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Physical Geology
Specifically, this discussion will include information concerning the theory of the
origin of subsurface formation, composition of formation, formation structural
differences and rock mechanics. Simply stated, the intent of this section is to
answer some of the basic questions concerning the nature of the formation being
drilled, such as: How were rocks formed? What are they made of? How are they
structured? How do rocks behave when a hole is drilled in them?
Relatively few of the problems of geology are so simple that they can be solved by
one method of approach. Many geologic problems require supplementary
investigation using the methods, data, and theories of chemistry, biology, physics
and engineering. In turn, geology has contributed data and ideas to these
bordering sciences. In the natural sciences, progress in one advances all the
others.
Physical geology is concerned with the physical processes that operate on and
within the Earth - the processes that have given the rocks of the Earths crust their
composition and structure, and the forces that have shaped its surface. Many
separate sciences contribute to the broad field of physical geology. Among the
more important are: mineralogy, the science of minerals; petrology, the science of
rocks; structural geology, the science which seeks to interpret the structures seen
in the rocks; and geomorphology, the science which deals with the origin of
landscapes.
Also closely associated with physical geology is historical geology, the science
that traces the evolution and development of the Earth and its plants and animals.
This science draws extensively on paleontology, which deals with the study of
animals and plants of the geologic past. It also draws on stratigraphy, the science
that is concerned with the order and sequence of the rocks that make up the
Earths crust.
The most recent calculations indicate the Earth to be an oblate ellipsoid. That is to
say, the Earth is not a perfect sphere but rather slightly flattened at the poles. The
diameter of the Earth from the north pole to the south pole is calculated to be
7,900.4 miles, whereas the diameter through the equator is calculated to be
7,927.0 miles. Although the difference between the two diameters is only
26.6 miles, it must be taken into account in mapping and navigation. These
measurements are now accepted and used internationally as the basis for official
mapping.
For our purpose as surface Data loggers, the most important relief features of the
oceans are the continental shelves. These border the continents and lie between
the shore line and the edge of the abysmal depths of the oceans. From the shore
lines, the shelves slope seaward, increasing in depth at a rate of about 12 to 60 feet
per mile, to an average depth of between 420 and 600 feet where the bottom
beings to descend abruptly. The continental shelf of North America varies in depth
at its outer edge and even more greatly in width along different parts of its extent.
In the Gulf of Mexico it varies up to more than 100 miles in width (Figure 5.1).
The extreme relief features of the Earth vary from the highest of 29,002 feet above
sea level (Mount Everest) to 34,000 feet below sea level (Philippine Deep). This
is a vertical distance of 12 miles. It may seem fantastic, but when compared in
Three factors - altitude, latitude, and variations in density of nearby rocks - affect
the force of gravity at any point on the Earths surface. The third factor, variation
in rock density, is responsible for the major differences of the Earths features.
Because the force of gravity is greater on rocks of high density than on rocks of
low density, it is concluded that heavier rocks would normally tend to occur at a
lower elevation than adjacent lighter rocks. A principle generally accepted by
geologists and geophysicists is that the continents are composed of a lighter rock
than that which underlies the oceans. Careful examination of rocks taken from
continents and ocean basins indicates that this principle is well founded.
5.2 Isostasy
The fact that the lighter continental blocks stand higher than the heavy oceanic
segments suggests that the two units are in equilibrium. The term isostasy (from
the Greek isos equal and stasis standing) is used to define this condition of
balance. Such condition means that the pressure at some depth beneath large units
of the Earths crust must be substantially the same, and that any specific
differences which develop because of processes in operation at the surface, must
be adjusted by slow rock movement in the Earths plastic interior to maintain
balance. Hence, if a heavy load is placed on a certain area on the Earths surface a
gradual sinking of the area will follow. Conversely, if a heavy load is removed, the
area will rise. The isostatic movement of one area is necessarily offset by an
opposite isostatic movement of another area (Figure 5.2).
Isostatic movement has not been confined to forming the continents and ocean
basins. It has been active throughout the geologic past, creating shallow seas and
mountains. In North America, isostic downwarpings have caused many different
geologic seas to deposit sediments across the entire continental area except the
area of the Canadian Shield.
5.3 Minerals
The more important physical properties for mineral identification are discussed
below.
5.3.1 Cleavage
Many minerals cleave or part along smooth planes. Some minerals such as mica,
have a perfect cleavage in one direction only, while other, such as galena, have
perfect cleavage in three directions. Terms such as perfect, uneven, hard, and easy,
are used to describe cleavage planes.
5.3.2 Fracture
Minerals which have no cleavage fracture or break irregularly. Fracture faces are
described as being conchoidal (like glass), rough, smooth, even, splinter, or
fibrous.
5.3.3 Form
Minerals tend to crystallize into definite, characteristically shaped crystals,
bounded by smooth planes called crystal faces. If crystal faces are present, their
shapes and interfacial angles are diagnostic.
5.3.4 Color
All specimens of some minerals, such as magnetite and galena, have a constant or
uniform color, but others, such as quartz and calcite, may vary in color because of
impurities.
5.3.5 Streak
The color of the powder of a mineral is determined by scratching the surface of
the mineral with a knife or file, or it it is not too hard, by rubbing it on an
unpolished porcelain surface. The streak of a mineral may be similar, or entirely
different from the color of the mineral itself.
