MOST EFFECTIVE TEXTING WHILE DRIVING PSA 1

Capstone Proposal:
The Most Effective Texting while Driving Public Service Announcement for the Millennial
Generation at John Carroll University

Emily Mastroianni

John Carroll University

Dr. Buchanan
MOST EFFECTIVE TEXTING WHILE DRIVING PSA 2

I. Statement of Topic & Approach

For my capstone project, I am going to delve into the world of public service

announcements, also known as PSAs. A public service announcements goal is to persuade an

audience to take a specific action or adopt a particular viewpoint on a cause or social goal. My

interest in this topic stemmed from my strong passion for marketing and advertising campaigns-

something I hope to one day play a part in creating, as well as my strong passion against texting

while driving. Therefore, I decided to focus on texting while driving public service

announcements. PSAs, to me, are particularly interesting because they are backed by a cause

and are meant to send a message or make a call-to-action in order to protect the greater good.

Although I have been surrounded by these messages my entire life, I never became interested in

the work that goes into creating them until I began taking Integrated Marketing Communication

courses, specifically Crisis Communication and Campaigns. In my Crisis Communication

course, our final project was to create our own PSA focused on texting while driving in which I

did a lot of background research on existing texting while driving campaigns. This project

opened my eyes to the diverse approaches creators take in order to reach their target audiences

on issues as serious as texting while driving.

Last semester in my Campaigns course, we initiated a campaign for our client, the

Cuyahoga County Judicial System, called One & Done which was focused on gun violence in

domestic disputes. We did so by spreading awareness of the law, Title 18, which prevents any

convicted abuser from owning, purchasing or handling a gun. While brainstorming how we

should reach our audiences for this issue, we viewed multiple domestic violence PSAs, all of

which took a unique, and engaging approach to spreading awareness of domestic violence. For

me, what sets PSAs apart from any other campaign for your day-to-day product, brand or
MOST EFFECTIVE TEXTING WHILE DRIVING PSA 3

company, is that they focus on real-life issues that are ongoing, detrimental problems in our

world. That is why I want to focus my project on understanding the strategies that go into

making a successful PSA against texting while driving, in order to reach those audiences who are

most susceptible to the problem.

I will be developing this topic first by doing background research and putting together a

literature review. Next, based on my findings, I will develop my own research questions and

find the answers through a survey - which I believe is the most ideal research method for my

project. PSAs strive to change how people think about an issue, so I believe that the only way

for me to discover how effective these messages are, is to obtain their reactions and responses

through the survey format. For this topic, I will focus on video PSAs, rather than traditional

platforms such as billboards or posters, because a majority of the PSAs for the issue of texting

while driving are videos, and the creation of these videos involves a lot of strategic uses of

communication and persuasion. The survey method will allow me to target the audience I am

most interested in learning about, the millennial generation, who can be easily reached at John

Carroll University. The survey will consist of several questions regarding the students

involvement in texting while driving, how likely they believe they can be affected by texting

while driving, and how/if those feelings change after watching PSAs containing differing levels

of graphic content.

II. Purpose & Significance

Because of the academic importance of this capstone project, I wanted to make sure my

topic was focused on something I was very interested in, considering the time and effort I knew

would have to go into it. As previously mentioned, I have grown a strong interest in campaign
MOST EFFECTIVE TEXTING WHILE DRIVING PSA 4

creation, so much so, that it is something I wish to pursue as a career. After taking a trip with the

Communication Department to visit several agencies downtown Cleveland my first semester this

year, I began to realize that the advertising, marketing and integrated marketing agency

atmosphere is where I want to end up working someday. Over Christmas break, I had the

opportunity to shadow a family friend at a top advertising agency in Pittsburgh, called Brunner,

where I met with several people in different departments, learning how each team plays their part

in creating a cohesive campaign for their client, increasing my passion for the industry.

Currently, I am interning at an integrated marketing and branding agency downtown, called

VividFront, gaining hands-on experience in the field, which will help me with my professional

goals. Therefore, my professional goals were the motivation for choosing to focus on PSAs,

knowing that this research project could be helpful in my future endeavors.

