton wheel is working under a head of 400 m. the water is supplied through penstock
of diameter 1 m and length 4km from reservoir to the pelton wheel. The coefficient of
friction for the penstock is given as 0.008. the jet of water of diameter 150 mm strikes the
buckets of the wheel and gets deflected through an angle of 1650 . the relative velocity of
water at outlet is reduced by 15% due to friction between inside surface of the bucket
and water. If the velocity of the buckets is 0.45 times the let velocity at inlet and
mechanical efficiency as 85% determine.
(i) Power given to the runner.
(ii) Shaft power
(iii) Hydraulic efficiency and overall efficiency.
Hydraulic Turbine is a machine which converts the energy of an elevated water supply (hydraulic energy)
into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is used in running an electric generator which is directly
coupled to the shaft of the turbine. Thus the mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy. The
electric power which is obtained from the hydraulic energy is known as Hydro-electric power.
None of the Hydraulic Turbines are purely axial flow or purely radial flow. There is always a
component of radial flow in axial flow turbines and of axial flow in radial flow turbines.
1. Impulse Turbine: The pressure of liquid does not change while flowing through the
rotor of the machine. In Impulse Turbines pressure change occur only in the nozzles of
the machine. One such example of impulse turbine is Pelton Wheel.
2. Reaction Turbine: The pressure of liquid changes while it flows through the rotor of the
machine. The change in fluid velocity and reduction in its pressure causes a reaction on
the turbine blades; this is where from the name Reaction Turbine may have been
derived. Francis and Kaplan Turbines fall in the category of Reaction Turbines.
Pelton turbine
The Pelton wheel is an impulse turbine which is among the most efficient types of water
turbines.
It was invented by Lester Allan Pelton in the 1870s.
Pelton wheel is a high head turbine. It is used with heads of more than 500 m.
A head is the distance by which the water falls before it strikes the turbine blades
The flow of water is tangential to the runner. So it is a tangential flow impulse turbine.
A Peltons runner consists of a single wheel mounted on a horizontal shaft.
Waterfalls towards the turbine through a pipe called penstock and flows through a
nozzle.
Prepared by A.Bovas Herbert Bejaxhin Asst. Prof / MECHANICAL, MEC
78
The high speed jet of water coming out from the nozzle hits the buckets (vanes) on the
wheel and causes the wheel to rotate producing torque and power.
The Pelton wheel extracts energy from the impulse (momentum) of moving water as
opposed to its weight like traditional overshot water wheel.
The Pelton Turbine has a circular disk mounted on the rotating shaft or rotor. This circular disk
has cup shaped blades, called as buckets, placed at equal spacing around its circumference.
Nozzles are arranged around the wheel such that the water jet emerging from a nozzle is
tangential to the circumference of the wheel of Pelton Turbine. Water flows along the tangent
to the path of the runner. According to the available water head (pressure of water) and the
operating requirements, the shape and number of nozzles placed around the Pelton Wheel can
vary.
A typical setup of a system generating electricity by using Pelton Turbine will have a water
reservoir situated at a height from the Pelton Wheel. The water from the reservoir flows
through a pressure channel to the penstock head and then through the penstock or the supply
pipeline to the nozzles, from where the water comes out as high speed jets striking the blades
of the Pelton Turbine. The penstock head is fitted with a surge tank which absorbs and
dissipates sudden fluctuations in pressure.For a constant water flow rate from the nozzles the
speed of turbine changes with changing loads on it. For quality hydroelectricity generation the
turbine should rotate at a constant speed. To keep the speed constant despite the changing
loads on the turbine water flow rate through the nozzles is changed. To control the gradual
changes in load servo controlled spear valves are used in the jets to change the flow rate. And
for sudden reduction in load the jets are deflected using deflector plates so that some of the
water from the jets do not strike the blades. This prevents over speeding of the turbine.
High speed water jets emerging from the nozzles (obtained by expanding high pressure water
to the atmospheric pressure in the nozzle) strike a series of spoon-shaped buckets mounted
around the edge of the pelton wheel. High pressure water can be obtained from any water
body situated at some height or streams of water flowing down the hills. As water flows into
the bucket, the direction of the water velocity changes to follow the contour of the bucket.
These jets flow along the inner curve of the bucket and leave it in the direction opposite to that
of incoming jet. When the water-jet contacts the bucket, the water exerts pressure on the
bucket and the water is decelerated as it does a "u-turn" and flows out the other side of the
bucket at low velocity. The change in momentum (direction as well as speed) of water jet
produces an impulse on the blades of the wheel of Pelton Turbine. This "impulse" does work on
the turbine and generates the torque and rotation in the shaft of Pelton Turbine. To obtain the
optimum output from the Pelton Turbine the impulse received by the blades should be
maximum. For that, change in momentum of the water jet should be maximum possible. This is
obtained when the water jet is deflected in the direction opposite to which it strikes the
buckets and with the same speed relative to the buckets. For maximum power and efficiency,
the turbine system is designed such that the water-jet velocity is twice the velocity of the
bucket. A very small percentage of the water's original kinetic energy will still remain in the
water. However, this allows the bucket to be emptied at the same rate at which it is filled, thus
allowing the water flow to continue uninterrupted. Often two buckets are mounted side-by-
side, thus splitting the water jet in half (see photo). The high speed water jets emerging from
the nozzles strike the buckets at splitters, placed at the middle of the buckets, from where jets
are divided into two equal streams. This balances the side-load forces on the wheel, and helps
to ensure smooth, efficient momentum transfer of the fluid jet to the turbine wheel. Because
water and most liquids are nearly incompressible, almost all of the available energy is extracted
in the first stage of the hydraulic turbine. Therefore, Pelton wheels have only one turbine stage,
unlike gas turbines that operate with compressible fluid.