5.3.6 Luster
The luster of a mineral refers to the way ordinary light is reflected from its
surface. Metallic luster is like that of polished metals; vitreous luster is like that of
glass; adamantine like that of diamonds. Other self-explanatory terms used to
describe luster are resinous, silky, pearly, dull, Earth, oily, and waxy.
5.3.7 Hardness
The relative hardness of two different minerals can be determined by pushing a
pointed corner of one firmly across the flat surface of the other. If the mineral with
the point is harder, it will scratch or cut the other. The hardness of minerals is
usually recorded in terms of Mohs Scale of Hardness ranging from 1 to 10. The
numbers refer to the hardness of 10 minerals, arranged in order of increasing
hardness.
When the minerals to make up this series are not available, it is convenient to
know that a pocket knife blade is about 5.5, a copper penny 3.5, and the thumbnail
about 2.5. Since most minerals have a hardness of less than 6, these tools are
usually adequate for determining the hardness of an unknown specimen.
( weightofmineralinair )
SpecificGravity = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
( weightofmineralinair ) ( weightofmineralinwater )
Specific Gravity is stated as a number indicating the ratio of the weight of the
substance to that of an equal volume of water. Specific gravity can be determined
by several different instruments in the laboratory.
5.4 Rocks
The present is the key to the past, or applied more specifically to our
present subject: Rocks from long ago at the Earths surface may be
understood and explained in accordance with processes presently going
on.
It assumes that, in the geologic past, water collected in streams and carried loads
of sediments to the sea; that marine animals lived and died in the ancient seas, and
that their shells were buried in the deposits accumulated on the sea floor. It also
assumes that ancient volcanoes erupted and extruded lava flows, just as they do
today. These and other similar assumptions are accepted truths as there is no
reason to believe that the physical laws and natural processes of the geologic past
have changed. Therefore, if features in solid rocks can be recognized as identical
to those now being formed by volcanoes, streams, and beaches, it is reasonable to
conclude that they were formed by the same type processes which are presently
occurring.
The Uniformetarian Principle is the underlying theme for all geologic studies. To
evaluate any rock, which is defined as an aggregate of minerals, it is essential to
know its origin, occurrence, mineral and chemical composition, and the process or
processes by which it was formed. All this information can usually be obtained
through the interpretation of the significant features contained within the rocks
themselves.
There are three major classes of rocks: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary.
This classification is based on origin. Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and
solidification of molten or liquid rock. Metamorphic rocks are formed by the
alteration, through heat and pressure, of existing rocks. Sedimentary rocks are
formed by the accumulation of sediments.
The two differ mainly in their mode of origin, or the place in which they were
formed. Volcanic rocks were formed on the Earths surface; plutonic rocks
beneath it. Volcanic rocks naturally cooled much more rapidly than plutonic
rocks, and as a result they are composes of very fine mineral crystals and often
have the appearance of glass. The minerals in the volcanic rocks were allowed
little time to crystallize and grow before the liquid rocks solidified. Opposed to
this, plutonic rocks were cooled very slowly, and the mineral crystals allowed
time to grow very large. Consequently, plutonic rocks are composed of large
crystals of pure minerals. Obsidian, or volcanic glass, is a good example of
volcanic rock. Granite is a good example of plutonic rock. No mineral crystals can
be distinguished in obsidian, but large crystals fragments of quartz, feldspar,
magnetite may be easily distinguished in most granites.
Igneous rocks of high silica content are called acidic because of their high
proportion of silica (SiO2), the acid-forming radical. As a rule, they are light in
color and relatively low gravity. Igneous rocks containing a predominance of
bases such as lime, magnesium, and iron are called basic rocks. They are usually
dark-colored and heavy because of their high content of iron-bearing minerals.
Liquid rock material within the Earth (magma) may be spewed onto the Earths
surface through volcanic activity, or it may be intruded into rocks beneath the
Earths surface by plutonic activity.
When magma is erupted onto the Earths surface, it is called lava. Lava may be
solidified in two different forms; either as volcanic cones or extensive lava flows.
The Devils Postpile in California is an ancient lava flow, and the entire island of
Hawaii is built of volcanic cones, flows, and fragments. Volcanic rocks are in no
way related to the origin of petroleum, and their presence in old rocks simply
indicates ancient volcanic activity.
Pluton is the term given to any body of intruded igneous rock. Such masses vary
greatly in composition and texture and in their relation to the enclosing rock.
Different masses of magmas have different viscosities, and consequently a given
intrusive mass represents the line of least resistance for that particular material.
Based on their shapes and sizes, plutonic rock bodies are classified as dikes, sills,
laccoliths, volcanic necks, stocks, or batholiths (Figure 5.3).
Dikes
Dikes are tabular bodies of igneous rocks that fill former fractures in the Earths
crust. They may cut across formations, or they may cut into masses of older
igneous rocks. They vary in width from less than 1 inch to many feet, and in
length from a few yards to many miles.
Sills
Sills, like dikes, are tabular intrusive masses. They differ from dikes in that they
lie parallel to the formations of the enclosing rocks. Some sills are small, covering
areas of only a few acres, but others are very large. Most are less than 100 feet
thick.
Laccoliths
Laccoliths are large lenticular masses of igneous rock similar in origin to sills.
They are formed when intruded masses lift up overlying beds into domelike
structures. Laccoliths may range from 1/2 to 4 miles in diameter.