Although I could have focused my project on any creative campaign for any product, I

chose to rather focus on a pressing issue in our society, one that I have always been passionate

about. Growing up, I have always been a cautious person and have adopted those characteristics

into my driving. I do not take chances on the road, whether that means speeding uncontrollably,

driving under the influence, or most importantly, texting behind the wheel. Although speeding

and drunk driving are also very dangerous issues, texting worries me the most because it is not

understood as dangerous by many, rather, it is something many individuals do with ease,

without second guessing. It is something I will never participate in, yet something I also cannot

escape. As a college student, I have been in numerous situations in which the driver of the car

began texting while driving without any concern for the other people in the car, so I understand

first-hand that college-aged students are susceptible to this problem. The scariest part of any

type of distracted driving is that although you personally may choose not to engage in the
MOST EFFECTIVE TEXTING WHILE DRIVING PSA 5

dangerous behavior, you cannot control whether others on the road choose not to as well, which

is why so many innocent people end up falling victim to this crime. The National Safety Council

(2016) reports that cell phone use while driving leads to 1.6 million crashes, and nearly 330,000

injuries each year. These are clearly significant numbers, and PSAs are one of the only

mediums out there that have the ability to communicate how dangerous texting while driving can

be. Therefore, I wish to combine my passion for campaigns and PSAs, with my urge to reduce

the amount of college students who text while they drive, to hopefully make an impact on this

societal issue.

III. Review of Existing Research

Introduction

Public Service Announcements, or PSAs, are vital to society. Unlike ordinary

advertisements for your everyday products, PSAs advertise to make positive social change,

protect the greater good, and ultimately save lives. Therefore, PSAs focus on some of the most

critical social issues in America today, such as texting while driving (PSA Central, 2017). As a

millennial, I understand the overarching power technology plays in daily life, and I admit to

constantly being connected to my phone. What I do not understand is how millennials, as well as

society as a whole, can be so ignorant toward the potential danger of texting behind the wheel.

Why is it so easy for so many people to risk their own life, and the lives of other innocent people,

to look down at their phones or mobile devices? Therefore, I seek to understand the strategies

that go into making a successful PSA, specifically against texting while driving, or distracted

driving, and ultimately discover the best way to reach the millennial generation about this issue

through the communicative techniques of public service announcements.

MOST EFFECTIVE TEXTING WHILE DRIVING PSA 6

Texting While Driving

Texting while driving is a dangerous problem that people tend to think they can get away

with. According to Mary Madden and Lee Rainie of the Pew Research Center (2010), close to

half of all adults who use text messaging say they have sent or read messages while behind the

wheel, and the National Highway Transportation Safety Administration claims that an

estimated 8% of drivers on the roadway at any given daylight moment are using their cell

phones (Strayer, Crouch & Drews, 2006, p. 382). In todays on-the-go society, driving in the car

is vital time that people want to use productively. Therefore, a majority will turn to their devices

and engage in multi-tasking behavior that ultimately diverts their attention from the primary task

of driving (Strayer, et al., 2006). In fact, according to Alexis Farris (2011) people often defend

their decision to multitask behind the wheel by stating that they have an urgent need to address

a work or school issue, or they feel pressure to stay connected socially (p. 246).

When comparing the risk of texting while driving with drinking while driving- people

tend to view texting as less dangerous, even though research suggests otherwise. In general,

using your phone behind the wheel tremendously increases your chance of being involved in an

accident. According to Strayer, Crouch and Drews (2006), the impairments associated with

using a cell phone while driving can be as profound as those associated with a blood alcohol

level of .08% (p. 390). In other words, texting behind the wheel is the equivalent of downing

four beers and then driving a car (Masters, 2013). In recent years, all 50 states have taken the

initiative to pass laws making driving under the influence illegal, and as a result, there has been a

25% decrease in drunk driving fatalities from the year 2002 to 2011 (Masters, 2013). On the

contrary, as drunk driving fatalities have decreased, texting-while-driving fatalities have been on

the rise (Masters, 2013). Masters (2013) confirms that although 41 states now prohibit all drivers
MOST EFFECTIVE TEXTING WHILE DRIVING PSA 7

from texting while driving, enforcement of this law is not very strong. Whereas drunk driving

fatalities have decreased by 25% over the years, texting-while-driving fatalities now make up

about 25% of all driving accidents- approximately 1.6 million accidents every year (Masters,

2013).

