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B. Fly Ash The characteristics of fly ash that generally considered
According to the American Concrete Institute are loss on ignition (LOI), fineness and uniformity. LOI
(ACI) Committee 116R, fly ash is defined as the is a measurement of un-burnt carbon remaining in the
finely divided residue that results from the combustion ash. Fineness of fly ash mostly depends on the operating
of ground or powdered coal and that is transported by conditions of coal crushers and the grinding process of
flue gasses from the combustion zone to the particle the coal itself. Finer gradation generally results in a more
removal system (ACI Committee 232 2004). Fly ash is reactive ash and contains less carbon.
removed from the combustion gases by the dust C. Use of Fly Ash in Concrete
collection system, either mechanically or by using
Fly ash plays the role of an artificial pozzolan,
electrostatic precipitators, before they are discharged to
where its silicon dioxide content reacts with the
the atmosphere. Fly ash particles are typically spherical,
calcium hydroxide from the cement hydration process to
finer than Portland cement and lime, ranging in diameter
form the calcium silicate hydrate (C- S-H) gel. The
from less than 1 m to no more than 150 m.
spherical shape of fly ash often helps to improve the
The chemical composition is mainly composed of the
workability of the fresh concrete, while its small
oxides of silicon (SiO2), aluminium (Al2O3), iron
particle size also plays as filler of voids in the
(Fe2O3), and calcium (CaO), whereas magnesium, concrete, hence to produce dense and durable concrete.
potassium, sodium, titanium, and sulphur are also present An important achievement in the use of fly ash in
in a lesser amount. concrete is the development of high volume fly ash
(HVFA) concrete that successfully replaces the use of
OPC in concrete up to 60% and yet possesses excellent
mechanical properties with enhanced durability
performance.
D. Alkaline Liquids
The most common alkaline liquid used in geo-
polymerisation is a combination of sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH) and sodium
silicate or potassium silicate (Davidovits 1999; Palomo et
al. 1999; Barbosa et al. 2000; Xu and van Deventer 2000;
Swanepoel and Strydom 2002; Xu and van Deventer
2002). The use of a single alkaline activator has been
reported (Palomo et al. 1999; Teixeira- Pinto et al. 2002),
Palomo et al (1999) concluded that the type of alkaline
liquid plays an important role in the polymerisation
Figure 1 Ungraded fly-ash
process. Reactions occur at a high rate when the alkaline
liquid contains soluble silicate, either sodium or
potassium silicate, compared to the use of only alkaline
hydroxides. Xu and van Deventer (2000) confirmed that
the addition of sodium silicate solution to the sodium
hydroxide solution as the alkaline liquid enhanced the
reaction between the source material and the solution.
Furthermore, after a study of the geo-polymerisation of
sixteen natural Al-Si minerals, they found that generally
the NaOH solution caused a higher extent of dissolution
of minerals than the KOH solution.
E. Super Plasticisers:
In order to improve the workability of fresh concrete,
high-range water-reducing naphthalene based super
plasticiser was added to the mixture. The dosage of super
Figure 2 Graded fly-ash plasticizer also has an effect on the compressive strength
of the concrete.
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The specific super plasticizer used in the mixture made F. Polymerisation Process
for the project is Sikament-581.As a super plasticizer it Geo-polymers are members of the family of
substantially improved the workability without increasing inorganic polymers. The chemical composition of the
the amount of water and hence reducing the risk of geopolymer material is similar to natural zeolitic
segregation. It results in normal set even when materials, but the microstructure is amorphous. The
overdosed. It gives a good surface finish and as it is polymerization process involves a substantially fast
chloride free it doesnt attack reinforcement or pre- chemical reaction under alkaline condition on Si- Al
stressed cables if any. Apart from this, various other minerals, which results in a three-dimensional polymeric
super plasticisers, which can be used, are categorized as chain and ring structure consisting of Si-O- Al-O bonds
Super Plasticiser A (Naphthalene
Formaldehyde Condensate) M n [-(SiO2) z AlO2] n . wH 2O
Super Plasticiser B (Sulphonated Melamine Where: M = the alkaline element or cation such as
Formaldehyde Condensate) potassium, sodium or calcium;
Super Plasticizer C (Aqueous De The symbol indicates the presence of a bond,
Policarboxilato) n is the degree of poly-condensation or
Super Plasticizer D (Aqueous Solution of Ligno polymerisation;
Sulphonate) z is 1, 2,3, or higher, up to 32.
