Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1.0 Introduction
The objectives of site investigation have been defined by the various Codes of
Practice (BS CP 2001:1950, 1957; BS 5930:1981). They can be summarized as
providing data for the following.
i. Site selection.
The construction of certain major projects, such as earth dams, is dependent on
the availability of a suitable site. Clearly, if the plan is to build on the cheapest,
most readily available land, geotechnical problems due to the high permeability
of the sub-soil, or to slope instability may make the final cost of the construction
prohibitive. Since the safety of lives and property are at stake, it is important to
consider the geotechnical merits or demerits of various sites before the site is
chosen for a project of such magnitude.
soil may all be obtained with more certainty from back-analysis of the records of
existing works than from small scale laboratory tests.
The site investigation works consists of planning, making some test boreholes
and collecting soil samples. It has been found that the best site investigations
involve a considerable number of activities, some of which may become relatively
The site investigation works sequence can also be presented in flow chart shown
in Fig. 1.
1.6.1 Introduction
Many different techniques are available for site investigation. The method
employed will depend on many factors such as depth required, area to be
covered, ease of access, etc. On large jobs preliminary borings are used to
furnish overall subsoil surveys followed by final borings so soil or rock profiles
may be determined at the most useful orientations. In general, exploration
contracts should be open ended so that intermediate borings may be added in
areas that prove to be critical.
A wide variety of equipment is available for performing borings and obtaining soil
samples. The method used to advance the boring should be compatible with the
soil and groundwater conditions to assure that soil samples of suitable quality are
obtained. Particular care should be exercised to properly remove all slough or
loose soil from the boring before sampling. Below the groundwater level, drilling
fluids are often needed to stabilize the sidewalls and bottom of the boring in soft
clays or cohesionless soils . Without stabilization, the bottom of the boring may
heave or the sidewalls may contract, either disturbing the soil prior to sampling or
preventing the sampler from reaching the bottom of the boring. In most
geotechnical explorations, borings are usually advanced with solid stem
continuous flight, hollow-stem augers, or rotary wash boring methods. These
methods are often augmented by in-situ testing .Assuming access and utility
clearances have been obtained and a survey base line has been established in
the field, field explorations are begun based on the information gained during the
previous steps. Many methods of field exploration exist; some of the more
common are described below.
These are the simplest methods of inspecting subsurface soils. They consist of
excavations performed by hand, backhoe, or dozer. Hand excavations are often
performed with posthole diggers or hand augers. They offer the advantages of
speed and ready access for sampling. They are severely hampered by limitations
of depth and by the fact they cannot be used in soft or loose soils or below the
water table.
1.6.4 Boreholes
Borings are probably the most common method of exploration. They can
be advanced using a number of methods, as described below. Upon completion,
all borings should be backfilled and in many cases this will require grouting.
Estimate the variation of the vertical effective stress (V') with depth.
1
Determine the depth (D) = D1. where q . Where q is estimation
10
of net stress on the foundation.
Determine the depth (D) = D2, where ' 0.05 .
v
# The depth of boring should be at least 1.5 times the depth of excavation.
# While there are no set rules for boring depth and spacing is shown in Tables
1.2 and 1.3 give a guide to these requirements respectively.
1.2
1.3
The hand auger provides a light, portable method of sampling soft to stiff soils
near the ground surface. At least six types of auger are readily available:
posthole or Iwan auger;
small helical auger (wood auger);
dutch auger;
gravel auger;
barrel auger; and
spiral auger.
Hand augers are used by one or two men, who press down on the cross-bar as
they rotate it thus advancing the hole. Once the auger is full, or has collected
sufficient material, it is brought back to the surface and the soil removed.
Although the method is cheap because of the simplicity of the equipment, it does
suffer from several disadvantages.
The most commonly used auger for site investigation is the Iwan auger. This is
normally used at diameters of between 100 and 200 mm. Small helical augers
are quite effective in stiff clays, but become difficult to use once the water table is
reached.
Barrel augers are now rarely seen, but were formerly used with the light
percussion rig when progress through clays was made using a shell. They
allowed the base of the borehole to be very effectively cleaned before sampling
took place. Because they are heavy they require a tripod for raising and lowering
them in the borehole. When lowered to the bottom of the hole they were turned
by hand.