Volcanic Necks
The igneous rock solidified in the conduits that once fed volcanoes often remain
as remnants after erosion has removed the rest of the volcano. These cylindrical
masses are termed necks or plugs. They may be several thousand feet in diameter.
Batholiths
Batholiths are the largest and originally the deepest intrusive bodies of igneous
rock known. They are believed to have been the feeder sources of liquid material
for the igneous masses formed at a higher level. Batholiths are so large that they
are never sufficiently exposed to permit measurement of all three dimensions.
Many are 50 to 100 miles wide and more than 1,000 miles long, and they extend
downward to great but unknown depths. Most batholiths occur as the cores of a
folded mountain system.
igneous rocks, especially plutonic rocks, are constantly being sought for their
mineral content.
Metamorphism is defined as the process that transforms rocks and minerals. The
factors that cause metamorphism are temperature, pressure, and chemical activity.
These factors increase in intensity with nearness to igneous intrusions and with
depth in the Earth.
Pressures associated with metamorphism are of two types: static and dynamic.
Static pressure is uniform and is associated with burial. In general, static pressure
increases the solubility of minerals, while a release of pressure causes
precipitation. Changes in static pressure thus favor recrystallization. Rocks that
are metamorphosed by static pressure often show the development of enlarged
mineral grain size.
The chemically active agents which cause metamorphism are fluids, vapors, and
gases. The origin of these agents must be from either the rocks being
metamorphosed or from intruded magma. These agents may be any compound of
water, the halogens, sulfur, carbon dioxide, iron, silica, etc. They carry many
metallic elements into rocks being metamorphosed. Rocks metamorphosed by
chemical activity are characterized by the presence of new minerals.
Sedimentary rocks are the most common on the surface of the Earth. They cover
approximately 75% of the land surface. Geologists estimate that they range in
thickness from a thin film to more than 40,000 feet.
Most of the material of which sedimentary rocks are composed comes from the
weathering and erosion of older rocks. The two materials produced by weathering
are fragments of rocks and soluble salts. The fragments are called clastic (broken)
materials; the soluble salts are called chemical materials. The former are
transported from their place of origin by water or wind, while the latter are
removed in solution. A third type of material found in sediments is derived from
plants and animals. It is called organic material. The deposition of these three
types of material has formed all sedimentary rocks. Something of the origin and
history, of sedimentary rocks can be learned by studying the materials of which
they are composed.
Clastic Material
A size scale of clastic materials is shown in the following table. These sizes are
the ones commonly accepted by geologists.
Granules 2 to 4
Sand 1/ to 2
16
1
Silt /256 to 1/16
Clay Below 1/256
Clastic fragments are sorted by the action of various transporting agents. Thus, if
the materials have about the same specific gravity, fragments of about the same
size will be deposited together. If the materials differ in specific gravity, large
fragments of light material will be mixed with small fragments of heavy material
in deposition.
Chemical Materials
The most abundant soluble salts are calcium carbonate, silica, sodium chloride,
and compounds of magnesium, potassium, iron, and aluminum. These salts are of
varying solubilities in river water. Some of them are very soluble in sea water,
while others are not. The manner in which these compounds form sedimentary
rocks will be discussed later.
Organic Materials
The organic materials which form a small part of the sedimentary rocks are
derived from land and marine plants and animals. They contribute organic
material in the form of carbon. Under very special conditions, depositions of
carbonaceous materials become coal or petroleum. Swamps and lagoons along
shores are ideal sites for the deposition of carbonaceous material.
The hard skeletons of shells of marine animals are relatively insoluble in sea
water. They are composed largely of calcium carbonate and silicon dioxide. In
some areas, these materials have formed thick deposits of sedimentary rocks.
Produces fragments of Produces insoluble products that are Produces soluble products that are
minerals and rocks that are
removed mechanically and
Removed in solution by streams and deposited as the
deposited as the Clastic
Sedimentary Rocks.
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks Organic Sedimentary Rocks
Calcareous Limestone
The carbon is derived dominantly from CO2, hydrogen from water, other constituents, indirectly,
through weathering and alteration.
Breccia
Conglomerates
Sandstones
Sandstone is composed of fragments and grains from a size smaller than those of a
conglomerate down to grains of about the size of ordinary granulated table sugar.
The principal distinction between coarse sandstone and fine conglomerate is that
the sandstone is more apt to contains grains or fragments of rather uniform size,
without any unduly large pebbles. Sandstone can be described as fine, coarse, or
medium. It should be described as soft if it can be crumbled in the fingers, hard if
it breaks with difficulty with a hammer and medium-hard if it breaks under an
ordinary hammer blow.
Wind-Deposited Sandstones
Siltstone
Siltstone is a rock composed of material whose small particles are larger than the
fine material of true shale and too small to be called sandstone. When broken in
the fingers, it is gritty rather than slippery, and often it is composed of a mixture of
fine sand grains and mud. For general purposes, a coarse siltstone could be
included under sandstone or a very fine siltstone might be included with shale.
Shale
Shale is the rock formed from compaction and solidification of the fine materials
of sedimentation which originally settled out in the water as mud. Consequently, it
is a deposit formed at greater distances from the shore than a conglomerate or a
sandstone, the material of which drops to the bottom as soon as the speed of the
depositing current is reduced where a river runs into the ocean. The tiny particles
which make up shale will remain suspended for a long time even in still water.
Fine material washed into an ocean by a river may be caught in some of the
slow-moving ocean currents and transported for many miles. Hence, deposits of
shale of decidedly uniform character may be deposited over thousands of square
miles of ocean bottom.