Millennial Generation

The millennial generation, also known as the always connected generation, are the

most likely to text while driving, with 91% of U.S. college students admitting that they have

read or sent text messages while driving, and many reporting having done so with passengers,

including children, riding in their vehicle (Cismaru, 2014, p. 67). Pew Research Center defines

the millennial as the generation born after 1980 and the first generation to come of age in the

new millennium (Choney, 2010 p. 1). Most millennials will agree that the most distinguishing

trait of their generation is technology because theyve grown up with it, compared to later

generations who have been slower at adapting to these technological advances. To make a

comparison, 75% of millennials have created a profile on a social networking site, compared to

only 50% of gen-Xers and 30% of baby boomers. Along with that, 41% of millennials state that

they only own a cell phone, no landlines, compared to 24% of gen xers and 21% of baby

boomers (Choney, 2010 p. 2). Just as technology is a defining characteristic of this generation,

so is their sense of confidence and entitlement, which sometimes leads them to believe they are

invincible, especially in situations like texting while driving. According to the USC Annenberg

Study for the Digital Future (2015), only 81% of millennials believe that online communication

while driving is unsafe, compared to nearly 100% of those 55 years or older (p. 2). Many claim

that cell phones have become another appendage of millennials, which becomes a dangerous

factor when they get behind the wheel. Thus, public service announcements are a key
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contributor in reaching this audience in order to help reduce and put an end to texting while

driving fatalities.

Public Service Announcements: Evoking Emotions

A public service announcement is, a type of advertising, sponsored by either government

agencies or other organizations, to promote causes and activities generally considered socially

desirable (Bummara & Choi, 2015, p. 1). According to Dillard and Peck (2000):

Public Service Announcements (PSAs) are an important component of most

communication campaigns, and although there are a variety of means by which these

social issue advertisements might persuade, many attempt to do so by evoking an

emotional response (p. 461).

Building PSAs on an emotional foundation is key to the creation of public service

announcements. Thus, it is important for message creators to realize how the individuals they

are reaching, mentally process these messages. Dillard and Peck (2000) believe that individuals

use heuristic processing when understanding PSAs, which is when one relies on some shortcut

decision-making rule to construct an attitude toward the persuasive advocacy, rather than

systematically analyzing a message (p. 462). Because of the brief, straightforward nature of a

public service announcement, heuristic processing is the method of choice. Keene and Lang

(2016) believe that individuals also have two independent underlying motivational systems,

the appetitive and aversive, which control our emotional experiences. Appetitive, which is the

driving force behind approach behavior, drives responses to positive stimuli, whereas the

aversive system is a more defensive response toward potential threat or danger. They believe

that both the direction and sequence of positive and negative emotional content, within a

message, like a PSA, have an impact on how we understand and respond to it (Keene & Lang,
MOST EFFECTIVE TEXTING WHILE DRIVING PSA 9

2016). They discovered, using post-viewing summative measures, that sequential messages

elicited more attention, and were better remembered than neutral, pleasant, or unpleasant

messages (p. 471). This conclusion confirms that there is reasoning as to why many texting

while driving PSAs usually contain a sequence of both positive and negative images and audio;

because it is proven that the audience better remembers these coactive-simultaneous messages.

As far as which emotion to focus on within these messages, fear is the most popular choice and

has proven to increase ad interest and persuasiveness (Williams, 2013 p. 2).

Fear Appeal

According to Kaylene Williams (2013), an appeal is the motive to which an ad is

directed, and its purpose is to move the audience toward a goal set by the advertiser (p. 2). A

fear appeal, in particular, is a a persuasive communication attempting to arouse fear, promoting

precautionary motivation and protective action (Lennon, OLeary, Rentfro, 2010, p. 97).