The main chemical base is Modified Naphthalene The schematic formation of geopolymer material
Formaldehyde and the dosage varies from 0.6-2% of the can be shown as described by
weight of fly ash.
+ + -
n(Si2O5,Al2O2)+2nSiO2+4nH2O+NaOH or KOH Na ,K + n(OH)3-Si-O-Al -O-Si-(OH)3
(Si-Al materials)
(OH)2
- -
n(OH)3-Si-O-Al -O-Si-(OH)3 + NaOH or KOH (Na+,K+)-(-Si-O-Al -O-Si-O-) + 4nH2O (OH)2
O O O
The chemical reaction may comprise the following G. Chemical composition of the geo-polymers
steps Differences due to various conditions of the alkaline
Dissolution of Si and Al atoms from the source activation may be found on the FTIR spectra.
material through the action of hydroxide ions.
Transportation or orientation or condensation
of precursor ions into monomers.
Setting or poly-condensation/polymerisation
of monomers into polymeric structures.
However, these three steps can overlap with each other
and occur almost simultaneously, thus making it
difficult to isolate and examine each of them
separately (Palomo et al. 1999).
The last term in Equation reveals that water is released
during the chemical reaction that occurs in the formation
of geo-polymers. This water, expelled from the geo-
polymer matrix during the curing and further drying
periods, leaves behind discontinuous Nano-pores in the Figure 3 Beginning of the geo-polymers phase development on the
matrix, which provide benefits to the performance of surface of the fly ash particle
geo-polymers. The water in a geo-polymer mixture, The band corresponding to Si-O and Al-O vibrations
therefore, plays no role in the chemical reaction that
can be observed in the original fly ash at 1,080-1,090
takes place; it merely provides the workability to the
-1
mixture during handling. This is in contrast to the cm but this band is displaced towards lower values in
chemical reaction of water in a Portland cement mixture the geo-polymers.
during the hydration process.
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The shift is interpreted as a consequence of the Al A prevailing part of water gets lost during the heating
penetration into the original structure of the Si-O-S o
at a temperature of 150-200 C. No crystalline hydrates
skeleton (an analogous phenomenon was observed in
could be detected in the geo-polymers microstructure.
zeolites). The more pronounced the shift, the greater the
Therefore, the geo-polymer can be characterized as
extent of the Al penetration from the glassy parts of the
three-dimensional inorganic polymer with a summary
4-
fly ash into the [SiO4] skeleton. formula:
The geo-polymerization process (alkaline activation of Mn [-(Si-O)z Al-O]n . w(H2O).
fly ashes in the aqueous environment at pH>12)
accompanied by the hardening of the material is different III. EXPERIMENTAL DEDUCTIONS
from the hydration processes of inorganic binders (e.g.
Portland cement). This process obviously takes place A. Mixture Proportions:
predominantly via solution when, first, the fly ash The mixture proportion of concrete contains coarse
particles are dissolved and a new geo-polymers aggregate, fine aggregate, fly ash, Sodium silicate
structure is then formed starting from the solution solution and NaOH solution. Three different mixtures
(Fig 3). with 8M, 10M, 12M and 14M were prepared and
In addition to the preparation conditions also the compressive strengths of these sample cubes were
presence of Ca atoms entering the Si- O-Al-O skeleton measured.
and compensating the charge on Al atoms plays an The sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solids were dissolved
important role. in water to make the solution. The mass of NaOH solids
in a solution varied depending on the concentration of
the solution expressed in terms of molar, M.
For instance, NaOH solution with a concentration of
8M consisted of 8x40 = 320 grams of NaOH solids
(in flake or pellet form) per litre of the solution, where
40 is the molecular weight of NaOH. Similarly, the mass
of NaOH solids per kg of the solution for 14M
concentration was measured as 404 grams.
The sodium silicate solution and the sodium hydroxide
solution were mixed together at least one day prior to
use to prepare the alkaline liquid. On the day of casting
of the specimens, the alkaline liquid was mixed together
with the super plasticizer and the extra water (if any) to
prepare the liquid component of the mixture.
