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Types of Fluid Property

Property: Any characteristic of a system.
 Some familiar properties are pressure P,
temperature( T), volume (V), and mass (m).
 Less familiar: velocity, viscosity, elevation etc
 Properties are considered to be either intensive or
extensive.
CHAPTER 2: PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Intensive properties: Those that are
independent of the mass of a system, such as
temperature (T), pressure (P), and density ().

Extensive properties: Those whose values

depend on the sizeor extentof the system.

Specific properties: Extensive properties per

unit mass.
 Examples; specific volume (v=V/m), specific total
energy (e=E/m)
Criterion to differentiate intensive
and extensive properties.

Density of Ideal Gases

Equation of state: Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature,
and density (or specific volume) of a substance.
Ideal-gas equation of state: The simplest and best-known equation of
state for substances in the gas phase.

Ru: The universal gas constant, 8.314 kJ/mol.K

R: The gas constant, 0.287 kPa. m3 /kg.K

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PROBLEM 2-10: To determine the amount of air to be added into the car tire
. for a given P, V and T
An ideal gas is a hypothetical substance that obeys the Properties The gas constant of air is
Tire
relation Pv = RT. R = 0.287
kJ kPa m3
= 0.287
kPa m3 V1=0.0740 m3
kg K kJ kg K T1=30C
The ideal-gas relation closely approximates the P-v-T P1=140 kPa,
gage
Analysis The initial and final absolute pressures in the tire are:
behavior of real gases at low densities. P1 = Pg1 + Patm = 140 + 100 = 240 kPa
P2=240kPa
gage
P2 = Pg2 + Patm = 210 + 100 = 310 kPa
At low pressures and high temperatures, the density of a Treating air as an ideal gas, the initial mass in the tire is
Note: V and T
are constant
gas decreases and the gas behaves like an ideal gas.
PV (240 kPa)(0.0740 m 3 )
m1 = 1 = = 0.2042 kg
In the range of practical interest, many familiar gases such RT1 (0.287 kPa m 3 /kg K)(303 K)

as air, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, helium, argon, neon, and Noting that the temperature and the volume of the tire remain constant, the final mass in the tire becomes

krypton and even heavier gases such as carbon dioxide can P2V (310 kPa)(0.0740 m 3 )
m2 = = = 0.2638 kg
be treated as ideal gases with negligible error. RT2 (0.287 kPa m 3 /kg K)(303 K)

Dense gases such as water vapor in steam power plants Thus the amount of air that needs to be added is

and refrigerant vapor in refrigerators, however, should not be m = m2 m1 = 0.2638 0.2042 = 0.0596 kg
treated as ideal gases since they usually exist at a state near
saturation.
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Example 2-1
Example 2-1

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Vapor Pressure and Cavitation Vapor Pressure and Cavitation

Vapor Pressure Pv is defined as the

The vapor pressure (saturation
pressure) of a pure substance (e.g.,
water) is the pressure exerted by its
vapor molecules when the system is in
phase equilibrium with its liquid
molecules at a given temperature.
pressure exerted by its vapor in
phase equilibrium with its liquid at a
given temperature

If P drops below Pv, liquid is locally
vaporized, creating vapor bubbles
(called cavitation bubbles since they
form cavities in the liquid).

Cavitation bubbles collapse when
Cavitation damage local P rises above Pv.

Collapse of cavitation bubbles is a
violent process which can damage
machinery.

Cavitation is noisy (cause by
cavitation bubbles), and can cause
structural vibrations.

Energy can exist in

lightforms:
numerous
Macroscopic forms of energy Microscopic forms of energy
light
Thermal Those related to the
Mechanical Their sum molecularlight
structure of a
Kinetic constitutes system and the degree of the
Potential the total molecular activity.
Electric energy, E
Magnetic
Chemical of a system
Nuclear Related to the motion & the
influence of some external effects Internal energy, U
such as : light
The sum of all the microscopic
gravity, magnetion, electricity & forms of energy.
The total energy of a system surface tension
on a unit mass:
Elight
e= (kJ/kg)
m Kinetic energy, KE Potential energy, PE
The energy that a system The energy that a system
possesseslight
as a result of its possesseslight
as a result of its
motion relative to some elevation in a gravitational
reference frame. field.

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The internal energy u represents the microscopic energy of a nonflowing

Internal energy, U fluid per unit mass, whereas enthalpy h represents the microscopic energy
of a flowing fluid per unit mass.

Enthalpy

P/ is the flow energy, also

called the flow work, which
is the energy per unit mass
needed to move the fluid
and maintain flow.