Cismaru (2014) claims there are five factors within fear appeals that will have a significant

impact on the viewer: perceived severity, perceived vulnerability, perceived costs, perceived self-

efficacy and perceived response efficacy. Perceived severity refers to the persons perception

that distracted driving can lead to severe injury or death (p. 69). Perceived vulnerability refers

to persons perception that texting while driving can affect everyone, and that everyone is

vulnerable, no matter how well they believe they are at multitasking behind the wheel.

Perceived costs are the summation of the variables one must overcome to adhere to the

recommendations of not texting while driving (p. 69). Self-efficacy is the general awareness a

person has of his or her ability to understand that she/he can abstain from texting while driving.

Lastly, perceived response efficacy is the persons belief that the recommended behaviors will

be effective in reducing the danger (pg. 69). There is a unanimous agreement among theorists
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that fear appeals are most likely to change behavior when an individual perceives both threat

and efficacy as high (Lennon et. al, 2010, p. 97). Therefore, the message must contain a

meaningful threat or important problem as well as the specific actions a person must take to

reduce the threat or problem (Williams, 2013, p. 3). In other words, fear appeals are most

successful when you make an individual very afraid, and then show them how to reduce that fear

by doing what you recommend, and the more relevant the threat is depicted in the message, the

more likely individuals will listen and engage in the recommendations (p. 3).

Along with that, it is common for PSAs to combine fear appeals with the display of

disgusting images, or graphic content. According to Leshner, Bolls and Wise (2011), fear

appeal and disgust-related images could have significant interactions on the dynamics of

cognitive and emotional processes when individuals view messages that vary in the presence of

both (p.77). In their study, Leshner et al. (2011) defined disgust, as an emotional response

characterized by a specific facial expression, mild physiological manifestation of nausea,

feelings of revulsion, and withdrawal from the disgusting object (p. 78). The researchers found

that fear appeals combined with disgusted-related images cause a more aversive reaction, or a

defensive reaction, as Dillard and Peck emphasized earlier, which surprisingly makes it harder

for individuals to encode the message into memory and ultimately have a lasting effect. It is

important to realize that the PSAs studied by Leshner, Bolls and Wise were anti-tobacco focused,

not texting while driving.

This research supports the fact that reaching millennials through the use of fear appeals is

not always effective. Lennon et al. (2010) suggest that because this generation is frequently

viewing graphic and violent images through video games and other media, they can become

desensitized to the images that are portrayed through fear appeals. Studies also suggest that this
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generation is more susceptible to messages that pose a threat to their social interactions, rather

than the threat of physical harm or death. For example, ads concentrating on physical detriments

such as bad breath or yellow teeth in a smoking PSA had more of an effect on this generation

than did the threat of cancer (p. 60). Lastly, a common finding is that younger adults tend to

react to these messages in defiance, and continue their bad behavior in response to the messages,

rather than stopping it (p. 60). This idea is defined as the boomerang effect, and is evidently a

possible outcome according to Lennon et al. (2010), whose survey participants, after viewing

several PSAs, indicated a significantly higher likelihood of engaging in the behavior in the

future than they currently do (p. 104). Along with generational challenges in getting a fear

appeal message across, there are also demographic differences.

Demographic Differences

The most difficult part of creating a public service announcement is understanding that all

people react and respond to fear appeal messages in different ways. The most common

difference was found in gender. Lennon et al. (2010), found that younger males appear to be

less persuaded by appeals involving physical threats, and more affected by threats of legal

sanctions (p. 100). Lennon and Rentfro (2010) also added that graphic content was a significant

predictor of the effectiveness ratings by males (p. 63). As for females, they are more influenced

than males by messages that focus on threat as well as the perceived consequences (p. 100).

Overall, it is clear to say that the amount of fear present in a public service announcement must

be significant to have the greatest effect on any demographic.