Often the deposition of shale is periodic, not continuous. This may be due to
several causes, and much remains yet to be learned on the subject. Seasonal
floods, for example, may be a cause. Rivers often carry large loads of erosion
products during floods, and are relatively clear and carry nothing for other periods
of the year. In such cases, a film or layer of mud would be deposited on the bottom
after each storm or flood, and in long geological time, many thousands of such
films or layers would pile up. Shale formed by the solidification of such a deposit
of many layers, would be banded or bedded rock, and a core or surface exposure
of it would show bedding or stratification. There would actually be visible fine
line or bands in the rock. According to local conditions which caused the bedding
or stratification, the beds or strata might be a fraction of an inch thick or several
feet.
All material that is fine is not necessarily of the same composition. The fine
materials which accumulates to form shale is naturally ground up (and perhaps
altered) material of the rocks of the land from which it was eroded. Since
numerous kinds of rocks exist at different localities, their erosion products are
different, even though ground up to the same size particles. For this reason, all the
shale in the world is not alike. The particles of which it was composed are alike,
but only in size. Therefore, there are many different kinds of shale.
As there is no particular advantage in using new names for the different varieties,
they are all generally called shale, without another qualifying word added to
indicate what kind. A shale containing an important amount of calcium carbonate
(line) is referred to as a calcareous shale or simply limey shale. Likewise, shale
containing a large amount of silica, such as much of the Monterey shale of
California, is called siliceous shale. Many local characteristics are also used, such
as as nodular shale, poke chip shale (when the cores split into smooth wafers
or plates resembling poker chips), paper shale, and others.
Limestones
This calcium carbonate is in solution in sea water as is salt. Certain animals living
in the sea, principally corals, and small forms of life known as bacteria, are able to
extract calcium carbonate from the sea water and, by rather vaguely known like
processes, to resolidify or precipitate it as small, solid crystals of calcite. By this
process, deposits of limestone rock accumulate on sea floors where there is an
abundance of coral or peculiar bacterial life.
Certain plants such as algae can also extract calcium carbonate from sea water and
deposit it as limestone.
The life forms which are able to deposit limestone live in warm tropical or
sub-tropical waters, such as the Coral Sea north of the Great Barrier Reef, which
extends for more than a thousand miles along the northeast coast of Australia.
These animals require, in addition to warm temperatures, clear waters, fairly free
from stifling turbidity. Such conditions existed in past geological time in the
limestone area from the Gulf of Mexico far north to Canada. If the small,
oil-containing forms of life are also present and accumulate with the limestone, a
pertroliferous or oil-bearing limestone will be deposited. Such rocks have
produced oil fields in many parts of the world.
Dolomite
Chalk
Marl
The porous masses of shells and shell fragments that accumulate on the bottoms
of may freshwater lakes form marls. The term marl is used also to designate
calcarious shales in which clay and finely divided particles of calcium carbonate
are mixed.
Coquina
This term usually is applied to the more recent deposits of cemented shell
accumulations.
Reefs
Fossilized corals and associated marine life form another type of limestone known
as coral reefs. These limestones possess the skeletal features of the organism of
which they are formed. Reefs are formed in tropical waters along the shore of land
masses and around islands. They were probably formed in all of the ancient inland
seas of North America. Reefs are more technically known as bioherns.
Chert
Chert is a hard, compact, dense, siliceous material that occurs as distinct layers, or
as pebbles, in the beds of other rocks. Either colloidal silica was deposited with
the other sediments, or after deposition, silica-bearing waters partially replaced
the associated sediments.
Diatomaceous Earth
Diatoms are minute plants that live in great numbers in the sea and in freshwater
lakes. When they die, their siliceous skeletons accumulate to form diatomaceous
Earth. At many places diatomaceous Earth is interbedded with shales.
Coal
Several different metallic salts are present in sea water. They are listed in the
following table.
When sea water is evaporated to dryness, the salts come and are deposited. The
least soluble salts are deposited first. Calcium carbonate and iron oxide, if present
in the water, are the first to be deposited. Gypsum follows, and often with it some
anyhdrite is deposited. After gypsum, sodium chloride, or common table salt, is
deposited. The bitter salts consisting of sulfates and chlorides of potassium and
magnesium are deposited last. These are so soluble that they are not always
deposited with salt and gypsum. The rocks formed in this manner are called
evaporites. Thick deposits of evaporites were probably formed in evaporating
bodies of sea water which intermittently received influxes of fresh sea water.
Associated with salt and gypsum in many places are red beds, composed mainly
of red sandstones and shales. These are red because they contain small amounts of
iron oxide. It is believed that they have been formed under arid conditions.
Stratification
Cross-bedding
Graded Bedding
When a mixture of particle grains is brought to the site of deposition, the coarser
and heavier grains settle more rapidly than others. It follows then that the bed of
sediment finally accumulated shows a segregation of the grains as determined by
their relative rates of setting. Thus the bottom portion of a bed may consist of
coarse or heavy particles, whereas the upper portion is made up of relatively fine
or light particles. Such an arrangement is called graded bedding. The presence of
graded bedding in rocks indicate seasonal deposition within a relatively still body
of water.
Deposition of materials in areas is not always constant. When the area is elevated,
or uplifted, deposition ceases and erosion naturally begins. When an area
subsides, or sinks, erosion ceases and deposition begins.
