FOLIO

CHEMISTRY NOTE
[CHAPTER 9]
MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES
IN INDUSTRY
Name: NASRUL AZIZI
B. KON @ SAPAWI
CLASS: 5a
h/r: dynamic 5
college no.: 13130
subject teacher:
mdm. Ellisia
9.1 sulphuric acid
The uses of sulphuric acid in daily life
Sulphuric acid is an important chemical used to make
other manufactured
substances.
A big portion of sulphuric acid is used to make fertilisers
- The fertilizer, ammonium sulphate, is prepared from
the reaction between sulphuric acid and aqueous
ammonia.
H2SO4 + 2NH3 (NH4)2SO4
Ammonium sulphate
- The fertilizer, potassium sulphate, is prepared from
the reaction between sulphuric acid and potassium
hydroxide.
H2SO4 + 2KOH K2SO4 + 2H2O

Potassium sulphate
The other uses of sulphuric acid are
- To manufacture detergents
- To manufacture synthetic fibres ( a type of polymer )
- To manufacture paint pigments
- As an electrolyte in lead acid accumulators
- To remove the metal oxide from metal surfaces before
electroplating
The manufacture of sulphuric acid
Sulphuric acid is manufactured by Contact process in the
industry
The raw materials used in the Contact process are
sulphur, air and water
The Contact process involves three stages:
I II III
Sulphur Sulphur Sulphur Sulphuric

dioxide trioxide acid

Environmental Pollution by Sulphur Dioxide
Sulphur dioxide is a poisonous and acidic gas that can
cause environmental pollution. Inhaling sulphur dioxide
can cause lung diseases.
The main source of sulphur dioxide is from the burning
of fossil fuels such as petroleum. Most of the fossil fuels
contain some sulphur.
Sulphur dioxide gas dissolves in atmospheric water to
produce sulphurous acid, H2SO3 and sulphuric acid,
H2SO4. The presence of these acids in rain water causes
acid rain.
The effects of acid rain are as follows:
- Corrodes concrete buildings and metal structures
- Destroys trees and plants in forests
- Makes the soil acidic and hence unsuitable for growth
of plants
- Makes the water in lakes and rivers acidic and may
destroy aquatic life

9.2 Ammonia and its salts

Ammonia, NH3 is a very important compound in the
industry.
A big percentage of ammonia is used in the
manufacturing of nitrogenous fertilisers:
a) Ammonium sulphate is formed from the reaction
between ammonia and sulphuric acid. This is known
as a neutralization reaction.
2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4
ammonium
sulphate
b) Ammonium nitrate is formed from the reaction
between ammonia and nitric acid.
NH3 + HNO3 NH4NO3
ammonium nitrate
 The other uses of ammonia are as follows:
- As a cooling agent in refrigerators
- To make nitric acid (in the Ostwald process)
- To make explosives (from nitric acid)
- To prevent the coagulation of latex (keeps latex in the
liquid form)
- To produce ammonium chloride which is used as the
electrolyte in dry cells

The Properties of Ammonia

Ammonia is a colourless and pungent gas. It is less
dense than air
Ammonia is an alkaline gas that changes damp red
litmus paper to blue
Ammonia dissolves in water to produce a weak alkali
NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH __
Ammonia gas reacts with hydrogen
chloride gas to form white fumes of ammonium chloride
(this is usesd as test for ammonia gas)
NH3 + HCl NH4Cl
Ammonia is alkaline in property and
reacts with dilute acids in neutralization to produce
salts. For example:
2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4
NH3 + HNO3 NH4NO3
Aqueous solutions of ammonia react with metal ions
(except Na+ ion, K+ ion and Ca2+ ion) to produce
precipitate of metal hydroxides.

The Manufacture of Ammonia

 Ammonia is manufactured in industries through Haber
Process.
In Haber process, nitrogen gas, N 2 from the air is
mixed with hydrogen gas, H2 derived mainly from
natural gas.
The mixture is compressed to a high pressure of 200
atmosphere at a temperature of about 450C.
Iron is used as catalyst to speed up the rate of reaction.
Chemical equation below shows the reaction.
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
About 98% of mixture are converted into ammonia, NH 3.
The unreacted nitrogen gas, N2 and hydrogen
gas, H2 are recycled and passed back into
the reactor together with the new source of nitrogen
gas, N, and hydrogen gas, H2.