Conclusion
MOST EFFECTIVE TEXTING WHILE DRIVING PSA 12

The ultimate goal of any PSA is for its message to be effective enough that individuals

change their actions due to what is recommended. The issue of texting while driving, which is

difficult for law enforcement to regulate, falls heavily on public service announcements to make

this deadly problem known. With the millennial generation being the most vulnerable to this

issue as well as the most aware, yet unaffected by its consequences, I seek my own insight on the

most effective way to reach them, by gaining an understanding of students perspectives on

texting while driving after viewing both a heavily graphic and not-so graphic texting while

driving public service announcement. Taking into consideration the knowledge gained by the

other theorists and researchers in their own surveys and studies, I will come to my own

conclusions on how both female and male John Carroll students of the millennial generation

(ages 18-22) react to these messages. I am most interested in see if this sample reacts differently

to a more graphic texting while driving public service announcement. By surveying these

students, I seek to find the answer to the following question:

RQ1: Does a texting-while-driving PSA containing more graphic content reach students between

the ages of 18-22 more effectively than one that does not?

RQ2: Are there any gender differences?

IV. Research Plan

1. Methods

Public service announcements strive to persuade the mind and behavior of individuals, so

the most obvious form of measurement in order to study the effectiveness in two differing PSA

messages would be communicating with a sample audience, and measuring their reactions
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through questions. Therefore, I will be conducting a survey, which will incorporate the viewing

of two public service announcements. According to Jacqueline P. Wiseman and Marcia S. Aron

(1970):

Survey research is a method for collecting and analyzing social data via highly structured

and often very detailed interviews or questionnaires in order to obtain information from

large numbers of respondents presumed to be representative of a specific population (p.

37).

As the quote suggests, I will be seeking my information by using an online questionnaire, rather

than interviews, formatted through the program Qualtrics. Because my literature review focused

heavily on the millennial generation, I chose to use a sample group within that generation: John

Carroll students ages 18-22. I will be solely focusing on students because as a student at John

Carroll University, it will be easy to reach out to my fellow peers. Since my survey will be

online, I will reach my students through their campus emails, with an attachment to my survey. I

will first utilize the Russert Department of Experimental Learning email, with the allowance of

the Department Chair, Dr. Finucane, to reach students within the Communication Department

through Canvas. If I do not acquire an adequate sample size from that, I will begin sending my

survey to peers in each of my classes, making sure that I end up with an relatively equal amount

of male and female participants in order to adequately answer my research question.

2. Outline

The survey, which you can reference on Appendix A, contains 24 questions, and two

video public service announcements and should take approximately 4-5 minutes. I begin by

asking basic demographics; age and gender. The next questions try to gage the texting habits of

the participant and how they generally feel about texting while driving- gaining insight on their
MOST EFFECTIVE TEXTING WHILE DRIVING PSA 14

level of self-efficacy before watching the PSAs. Next, the participants are prompted to watch

PSA #1 (COW), and then answer several questions regarding the level of fear, threat and level

of graphic content conveyed in this PSA. The participants are then prompted to watch the

second video, PSA #2 (Just Drive) and asked the same exact questions as they previously

were. The survey concludes with three general/ closing thoughts comparing the two- trying to

ultimately uncover if more graphic content was more or less effective.

The first public service announcement chosen to use as the more heavily graphic example

is titled COW, and was created in Wales by the Gwent Police Department (access link in

Appendix A). The video, which was created in 2009, was unable to air in the U.S. due to its

graphic content, but according to Gwent Chief Constable, Texting and driving can have tragic

consequences, and the more this film is viewed, the better (Inbar, 2009). That was my ultimate

reasoning behind choosing this PSA. I was first introduced to it in my Campaigns course last

semester- it was chosen by my professor as one of the most compelling PSAs she had ever seen.

Therefore, beyond finding answers to my research question, I strive to truly reach my audience,

and leave them speechless after watching, and I feel that this PSA has the potential to do that. As

Donny Deutsch, the ads executive, exclaimed, cold, hard data is nothing compared to showing

people the human toll texting while driving can exact, up close and in chilling detail (Inbar,

2009). The original video was about four minutes long and showed images of children and other

people injured by the accident, but I chose to show the shortened version, so that both videos

were a similar length, causing less discrepancies in my results.

The second texting while driving PSA, titled Just Drive, included in my survey

contains less graphic content, and uses more of a shock appeal (access link in Appendix A).