Pelton wheels are the preferred turbine for hydro-power, when the available water source has
relatively high hydraulic head at low flow rates. Pelton wheels are made in all sizes. There exist
multi-ton Pelton wheels mounted on vertical oil pad bearings in hydroelectric plants. The
largest units can be up to 200 megawatts. The smallest Pelton wheels are only a few inches
across, and can be used to tap power from mountain streams having flows of a few gallons per
minute. Some of these systems utilize household plumbing fixtures for water delivery. These
small units are recommended for use with thirty meters or more of head, in order to generate
significant power levels. Depending on water flow and design, Pelton wheels operate best with
heads from 15 meters to 1,800 meters, although there is no theoretical limit.Thus, more power
can be extracted from a water source with high-pressure and low-flow than from a source with
low-pressure and high-flow, even though the two flows theoretically contain the same power.
Spiral Casing: The spiral casing around the runner of the turbine is known as volute casing . All
throughout its length, it has numerous openings at regular intervals to allow the working fluid to impound
on the blades of the runner. these openings convert the pressure energy of the fluid into momentum
energy just before the fluid impound on the blades. to maintain a constant flow rate despite the fact that
numerous openings have been provided for the fluid to gain entry to the blades,the cross-sectional area
of this casing decreases uniformly along the circumference.
Guide or Stay Vanes: The primary function of the guide or stay vanes is to convert the pressure energy
of the fluid into the momentum energy. it also serves to direct the flow at design angles to the runner
blades.
Runner Blades: Runner blades are the heart of any turbine as these are the centers where the fluid
strikes and the tangential force of the impact causes the shaft of the turbine to rotate and hence electricity
is produced. In this part one has to be very careful about the blade angles at inlet and outlet as these are
the major parameters affecting the power production.
Draft tube: The draft tube is a conduit which connects the runner exit to the tail race where the water is
being finally discharged from the turbine. The primary function of the draft tube is to reduce the velocity of
the discharged water to minimize the loss of kinetic energy at the outlet. This permits the turbine to be set
above the tail water without any appreciable drop of available head. The purpose of providing a draft tube
will be better understood if we carefully study the net available head across a reaction turbine.
Working: Francis turbine has a purely radiate flow runner. Water under pressure, enters the runner from
the guide vanes towards the center in radial direction and discharges out of the runner axially. Francis
turbine operates under medium heads. Water is brought down to the turbine through a penstock and
directed to a number of stationary orifices fixed all around the circumference of the runner. These
stationary orifices are called as guide vanes.The head acting on the turbine is transformed into kinetic
Prepared by A.Bovas Herbert Bejaxhin Asst. Prof / MECHANICAL, MEC
81
energy and pressure head. Due to the difference of pressure between guide vanes and the runner (called
reaction pressure), the motion of runner occurs. That is why a Francis turbine is also known as reaction
turbine.
Kaplan Turbine is designed for low water head applications. Kaplan Turbine has propeller like
blades but works just reverse. Instead of displacing the water axially using shaft power and creating axial
thrust, the axial force of water acts on the blades of Kaplan Turbine and generating shaft power.
Most of the turbines developed earlier were suitable for large heads of water. With increasing demand of
power need was felt to harness power from sources of low head water, such as, rivers flowing at low
heights. For such low head applications Viktor Kaplan designed a turbine similar to the propellers of
ships. Its working is just reverse to that of propellers. The Kaplan Turbine is also called as Propeller
Turbine
Design of Kaplan Turbine
To generate substantial amount of power from small heads of water using Kaplan Turbine it is
necessary to have large flow rates through the turbine. Kaplan Turbine is designed to accommodate the
required large flow rates. Except the alignment of the blades the construction of the Kaplan Turbine is
very much similar to that of the Francis Turbine. The overall path of flow of water through the Kaplan
Turbine is from radial at the entrance to axial at the exit. Similar to the Francis Turbine, Kaplan Turbine
also has a ring of fixed guide vanes at the inlet to the turbine
Unlike the Francis Turbine which has guide vanes at the periphery of the turbine rotor (called as
runner in the case of Francis Turbine), there is a passage between the guide vanes and the rotor of the
Kaplan Turbine. The shape of the passage is such that the flow which enters the passage in the radial
direction is forced to flow in axial direction. The rotor of the Kaplan Turbine is similar to the propeller of a
ship. The rotor blades are attached to the central shaft of the turbine. The blades are connected to the
shaft with moveable joints such that the blades can be swiveled according to the flow rate and water head
available.
Working of the Kaplan Turbine
The working head of water is low so large flow rates are allowed in the Kaplan Turbine. The water
enters the turbine through the guide vanes which are aligned such as to give the flow a suitable degree of
swirl determined according to the rotor of the turbine. The flow from guide vanes pass through the curved
passage which forces the radial flow to axial direction with the initial swirl imparted by the inlet guide
vanes which is now in the form of free vortex.
02. Define Slip of reciprocating pump. When the negative slip does occur? (DEC-08)
Slip of a reciprocating pump is defined as the difference between the theoretical
discharge and the actual discharge of the pump
Qth Qact
Slip Qth Qact percentage slip 100
Qth
03. When will you select a reciprocating pump? (DEC-05)
Pumps are used throughout society for a variety of purposes. An early application
includes the use of the windmill or watermill to pump water. Today, the pump is used for
irrigation, water supply, gasoline supply, air conditioning systems, refrigeration (usually
called a compressor), chemical movement, sewage movement, flood control, marine
services, etc.
01.
(APR-08)