When the deposition of a series of beds is constant, one bed is said to lie on the
other with conformity. If, however, there is an interruption in deposition, and
erosion takes place, the bed deposited immediately after the interruption is said to
lie on the eroded surface in an unconformable manner. If the beds below the
eroded surface are tilted so that they form an angle with the overlying bed, the
contact is called an angular unconformity (Figure 5.5).
Normally, when streams and rivers reach the sea, their velocity is reduced.
Because of this, the sediments which they carried are deposited layer upon
preceding layer.
If the sea is transgressing on the land, the velocity of the streams and rivers are
reduced progressively farther inland; thus, succeeding sediments carried by these
agents are deposited progressively farther inland, forming layers which overlie
beds formed by preceding deposits and the eroded surface on which the sea has
transgressed. This arrangement of layers of sedimentary rocks is called an overlap
(Figure 5.6).
A complete reversal of this occurs when the sea is regressing. Sediments carried
to the sea by rivers and streams are deposited progressively farther from the
original shore line. As the sea regresses, young deposits of sediments are exposed,
eroded, and carried once more into the sea and redeposited progressively further
from the original shore line. The arrangement of layers of sedimentary rocks is
called offlap (Figure 5.7).
Figure 5.8 Diagram Showing Ideal Lateral and Vertical Variation Within Sedimentary
Rocks
Fossil (from the Latin word fossilis meaning dug up) refers to any remains or
direct evidence of plant or animal life preserved in the rocks of the Earths crust.
Since plants have few preservable parts, plants are not so well represented by
fossils as are animals. However, some plant fossils do occur as graphitic remains
or as impressions of leaves and stems in shales and sandstones. The woody fibers
of other plants have been filled in by silica, producing silicified wood as may be
found in the petrified forest of Arizona.
The shells, bones, teeth, and general skeletal matter of animals, even their tracks,
trails, and burrows have been fossilized. In some cases the entire animal has been
preserved, constituting unique fossils of great valve.
Such remnants show the development of life through the long ages of the Earths
history. The more primitive forms of life are found in the earliest rock formations.
Evolutional changes are recorded by the fossils in the rocks of succeeding time. In
other words, the oldest sedimentary rocks contain the oldest, most primitive forms
of animals, and the youngest sediments, those being formed now, will contain
todays forms of animal life.
The character of sedimentation depends in part upon the balance between the rate
of subsidence and the rate of filling of a basin. Contemporaneous changes in the
source areas also affect the character. Notable uplift adjacent to a basin would
supply a great bulk of coarse sediment, whereas long-continued erosion of stable
land would change the sediment to fine mud and solutions. If little water reached a
basin, evaporation would begin, causing the deposition of evaporites.
The rock patterns formed by diastrophic forces acting on parallel layers of rocks
are called structures. Certain types of structures form traps in which petroleum
may be found. Therefore, many methods of petroleum prospecting are based on
the location and identification of subsurface structures. For this reason, structural
geology is an essential subject in the study of petroleum geology.
Structures may be classed as (1) gentle warps, (2) folds, (3) joints and (4) faults.
Since these structures are not usually seen in their entirety, the attitude of the
rocks of which they are composed may serve as a guide to identification.
The term strike designates the direction of the intersection of a bed of rock with
the horizontal plane. The direction of strike is measured by a compass at a right
angle to the direction of dip. In the example, the strike of the bed is northeast
(Figure 5.9).
Figure 5.9 Diagram Illustrating the Dip and the Strike of a Tilted Bed
5.5.2 Warps
Rocks which have been warped form gently sloping structures, such as irregular
shaped basins and domes. The beds of rocks in such structures are gently tilted.
Uniformly tilted beds are homoclines. This name indicates that the strata of this
structure are inclined in the same direction. Broad downwarped structures are
called geosynclines (Figure 5.10).
5.5.3 Folds
Where beds of rock have been subjected to extreme horizontal forces, they bend
into folds with alternating crests and troughs. The principal types of folded
structures are anticlines, synclines, and domes and basins. Where the beds of rock
are arched up like the roof of a house, they form an anticline, i.e. the bed dip away
from each other. Downfolds, or troughs, where the beds dip toward one another,
are call synclines.
Some faults are neither normal or reverse, but involve longitudinal movement
parallel to the fault plane, as in the San Andreas fault of California. Such a fault is
a rift or tear fault.
A block depressed between two faults is a graben, and a block raised between
two faults is a horst (Figure 5.11).
Historical geology is that branch of the geologic science that relates to the past
history of the Earth. It depends on virtually all knowledge of the field of physical
geology gained in the study of minerals, rocks, geologic processes and structures.
It uses this knowledge in deducing the conditions and events of the Earths past.
In the study of Earths history we seek to understand the origin and development
of the continents and oceans, the changing geography of the lands and seas, the
appearance and disappearance of great mountain systems, the occurrence of
prolific volcanic activity at different times and places, and the great climatic
changes. In addition, the study includes the innumerable fossils of prehistoric
plants and animals, many of which represent forms of life which have long since
become extinct. If these remains were not preserved in the rocks, much of the
Earths history would not be revealed.
The term geologic column refers to the entire succession of rocks, from oldest
to youngest, that are known to occur in a given region, or on the Earth as a whole.
Thus, we speak of the geologic column as a geologic time scale or a
stratigraphic section for a given area because it is a record of the events that
took place in that area. This geologic time scale consists of major and minor time
divisions arranged in proper time sequence. The names given to the divisions of
geologic time differ. However, these variations are confined mainly in the
nomenclature of the smaller units.