Ammonium Fertilisers
Plants require
nitrogen to
produce
protein.
Nitrogen is
 absorbed by plants in the form of nitrates, NO 3 which
are soluble in water
Ammonium fertilisers contain ammonium ion, NH 4+, that
can be converted into nitrate ion by bacteria living in the
soil
The effectiveness of ammonium fertilisers is determined
by the percentage of nitrogen by weight in them. The
fertilizer with a higher percentage of nitrogen is more
effective
The percentage of nitrogen by weight can be calculated
using the following formula:

% of nitrogen by weight = mass of nitrogen

x
molar mass of fertiliser
100%

9.3 alloys
An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with a
certain fixed composition in which the major component
is a metal.
 Pure metals are weak and soft. This is because:
a) A pure metal contains atoms of the same size
arranged in a regular and orderly arrangement

b) The orderly arrangement of atoms enables the layers

of atoms to slide over each other easily when an
external force is
applied on them. This
makes the metals ductile
(metals can be drawn
to form long wires.)
c) There exist empty
spaces in the structures
of pure metals. When
hammered or
pressed, groups of metal atoms may glide into new
positions in these empty spaces.
This makes the metals malleable (metals can be made
into different shapes or pressed into thin sheets)
In the process of alloying, foreign elements are added to
molten metal. When hardened, these atoms of foreign
elements replace the positions of some of the original
metal atoms.

In an alloy,
a) the atoms are of different sizes
 b) the atoms of foreign elements disrupt the orderly
arrangement of the metal atoms and also fill up any
empty spaces in the metal crystal structure.

c) Hence, the
layers of metal
atoms are
prevented
from sliding over
each other
easily. This makes
the alloy harder and stronger, less ductile and less
malleable than pure metals.
There are three aims of alloying a pure metal:
- To increase the hardness and strength of a metal
- To prevent corrosion or rusting
- To improve the appearance of the metal surfaces, with
a better finish and lustre

The composition, properties and uses of some common alloys

 Alloy Composition Properties Uses

Carbon Iron added with Hard and Frameworks of buildings and

steel carbon strong bridges, tools, heavy machinery and
bodies of vehicles
Stainles Iron added with Shiny, strong To make cutlery and kitchenware,
s steel chromium and and resists machines parts and surgical
nickel rusting instruments
Bronze Copper added Hard, strong To make kitchenware, ships
with tin and shiny propellers, decorative ornaments,
statues and art crafts
Brass Copper added Hard and To make electrical connections
with zinc shiny musical intruments, kitchenware and
decorative ornaments
Magnali Aluminium Light, hard To make aircraft body frames and
um added with and strong racing cars tyres rims
magnesium
Duralu Aluminium Light, hard To make bodies of aircrafts, racing
min added with and strong bicycles, fan blades and light
copper and electrical cables
magnesium
Pewter Tin added with Lustre, shiny To make candlesticls, decorative
copper and and strong ornaments and souvenirs
antimony

9.4 synthetic polymers

The meaning of polymers
 Polymers are large molecules made up of many smaller
and identical repeating units joined together by covalent
bonds. These small molecules are called monomers.
Polymerisation is the chemical process by which the
monomers are joined together to form a big molecule
known as a polymer.
A polymer is a macromolecule (a very big molecule).
Hence, the relative molecular mass of a polymer is
large.
Then properties of a polymer are different from its
monomers.
Polymers can be divided into two types:
- Naturally occurring polymers; examples are protein,
carbohydrates and natural rubber.
- Synthetic polymers; examples are plastics and
synthetic rubber.
Many of the raw materials for the synthetic polymers are
obtained from petroleum.
There are two types of polymerization processes:
- Addition polymerisation
- Condensation polymerisation
Plastics such as polythene and PVC are produced by
addition polymerisation, whereas synthetic fibres such
as nylon and Terylene are made by condensation
polymerisation. Both nylon and Terylene are synthetic
fibres used for making clothing.

Some examples of synthetic addition polymers, their

monomers and uses.
Synthetic Polymer monomer
Polyethylene (PE), Ethane
IUPAC name: Polythene
uses
Plastic bags, shopping bags,
plastic containers, plastic
toys, plastic cups and plates
 Polypropylene (PP), Propene Plastic bottles, bottle crates,
IUPAC name: plastic tables and chairs, car
Polypropene battery cases and ropes

Polyvinylchloride (PVC), Chloroethene Water pipes, shoes, bags,

IUPAC name: raincoats, artificial leather
Polychloroethene and wire casing

Polystyrene (PS) Phenylethene Packaging materials, heat

insulators, toys, disposable
cups and plates

Issues of the use of synthetic polymers in everyday life

Synthetic polymers have multiple uses in daily life
because of the following properties:
- Light and strong
- Relatively cheap
- Withstand corrosion and chemical reaction
- Withstand action of water
- Non-flammable
- Can be colour easily
- Easily mould to shape

Synthetic polymers are also used to replace natural

polymers such as cotton, silk and rubber.
However, synthetic polymers cause environmental
pollution.
- Most polymers are not biodegradable . Disposal of
polymers has resulted in environmental.
- The open burning of plastics gives rise to poisonous
and acidic gases like carbon monoxide, hydrogen
 chloride and hydrogen cyanide. These are harmful to
the environment as they cause acid rain.
- Burning of plastics can also produce carbon dioxide,
too much of this gas in the atmosphere leads to the
`greenhouse effect'.
These problem can be overcome by the following ways:
- Recycling polymers: Plastics can be decomposed by
heating them without oxygen at 700C. This process
is called pyrolysis. The products of this process are
then recycled into new products.
- Inventing biodegradable polymers: Such polymers
should be mixed with substances that can be
decomposed by bacteria (to become biodegradable)
or light (to become photodegradable).