In stiff or very stiff clays, hand-auger progress will be very slow, and the depth of
boring may have to be limited to about 5 m. When such clays contain gravel,
cobbles or boulders it will not normally be possible to advance the hole at all. In
uncemented sands or gravels, it will not be possible to advance the hole below
the water table, since casing cannot be used and the hole will collapse either on
top of the auger (which makes it difficult to recover the auger from the hole) or
when the auger is being removed. Only samples of very limited size can be
obtained from the hole. In addition, it will not be possible to carry out standard
penetration tests without a frame to lift the trip hammer and weight, so that no
idea of the relative density of granular deposits can be obtained.
Despite these difficulties, where access for machinery is impossible the hand
auger may give valuable information.
This method is used to establish soil strata and water table elevations, or to
advance to the desired stratum before Standard Penetration Testing (SPT) or
undisturbed sampling is performed. However, it cannot be used effectively in soft
or loose soils below the water table without casing or drilling mud to hold the hole
open. See ASTM D 1452 (AASHTO T 203).
A large variety of size and type are available. Basic types are:
SPT and undisturbed samples are obtained through the hollow drill stem, which
acts like a casing to hold the hole open.
This is frequently a slow process, and due to the very great torque required to
drive the auger may be uneconomic. This method is largely experimental at the
moment.
iv. Wash
Borings
1.7 SAMPLING
There are 2 types of soil samples, there are disturbed and undisturbed.
Disturbed samples are generally obtained to determine the soil type, gradation,
classification, consistency, density, presence of contaminants, stratification, etc.
The methods for obtaining disturbed samples vary from hand excavating of
materials with picks and shovels to using truck mounted augers and other rotary
drilling techniques. These samples are considered .disturbed. since the
sampling process modifies their natural structure.
The cuttings or washings from exploratory drill holes are inadequate to furnish a
satisfactory conception of the engineering characteristics of the soils
encountered, or even of the thicknesses and depths of the various strata. On the
contrary, such evidence more often than not is grossly misleading and has been
responsible for many foundation failures.
On the basis of the information obtained from these samples, the necessity for
more elaborate sampling procedures can be judged.
Types of Soil Sampler
These include standard sampling tools which are widely used as well as
specialized types which may be unique to certain regions of the country to
accommodate local conditions and preferences.
General guidelines to assist geotechnical engineers and field supervisors
select appropriate samplers, but in many instances local practice will
control.
Common types of samplers used.
High area ratio disturbs the natural characteristics of the soil being
sampled, thus disturbed samples are obtained.
This corresponds to a relatively thick walled sampler with an area ratio
(Hvorslev, 1949).
Figure 3-7: Split-Barrel Samplers: (a) Lengths of 457 mm (18 in) and 610
mm (24 in); (b) Inside diameters from 38.1 mm (1.5 in) to 89 mm (3.5 in).
As shown in Figure 3-8a, when the shoe and the sleeve of this type of
sampler are unscrewed from the split barrel, the two halves of the barrel
may be separated and the sample may be extracted easily.
The soil sample is removed from the split-barrel sampler it is either placed
and sealed in a glass jar, sealed in a plastic bag, or sealed in a brass liner
(Figure 3-8b).
Separate containers should be used if the sample contains different soil
types.
Alternatively, liners may be placed inside the sampler with the same inside
diameter as the cutting shoe (Figure 3-9a).
This allows samples to remain intact during transport to the laboratory.
In both cases, samples obtained with split barrels are disturbed and
therefore are only suitable for soil identification and general classification
tests.
Figure 3-15: Pitcher Sampler. (a) Sampler Being Lowered into Drill Hole; (b)
Sampler During Sampling of Soft Soils, (c) Sampler During Sampling of Stiff or
Dense Soils. (Courtesy of Mobile Drilling, Inc.)
v. Denison Sampler
Is similar to a pitcher
sampler except that the
projection of the sampler
tube ahead of the outer
rotating barrel is manually
adjusted before
commencement of sampling
operations, rather than
spring-controlled during
sampler penetration.
The basic components of the
sampler (Figure 3-16) are :
an outer rotating core
barrel with a bit,
an inner stationary
sample barrel with a
cutting shoe,
inner and outer barrel
heads,
an inner barrel liner,
and Figure 3-16: Denison Double-Tube
an optional basket- Core Barrel Soil Sampler
type core retainer. (Courtesy of Sprague & Henwood,
The coring bit may either be Inc.)
a carbide insert bit or a
hardened steel saw tooth bit.