The largest units of geologic time are called eras. An era is a time division
consisting of two or more periods. It is recognized as a major chapter in the
Earths history. Periods are major segments of geologic time which have
worldwide application. They comprise successive groupings of lesser formations.
Each is broadly characterized by particular organisms. In most parts of the world
there are distinct breaks between rocks of adjacent periods, called unconformities.
Just as eras are divided into periods, periods are divided into epochs.
The standard geologic time scale is divided into eras, periods, epochs, ages,
stages, and substages. Because many local variations in nomenclature this
presentation will be limited to a discussion of the eras, periods and epochs as we
are concerned with them as surface data loggers.
The following table represents the geologic column and time scale used by the
U.S. Geological Survey.
5.7 Petroleum
H H H H
H C C C C H
H H H H
It is evident that each carbon atom is united with one or more additional carbon
atoms, and the remaining unsatisfied valences are united with hydrogen.
The formula for the closed-chain series is arranged in a ring as shown by the
structural formula for benzene (C6H6).
C
H C C H
H C C H
C
Paraffin Series
The members of the paraffin series occur extensively in natural gas, crude oil and
mineral waxes. This series consists of such widely known compounds as methane,
ethane, propane, butane, pentane, etc. Gasoline and kerosene consist mainly of the
paraffins. The members of the series are saturated hydrocarbons containing only
singly linked carbon atoms. The basic formula for this series is C2H2n+2.
Olefine Series
The Olefine series members contain two less hydrogen atoms than those in the
paraffin series. The basic formula for this series is CnH2n. Some of the members
of this series are ethylene, propylene, butylene, etc. The Olefines are similar to the
paraffins in physical properties but they are different in chemical properties. The
olefines have double bonds between some of the carbon atoms, as propylene
(C3H6).
H H
C C C H
H H H
Acetylene Series
The basic formula for the acetylene series is CnH2n-2. Members of this series have
two carbons united by triple bonds. There are two less hydrogen atoms in
compounds of this series compared with corresponding members of the olefine
series.
Diolefine Series
The diolefines are unsaturated hydrocarbons having the same basic formula as the
acetylenes, CnH2n-2. However, the structural formula differs in the the diolefines
have two double-bonded carbon atoms instead of one triple-bonded carbon atom.
Benzene Series
The members of the benzene series are all unsaturated cyclic compounds; that is,
the carbon atoms are arranged in closed rings. The rings are very stable, but the
hydrogen atoms are easily replaced by radicals and side chains. Members of this
series are found in almost all crude oil and natural gas.
Cycloparaffin Series
Napthalene Series
Compounds of this series have the basic formula CnH2n-12. In the structural
formula napthalene, C10H8, the nucleus is composed of two rings, which is a
typical structural formula for the series.
HC CH
HC C CH
HC C CH
HC CH
These theories may be divided into two groups: the inorganic and the organic.
Inorganic Theories
Inorganic theories were the first advanced to account for the formation of
petroleum. Betheolot, in 1866, suggested that mineral oils were formed by the
action of water on metallic carbides. He based his idea on the assumption that the
interior of the Earth contained free alkaline metals with which carbon dioxide
could react at high temperatures to form carbides and acetylides. The carbides or
acetylides would then react with water to form acetylene, which when heated to
Medeleef, about this time, also showed that the action of carbon dioxide and water
upon the alkali metals (sodium and potassium) gave off small quantities of
hydrocarbons.
Both of these theories would be acceptable, but for the fact that neither pure
carbides nor pure alkali metals are known to exist in the Earths crust. If they do
exist in the pure state they can do so only at the high temperatures associated with
volcanic phenomena. As a greater part of the Earths oil fields are far removed
from any center of igneous activity, these theories were never seriously accepted
by geologists.
Organic Theories
The primary source of the organic matter in sediments may be either animal or
vegetable remains, or both. Some of this matter is carried to areas of
sedimentation by streams, waves, or currents, and some of it remains where it
occurred. Since most petroleum deposits are closely associated with marine
sediments, it follows, then, that petroleum very likely originated in marine
sediments. Consequently, the organic matter of the oceans is of utmost importance
in the study of the origin of petroleum.
Most of the organic matter in sea water is either dissolved or is in a colloidal form.
The rest is contained in the plant and animal like of the ocean, chiefly in plankton,
the microscopic and semi-microscopic free-swimming organisms.
It is difficult to estimate the rate at which organic matter is produced in the sea.
Plankton, for instance, is produced at a rate as high as several hundred grams per
cubic meter of sea water per year. Photosynthesis (the process whereby plants
convert carbon dioxide and water into carbon compounds under the influence of
light) has been estimated to produce 12 million tons (80 million barrels) of
hydrocarbon material annually in the ocean. A minute fraction of this material,
preserved in sedimentary rocks, could be transformed into all known petroleum
deposits, plus those that we can expect to discover in the future.
Organic matter is formed not only by plants and animals in the ocean but also by
those on land. Much of it formed on land eventually reaches the ocean by streams
and rivers in solution or in colloidal dispersion. In fact, of 50% of the sedimentary
materials carried by streams and rives may be organic matter.
In this regard, humic substances are probably the most important organic
materials formed on land. They are formed by the slow decomposition of lignins
in peat. They are found in soil highly charged with decaying vegetation. Vast
quantities of humic acid are forming constantly in swampy regions, especially in
the tropics.