According to Alfred Maskeroni of AdWeek Magazine this PSA is incredibly straightforward,

MOST EFFECTIVE TEXTING WHILE DRIVING PSA 15

stimulating an everyday scene cut short by texting while driving. Similar to the first example,

this PSA shows a collision, but rather than including graphic scenes, incorporates the use of

slow-motion visuals and a call-to-action ending by a police officer. I selected these examples

because they ultimately follow the same premise, and are nearly identical until each crash

happens. They both have three passengers in the car, who seem to be the age of my sample

group, and both show them engaging in normal conversation as many of us do on any normal

day. Early into each video, the driver is entranced in her texting conversation, and then the

biggest difference in the two occurs- the accident; the first drives into the opposite lane, and the

second runs a stop sign- two very plausible circumstances. The sample group will view each

PSA, then respond to similar questions after watching each, thus completing the survey. Once

my research is reviewed and accepted by the IRB, I will send out my survey to participants, and

hopefully begin analyzing results in early to mid-April.

References
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Bigsby,E.,Cappella,J.N.,&Seitz,H.H.(2013).Efficientlyandeffectivelyevaluatingpublic

serviceannouncements:Additionalevidencefortheutilityofperceivedeffectiveness.

CommunicationMonographs,80(1),123.

Bummara,V.,Choi,J.,(2015).ExploringtheeffectivenessofdistracteddrivingPSA(Public

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Cismaru,M(2014).Usingtheextendedparallelprocessmodeltounderstandtextingwhile

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Choney,S.(2010,February24).Millennialsanalwayson,textinggeneration.Retrievedfrom

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http://www.today.com/news/psaabouttextingwhiledrivingtoographicwbna32551351
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Keene,J.,&Lang,A.(2016).Dynamicmotivatedprocessingofemotionaltrajectoriesinpublic

serviceannouncements.CommunicationMonographs,83(4),468485.

Lennon,R.,OLeary,B.,&Rentfro,R.(2010).Socialmarketinganddistracteddriving

behaviorsamongyoungadults:theeffectivenessoffearappeals.AcademyofMarketing

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byfeararousal,perceivedthreatandperceivedefficacy?InnovativeMarketing,6(1),58

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dangerous?Retreivedfromhttp://www.bisociety.org/textingwhiledrivingvsdrunk

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Strayer,D.L.,Crouch,D.J.,&Drews,F.A.(2006).Acomparisonofthecellphonedriverand

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Appendix A:

Qualtrics Survey Link:

https://johncarroll.az1.qualtrics.com/jfe3/preview/SV_3Oum3og9QdnSiQ5

Survey Video Links:

1st: COW: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sKU7b6UaJsY

2nd: Just Drive: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GW9FFNmVsng

MOST EFFECTIVE TEXTING WHILE DRIVING PSA 20

Appendix B:

Hello,

The purpose of this survey is to determine whether or not students between the ages of 18-22 are
more persuaded by public service announcements that utilize graphic content, compared to those
that do not. This particular study will be focusing on texting while driving public service
announcements, seeking to understand which fear appeals are most effective in changing the
perception of texting while driving for the millennial generation.

You will be asked a few questions, and then will be prompted to watch two separate public
service announcements focused on texting while driving. Following each video, you will be
asked a few more questions regarding your reactions.

Participation is voluntary and participants can choose not to complete this survey without
penalty.

Participants must be 18 years of age or older to participate, and your results will remain
anonymous. This should take approximately 4 minutes.

There may be risks to participating in this survey. You will be asked to view a video that
contains graphic material that includes images of a macabre nature, including blood and death.
Please be aware that you can choose to stop participating at anytime if the video content causes
too much distress. If you have any questions or concerns, or if you wish to withdraw your
survey answers at any time, please contact the researcher:

Emily Mastroianni
412-354-8088
emastroianni17@jcu.edu

The professor overseeing this study is Dr. Jacqueline Schmidt and can be reached at:

schmidt@jcu.edu
216-440-4242

If you have any questions about the rights and welfare of research participants, please contact the
John Carroll University Institutional Review Board Administrator at (216) 397-1527.

By continuing with this survey, you confirm that you are 18 years or older and you consent to
participate in this study.

Please begin by answering the following questions:

MOST EFFECTIVE TEXTING WHILE DRIVING PSA 21