The shoe of the inner barrel has a sharp cutting edge.
The cutting edge may be made to lead the bit by 12 mm (0.5 in) to 75 mm
(3 in) through the use of coring bits of different lengths.
The longest lead is used in soft and loose soils because the shoe can
easily penetrate these materials.
The minimum lead is used in hard materials or soils containing gravel.
Used primarily in stiff to hard cohesive soils and in sands, which are not
easily sampled with thin-wall samplers owing to the large jacking force
required for penetration.
The sampler is also suitable for sampling soft clays and silts.
Block sampling has traditionally involved the careful hand excavation of soil
around the sample position, and the trimming of a regular-shaped block. This
block is then sealed with layers of muslin, wax and clingfilm, before being
encased in a rigid container, and cut from the ground. The process is illustrated
in Fig. 6.5. A similar process can be carried out in shafts and large-diameter
auger holes.
Trial pits are normally only dug to shallow depths, and shafts and large-diameter
auger holes tend to be expensive. Therefore block samples have not traditionally
been available for testing from deep deposits of clay. In the past decade,
however, there has been an increasing use of rotary coring methods to obtain
such samples. When carried out carefully, without displacing the soil, rotary
coring is capable of producing very good quality samples. When the blocks are
cut by hand then obviously the pit will be air-filled, but when carried out in a
borehole it will typically be full of drilling mud.
During the sampling process there is stress relief. At one stage or another the
block of soil will normally experience zero total stress. This will lead to a large
reduction in the pore pressures in the block. The soil forming the block will
attempt to suck in water from its surroundings, during sampling, either from the
soil to which it is attached, or from any fluid in the pit or borehole. This will result
in a reduction in the effective stress in the block.
In addition, where block sampling occurs in air, negative pore pressures may
lead to cavitations in any silt or sand layers which are in the sample. Cavitation in
silt and sand layers releases water to be imbibed by the surrounding clay, and
the effect will be a reduction in the average effective stress of the block.
(These tests are from disturbed samples such as split spoon samplers (SPT),
bulk samples, etc.).
5. Consolidation & Permeability Tests in Hydraulic Cells & with pore pressure
measurements: BS 1377: Part 6
5.1 Consolidation Properties using hydraulic cell
5.2 Permeability in hydraulic consolidation cell
5.3 Isotropic consolidated properties using triaxial cell
5.4 Permeability in a triaxial cell
Boreholes are required for conducting the SPT and normal versions of the PMT
and VST. A rotary drilling rig and crew are essential for these tests. In the case
of the CPT, CPTU, and DMT, no boreholes are needed, thus termed .direct-push.
technologies. Specialized versions of the PMT (i.e., full-displacement type) and
VST can be conducted without boreholes. As such, these may be conducted
using either standard drill rigs or mobile hydraulic systems (cone trucks) in order
to directly push the probes to the required test depths.
The truck-mounted and track-mounted systems commonly used for
production penetration testing. The enclosed cabins permit the on-time
scheduling of in-situ testing during any type of weather. A disadvantage of direct-
push methods is that hard cemented layers and bedrock will prevent further
penetration. In such cases, borehole methods prevail as they may advance by
coring or noncoring techniques. An advantage of direct-push soundings is that
no cuttings or spoil are generated.
The SPT involves the driving of a hollow thick-walled tube into the ground and
measuring the number of blows to advance the split-barrel sampler a vertical
distance of 300 mm (1 foot). A drop weight system is used for the pounding
where a 63.5-kg (140-lb) hammer repeatedly falls from 0.76 m (30 inches) to
achieve three successive increments of 150-mm (6-inches) each. The first
increment is recorded as a .seating., while the number of blows to advance the
second and third increments are summed to give the N-value ("blow count") or
SPT-resistance (reported in blows/0.3 m or blows per foot).
If the sampler cannot be driven 450 mm, the number of blows per each 150-mm
increment and per each partial increment is recorded on the boring log. For
partial increments, the depth of penetration is recorded in addition to the number
of blows. The test can be performed in a wide variety of soil types, as
well as weak rocks, yet is not particularly useful in the characterization of
gravel deposits nor soft clays. The fact that the test provides both a sample and
a number is useful, yet problematic, as one cannot do two things well at the
same time.