These substances include humic acid, geic acid, and ulmic acid. There is a close
similarity between these substances and petroleum, as illustrated by the deposits
of asphalt and other hydrocarbons formed of humic substances along the coast of
Florida. The precipitation of such deposits might be caused by the mingling of
fresh and salt water.
Deep burial and consequent pressures may also play a part in the transformation
of petroleum compounds. This is indicated by the changes in composition and
gravity (viscosity) of oil which accompany changes in pressure and temperature.
More specifically, these changes are: (1) changes in composition occurring with
increasing depth of burial, and (2) changes in gravity and character as a result of
regional metamorphism.
Bacteria are thought to function in several ways in aiding the final transformation
of organic decay products into petroleum. Evidence to support this is derived in
part from results in the laboratory and in part from its occurrence in nature.
Laboratory experiments have shown that bacteria are able to produce
hydrocarbons from organic matter. Although this has not been observed in nature,
it is important that it can occur.
It is believed that certain organic and inorganic substances which commonly occur
in sea water may act as catalysts in the transformation of organic material into
petroleum. Biochemically active bacteria and allied micro-organisms may be the
principal catalyzers of chemical and physico-chemical reactions in recently
Certain metallic elements (such as lead, nickel, vanadium, iron, and copper) are
commonly found in petroleum, apparently in some form of organic combination.
Some of these elements may act as catalysts in the generation of petroleum.
Conditions
All available evidence suggests that organic materials might have been
transformed into petroleum under the following conditions:
1. Deposition of organic material in fine sands and silts in fairly shallow marine
water.
2. Rapid burial preventing destruction by bottom dwellers.
3. Normal decomposition with burial and the beginning of anaerobic bacterial
activity.
4. Conversion of material toward hydrocarbon material. The transformation
continues until the mixture becomes so foul by the accumulation of hydrogen
sulfide gas that it kills off all bacteria.
5. Migration and accumulation of oil as sediments are compacted.
Migration
The movement or migration of petroleum from the source beds into reservoirs can
be divided into two parts: (1) transverse migration from the source beds into a
carrier bed; and (2) longitudinal migration through the carrier bed to a suitable
trap. The movement of petroleum through rocks is apparently caused by several
types of energy, including compaction, capillarity, differential specific gravity,
hydrostatic pressure and gas pressure.
It is believed that compaction within the source beds is the principal force causing
the movement of petroleum from source beds into carrier beds. Compaction is
also regarded as an important force in the migration of petroleum through the
carrier beds. Obviously the fluids occupying the pore space will be driven out by
the compaction of the clay, mud or ooze of the source bed. These fluids move in
the direction of least resistance into non-compacting porous formations, such as
sandstone or porous limestone. Although direct proof that compaction has been an
important factor is not to be expected, the direct association of most oil-producing
regions with structural basins is an indication that it does play an important part.
Capillarity is action, due to surface tension, by which the surface of a liquid where
in contact with a solid, is elevated or depressed. Surface tension of a liquid causes
it to act as an elastic enveloping membrane, so that it tends to compact to the
minimum area. The surface tension of water is approximately three times that of
oil. Capillary action, therefore, would tend to draw water into the finest openings,
displacing the oil and gas. In a slow transfer of liquids between shales and
sandstone, oil would be displaced from the shales into the sandstones because the
water enters fine pores three times as easily as oil and has three times as much
difficulty in leaving.
Every oil field is evidence of migration caused by the action of gravity. If present,
water occupies the lowest position in the reservoir. Oil floats on water and it
occupies the next highest position above the water. Any gas present will occur
above oil and will occupy the highest position in reservoirs. Other forces may
cause petroleum to migrate great distances, but gravity is responsible for the final
arrangement of water, oil, and gas in reservoirs.
The theory behind the action of hydraulic pressure in the migration of petroleum
suggests that moving water under hydraulic pressure has been an important agent
in the migration and accumulation of petroleum. According to this theory,
hydrocarbons are carried along by the flow of underground water. However, the
movement of petroleum through rocks is probably faster than the movement of
water through rocks. Yet, it is conceivable that oil migration could be aided or
hindered, depending on the direction of flow, by the movement of underground
water.
Differential gas pressure has been suggested as a factor in the migration and
accumulation of petroleum. However, it usually is considered only an aid to other
factors, such as capillarity, differential specific gravity, or hydraulic movement.
Transverse Migration
reservoir rock is transverse, and the secondary migration through the reservoir to
the trap is longitudinal.
Longitudinal Migration
The confinement of oil accumulations to the highest levels in the reservoir rock is
presumptive evidence that oil moved through the rock until those levels were
attained. Unless it is assumed that by some strange coincidence oil entered the
reservoir where there were traps, it must be concluded that the oil migrated
laterally until trapped.
Accumulation
Many different classifications have been proposed to include the wide range of
geologic conditions under which oil and gas pools occur. But because of the many
different types of oil and gas pools, it has been difficult to establish a classification
which covers all types. One generalization applies to all types; oil and gas
accumulate in pools because their upward or lateral migration is stopped by a trap
or closure. These traps are formed by stratigraphic conditions which were formed
at the time of deposition of the sediments, by later changes in the sediments, by
structural deformation, or by a combination of two or more of these factors.