9.5 glass and ceramics

The main component of both glass and ceramics is silica
or silicon dioxide, SiO2.
Both glass and ceramic have the same following
properties:
- Hard but brittle
- Inert towards chemicals
- Poor conductors of heat and electricity
The use of glass and ceramics also depends on their
differences as follows:
- Glass is transparent whereas ceramic is opaque
 - Ceramic has higher melting point than glass

The uses of glass depend on the composition and

properties.
Type of Properties Chemical Examples
glass compositio of uses
n
Fused glass . Very high Silicon Telescope
melting point, dioxide, SiO2 mirrors,
hence highly heat- lenses,
resistant optical fibres
. Transparent to and
ultraviolet and laboratory
infrared light glasswares
. Does not crack
when temperature
changes
Soda lime glass . Low melting Silicon Bottles,
point dioxide, window
. Cracks easily sodium oxide panes, light
with sudden and calcium bulbs and
temperature oxide mirrors
change
 Borosilicate . High melting Silicon dioxide Laboratory
glass point, thus is heat- and boron apparatus
resistant oxide and cooking
. Does not crack utensils
easily with sudden
temperature
change
Lead glass . High refractive Silicon dioxide Decorative
index and lead (II) items, crystal
. Reflects light oxide glasswares,
rays and appears lens and
shiny prisms
Ceramics are made from clay, sand and feldspar. Clay
consists of aluminosilicate. An example of clay is
kaolinite.

Some uses of ceramics in daily life.

Examples Uses
Bricks, tiles and cement As building materials
Porcelain Materials for vases, plates, bowls
and cooking utensils
Insulators in toasters and irons, To make insulating parts in
spark plugs in car engines electrical apparatus
Microchips To make microchips in
computers, radios and televisions

Comparing glass and ceramics

New uses of glass and ceramics
Photochromic Glass
Photochromic glass is very sensitive to light.
It darkens in the presence of bright light and lightens
when the amount of sunlight lessens.
Conductive Glass
Conducting glass is a type of glass which can conduct
electricity. It is obtained by coating a thin layer of a
conducting material around the glass, usually indium
tin(IV) oxide.
It is used in the making of Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

Car Engine Block

When clay is heated with magnesium oxide, the ceramic
that is produced has a high resistance to heat.
This material is used to build the engine blocks in cars
as they can withstand high temperatures.
Superconductors
Superconductors are electrical conductors which have
almost zero (0) electrical resistance. Therefore, this
conductor minimises the loss of electrical energy
through heat.
Yttrium barium copper oxide is a type of ceramic
superconductor
Superconductors are used to make magnets which are
light but thousands of times stronger than the normal
magnet

9.6 composite materials

A composite material is a structural material formed by
combining two or more materials with different physical
properties, producing a complex mixture.
A composite material has more superior properties than
the original components used to make up the composite
material.
Composite materials are harder, stronger and lighter,
more resistant to heat and corrosion compared to their
original components. Composite materials are also made
for specific purposes.
Some composite materials and their component are:

Reinforced Concrete
Component: Concrete (cement, sand, stones), steel
Ordinary concrete is strong but heavy. Concrete pillars
must be big to support the weight. They take up space
 and cannot withstand stress for example from
earthquakes.
Steel pillars are too expensive and can rust.
Reinforced concrete, containing steel rods in the
concrete pillars, can make them stronger and able to
support larger loads. It also does not rust.

Optical Fibre
Component: SiO2, Na2CO3, CaO
This is a fine transparent glass tube that is made of
molten glass.
In telecommunications, light has replaced electrons as
the transmitter of signals. This light transmits signals
through optical fibre.
Optical fibre is also used in the medical field as
- laser to do operation
- endoscope to examine the internal organs of patients

Photochromic Glass
Component: glass, AgCl (or AgBr
Photochromic glass is very sensitive to light.
It darkens in the presence of bright light and lightens
when the amount of sunlight lessens.

Fibreglass
Component: Fibreglass and polyster resin
Fibre glass is obtained by adding a polyester resin to
molten glass. It cannot be compressed easily and is
more tensile than the original materials.
 Fibre glass is light, withstands corrosion, can be cast
into different shapes, is impervious to water, not very
flammable, not brittle and stronger than even steel.
It is used to make racquets, construction panels,
electrical appliances, pipes, and water tanks.

Superconductor
Component: Ytrium oxide (Y2O3), BaCO3, CuO
Superconductors are electrical conductors which have
almost zero (0) electrical resistance. Therefore, this
conductor minimises the loss of electrical energy
through heat.
Yttrium barium copper oxide is a type of ceramic
superconductor
Superconductors are used to make magnets which are
light but thousands of times stronger than the normal
magnet.