Energy of a flowing fluid

Specfc Heats Specfc Heats

Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the The differential and finite change of u and h can be expressed in term of
volume is maintained constant. specific heat, c
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the
pressure is maintained constant.

For incompressible substance, cv = cp = c average

Constant-
volume and
constant- For a constant P
Specific heat is the energy pressure specific process
required to raise the heats cv and cp
temperature of a unit mass (values are for
of a substance by one helium gas).
degree in a specified way. For constant T process

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Viscosity
Viscosity: A property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to
motion or the fluidity.
Drag force: The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow
direction.
Newtonian fluids and non-Newtonian fluids
The rate of deformation (velocity gradient)
rate of deformation for Newtonian
of a Newtonian fluid is proportional
and non-Newtonian fluids (the
to shear stress, and the constant of
proportionality is the viscosity.
The viscosity of a fluid is a
measure of its resistance to
deformation.
Viscosity is due to the internal
frictional force that develops
between different layers of
fluids as they are forced to
move relative to each other.
A fluid moving relative to a
body exerts a drag force on
the body, partly because of
friction caused by viscosity.
Variation of shear stress with the
slope of a curve at a point is the
apparent viscosity of the fluid at
that point).
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Newtonian fluids: Fluids for
which the rate of deformation is
proportional to the shear
stress.
Shear
stress
The behavior of a fluid in laminar flow between two
Shear force
parallel plates when the upper plate moves with a
constant velocity.
= coefficient of viscosity or
Dynamic (absolute) viscosity
Unit:kg/m s or N s/m2 or Pas
1 poise = 0.1 Pa s
Kinematic viscosity
m2/s or stoke
1 stoke = 1 cm2/s
Effect of pressure on the viscosity
For liquids, both the dynamic and
kinematihc viscosities are practically
independent of pressure, and any small
variation with pressure is usually
disregarded, except at extremely high
pressures.
For gases, this is also the case for dynamic
viscosity (at low to moderate pressures), Dynamic viscosity, in general,
but not for kinematic viscosity since the
does not depend on pressure,
density of a gas is proportional to its
pressure. but kinematic viscosity does
due to density changes by the
increased pressure
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Viscosity is a great temperature-dependant

property.
In a liquid, the molecules possess more
energy at higher temperatures, and they can
oppose the large cohesive intermolecular
forces more strongly. As a result, the
energized liquid molecules can move more
freely. The variation of
dynamic
In a gas, the intermolecular forces are (absolute)
negligible, and the gas molecules at high viscosity of
temperatures move randomly at higher common fluids
velocities. This results in more molecular with temperature
collisions per unit volume per unit time and at 1 atm
therefore in greater resistance to flow. (1 Ns/m2
= 1kg/ms)

The viscosity of liquids decreases

and the viscosity of gases
increases with temperature.

Measuring the viscosity

Problem: Determine fluid viscosity between 2 plates T = Torque
= viscosity
F = Force
A plate 0.025 mm distant from a fixed plates moves at 60 cm/s and requires
R = moment arm or radius of inner
a force of 2 N per unit area to maintain the speed. Determine fluid viscosity cylinder
between the plates = angular velocity = 2
=Thickness of fluid layer
L= length of the cylinder
number of revolutions per unit time (rpm)

This equation can be used to calculate the viscosity of a

fluid by measuring torque at a specified angular velocity.
Therefore, two concentric cylinders can be used as a
viscometer, a device that measures viscosity.

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26

U-shaped wire frame apparatus- measuring the

surface tension
Surface Tension
Liquid droplets behave like small balloons Stretching a film of a
filled with the liquid on a solid surface, soap bubble with a U-
and the surface of the liquid acts like a shaped wire, and the
stretched elastic membrane under forces acting on the
tension. Some consequences of surface movable wire of length b.
The pulling force that causes this tension tension.
acts parallel to the surface and is due to
the attractive forces between the
molecules of the liquid.
The magnitude of this force per unit
length is called surface tension, s (or
coefficient of surface tension) and
is usually expressed in the unit N/m.
This effect is also called surface energy
[per unit area] and is expressed in the Other definition of the surface tension; the work
equivalent unit of N m/m2. Attractive forces acting on a liquid
molecule at the surface and deep done per unit increase in the surface area of the
inside the liquid. liquid.

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Horizontal force balances for the droplet of

air bubble and the soap bubble

The free-body diagram of half a droplet or

air bubble and half a soap bubble.

Source: Table 2.4 (Cengel & Cimbala, 3rd Ed.)

SOLVE PROBLEM 2-96

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ASSIGNMENT 1

2-12, 2-22, 2-83, 2-97

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