I. Closed Reservoirs
A. Reservoirs closed by local deformation of strata.
1. Reservoirs closed by folding
a. Reservoirs in closed anticlines and domes
b. Reservoirs in closed synclines and basins
2. Reservoirs developed through the off-setting of strata by faulting of
homoclinal structures
3. Reservoirs defined by combinations of folding and faulting
4. Reservoirs formed through the cutting of strata by intrusions
a. Intrusions of salt
b. Intrusions of igneous rock
5. Reservoirs developed in fault and joint fissures and in crush zones.
B. Reservoirs closed because of varying porosity of rocks
1. Reservoirs in sandstone caused by lensing of sandstone or by varying
porosity
2. Lensing porous zones in limestones and dolomites
3. Lensing porous zones in igneous and metamorphic rocks
4. Reservoirs in truncated and scaled strata
a. Closed by overlap of relatively impervious rock
b. Closed by seal of viscous hydrocarbons
C. Reservoirs closed by a combination of folding and varying porosity.
Figures 4-16 through 4-24 show the types of traps and where in the trap that oil
and gas is likely to accumulate.
Note the change in the dip of axis of fold (line GH). BC indicates the width of the
productive area for the upper sand; EF that of the lower sand. Axes of folds
(at A and D) lie near the left edge of the productive area. Well 1 is productive;
well 2 only a short distance away, is barren. Well 4 produces from the upper sand
only; and well 3 from both the upper and lower sands.
Figure 5.32 Asymmetric Anticlinal Fold Along the Flanks of a Major Uplift
Figure 5.33 illustrates how greater accumulations petroleum may be found on the
basinward side of an anticline. Note the difference in the level of the edge-water
lines on the opposite flanks of the anticline.
All anticlines are long narrow domes in the sense that they are closed structures.
However, domes are usually spoken of as closed structures in which the length
does not exceed three times the width.
Figure 5.33 Dome Structure, illustrated in plane view by the structure contours and by the
vertical sections through the major and minor axes
Oil accumulates in the porous formations above and on the flanks of the salt core.
A monocline is formed when the crest of an anticlinal fold is eroded away and a
partial cross section of the rock strata is exposed as an outcrop.
The shallow well, number 1, produces heavier, more viscous oil than number 2
owing to evaporation of the lighter constituents at the outcrop. Well 3 encounters
edge water.
Oil that has migrated to the surface is lost; however, as it accumulates on the
Earths surface, the lighter fractions evaporate leaving a residue of asphaltic-like
material. This residue will plug the pore spaces in the rock and prevent further
loss. Such surface indications of a bituminous nature have resulted in the
discovery of many important oil reservoirs.
Faulting will many times place a permeable strata against a shale strata. If
conditions are favorable for petroleum accumulation, the oil would be trapped at
the fault line. Faults may also allow migration of petroleum from stratum to
stratum across fault lines where the permeable beds are adjacent.
This figure illustrates oil accumulation on both the upthrown and downthrown
sides of a fault and show how faulting may leave barren places in an anticlinal
structure. Wells 1, 3, and 4 are productive; whereas well 2 encounters edge water;
and well 3 intersects the fault plane.
The sealing of tilted, eroded beds by deposition of new sediments form favorable
traps for oil accumulation in the older rocks against an unconformity. In other
cases, the oil might migrate across the unconformity and ultimately be trapped in
beds not related to those in which the oil was originally stored.
The impervious stratum at the base of the upper series prevents the escape of the
oil. Oil seeks out and accumulates in lenses of porous sands imbedded in dense
less porous rock strata. Most sedimentary rocks are laid down at or near the shore
line so the channels or lenses of sand would be roughly parallel to the shore lines
of the period in which they were formed.
Lenses of coarse sand embedded oil bearing shales serve as local centers of
concentration. Such conditions are common in California fields. Well A
encounters four zones of production; whereas well B is barren.
In some regions porous coral limestone has been formed in relatively shallow
water and subsequently covered by impermeable strata. Gravitational segregation
of the oil, gas and water results in the oil and gas migrating to the upper portion of
the reef. Local variations in porosity also determine the areas of accumulation of
oil and gas. Sediments adjacent to and above coral reefs usually dip slightly away
from the reef due to differential compaction of sediments accumulating on the
sloping surfaces.
6.1 Introduction
At one time the primary responsibility of the surface data logger was to provide
correlation for structural mapping, now it has become increasingly important for
him to also provide stratigraphic data. The source, transporting medium,
environment of deposition, and post-depositional history of the sediments all can
be determined by sample examination. There are two elements are involved: (1)
logging what is physically present in the samples, and (2) interpretation of the
geologic history from the material in the samples.
There are two general methods of sample description and logging, the interpretive
system and the percentage system. The interpretive log is preferable but its
accuracy depends in some measure on the quality of the samples, and the surface
data loggers familiarity with the local stratigraphic section of the area. Sloughed
cuttings must be disregarded, and only the lithology felt to be represent the
interval drilled is to be logged. If several different rock types are present in the
sample, all are assumed to be derived from the drilled interval, they are logged as
discrete beds, interbeds, intercalations, lenses, or nodules, rather than as
percentages. The interpretation in this case is based on the surface data loggers
knowledge of the area. On interpretive logs, lithologic contacts are drawn sharply,
and the entire width of the log column is filled with the suitable lithology plot
types. Two hazards in this form of logging are unexpected recurrence of lithologic
types and wildcat wells where there are no lithologic histories available for
comparison.