Figure 4 Detailed character of the geo-polymers (the paste w = 0.27,
fracture surface, after 28 days)
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Table 1
Mixture proportions
Table 2
Mixture proportion
Sodium Potassium
Mixture Sodium Silicate plasticizer Strength
Molarities Hydroxide Hydroxide
No. (kg) (ml) (N/mm2)
(kg) (kg)
1 10 M 0.173 0 1.657 90 1.09
2 12 M 0.238 0 1.657 48 3.48
3 14 M 0.267 0 1.657 60 30.95
4 14 M 0.267 0 1.657 50 24.4
5 16 M 0.293 0 1.657 50 15.26
6 16 M 0.293 0 1.657 50 3.7
7 0.314 1.657 50 2.18
8 0.314 1.657 50 1.74
40
20
N/mm2
0
6 4 4.8
Flyash (Kg)
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D. Curing Temperature
Sodium Hydroxide (Kg) Higher curing temperature resulted in larger
compressive strength, although an increase in the curing
40 temperature beyond 80 degrees Centigrade did not
compressive strength
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V. R ATE ANALYSIS Higher concentration (in terms of molar) of sodium
hydroxide solution results in higher compressive strength
A. Cement Concrete (Grade M20)
of fly-ash based geo-polymer concrete and higher the
Quantity Amount ratio of sodium silicate-to-sodium hydroxide ratio by
Particulars Rate mass, higher is the compressive strength of fly ash based
(in Kg) (Rs.)
geo-polymer concrete, as the curing temperature in the
Cement 400 5.2 2080 range of 30C to 90C increases, the compressive
Fine strength of fly ash-based geo polymer concrete also
640 1000 420 increases, longer curing time, in the range of 4 to 96
Aggregate
hours (4 days), produces higher compressive strength of
Coarse fly ash-based geo-polymer concrete.
1280 1200 1008
Aggregate With the main objective of finding the effect of varied
Super concentrations of alkaline solutions on the strength
0.0044 75000 330 characteristics of the concrete, the test conducted, yielded
plasticizer
certain important findings from the material collected
Total 3838 from local vendors.
Note: All the rates are as per the standard rates in the In the process of conducting the test fly ash were
prevalent Indian market during the year 2012. procured from two different vendors which also led
to contrasting variation in the results. Thus,
B. Geo-polymer Concrete (Grade M20) highlighting the importance of choice of fly ash.
Quantity Amount Selection and grading of fine aggregate also played
Particulars Rate a major role. For a ratio of 0.67 (10mm: 20mm)
(in Kg) (Rs.)
Fine compressive strength of 26.67 N/mm2, and for the
640 1000 420 same molarity with a ratio of 0.42 comparatively
Aggregate
very low compressive strength was measured,
Coarse highlighting how important it is to select a proper
1280 1200 1008
Aggregate ratio for grading.
Super A general increase in the compressive strength with
0.0044 75 330 increase in the molarity was seen.
plasticizer
Importance of curing temperature also was clearly
NaOH 19.77 40 791 seen in the tests conducted. For test conducted at
25C, strength obtained was 0.872 N/mm2, while,
Na2SiO3 49.4 25 1235 on the contrary, for 80C it was 30.95 N/mm2.
Another important observation was that curing
Fly Ash 500 3.3 1650 under normal sunlight yielded strength of 16
N/mm2. This test was done in the month of
February 2012 in Sardar Vallabhbhai National
Total 5434
Institute of Technology, Surat(Gujarat) in India,
Note: All the rates are as per the standard rates in the where the ambient temperature was around 25 0C,
prevalent Indian market during the year 2012. hence, similar test when conducted in hotter months
can yield still better results. Thus, making insitu use
VI. D ISCUSSION of fly ash concrete a future possibility.
The main objective of this study was to find the effect Curing when done by wrapping with plastic bag
of varied concentrations of alkaline solutions on the gave better compressive strength as it preserves the
strength characteristics of the concrete. We expect that moisture.
the combined use of KOH and NaOH would help in In the rate analysis carried, it came out clearly with
achieving a more rigid structure and hence improve the the available resources fly ash based concrete is
strength characteristics. expensive than cement concrete and hence not
Based on the general finding, the following economical. However in the broader picture
conclusions were drawn: considering carbon credit, waste disposal and
limited availability of non-renewable resources,
geo-polymer concrete is sure to play major role in
construction industry.
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