The vane shear test (VST), or field vane (FV), is used to evaluate the inplace
undrained shear strength (suv) of soft to stiff clays & silts at regular depth
intervals of 1 meter (3.28 feet). The test consists of inserting a four-bladed vane
into the clay and rotating the device about a vertical axis, per ASTM D 2573
guidelines. Limit equilibrium analysis is used to relate the measured peak torque
to the calculated value of su. Both the peak and remolded strengths can be
measured; their ratio is termed the sensitivity, S t. A selection of vanes is available
in terms of size, shape, and configuration, depending upon the consistency and
strength characteristics of the soil. The standard vane has a rectangular
geometry with a blade diameter D = 65 mm, height H = 130 mm (H/D =2), and
blade thickness e = 2 mm.m The test is best performed when the vane is pushed
beneath the bottom of an pre-drilled borehole.
For a borehole of diameter B, the top of the vane should pushed to a depth of
insertion of at least df = 4B. Within 5 minutes after insertion, rotation should be
made at a constant rate of 6/minute (0.1/s) with measurements of torque taken
frequently. Figure 5-9 illustrates the general VST procedures. In very soft clays, a
special protective housing that encases the vane is also available where no
borehole is required and the vane can be installed by pushing the encasement to
the desired test depth to deploy the vane. An alternative approach is to push two
side-by-side soundings (one with the vane, the other with rods only).
Then, the latter rod friction results are subtracted from the former to obtain the
vane readings. This alternate should be discouraged as the rod friction readings
are variable, depend upon inclination and verticality of the rods, number of
rotations, and thus produce unreliable and questionable data.
The general expression for all types of vanes including standard rectangular
(Chandler, 1988), both ends tapered (Geonor in Norway), bottom taper only
(Nilcon in Sweden), as well as rhomboidal shaped vanes for any end angles is
given by:
A representative set of shear strength profiles in San Francisco Bay Mud derived
from vane shear tests for the MUNI Metro Station Project are shown in Figure 5-
12a. Peak strengths increase from suv = 20 kPa to 60 kPa with depth. The
derived profile of sensitivity (ratio of peak to remolded strengths) is presented in
Figure 5-12b and indicates 3 < St < 4.
The flat dilatometer test (DMT) uses pressure readings from an inserted plate to
obtain stratigraphy and estimates of at-rest lateral stresses, elastic modulus, and
shear strength of sands, silts, and clays.
The device consists of a tapered stainless steel blade with 18 wedge tip that is
pushed vertically into the ground at 200 mm depth intervals (or alternative 300-
mm intevals) at a rate of 20 mm/s.
That is a lift-off or contact pressure where the membrane becomes flush with the
blade face (* = 0); and .B-reading. That is an expansion pressure corresponding
to * = 1.1 mm outward deflection at center of membrane. A tiny spring-loaded pin
at the membrane center detects the movement and relays to a buzzer /
galvanometer at the readout gauge.
Normally, nitrogen gas is used for the test because of the low moisture content,
although carbon dioxide or air can also be used. Reading .A. is obtained about
15 seconds after insertion and .B. is taken within 15 to 30 seconds later. Upon
reaching .B. the membrane is quickly deflated and the blade is pushed to the
next test depth.
The two DMT readings (po and p1) are utilized to provide three indices that can
provide information on the stratigraphy, soil types, and the evaluation of soil
parameters:
Example results from a DMT conducted in Piedmont residual soils are presented
in Figure 5-16, including the measured lift-off (p0) and expansion (p1) pressures,
material index (ID), dilatometer modulus (ED), and horizontal stress index (KD)
versus depth. The soils are fine sandy clays and sandy silts derived from the in
place weathering of schistose and gneissic bedrock.
Figure 5-16. Example DMT Sounding in Piedmont residual soils (CL to ML) in
Charlotte, NC.
Notes :
E
Dilatometer modulus, E D 34.7 p
1 ; where E soil
modulus of elasticity and is Poisson ratio
p
Material index, I D p u ; where u0 pore water pressure at
0 0
dilatometer pressure.
Given :
Required :
Solution :
ID
p
11.8 5.3 1.26
p0 u 0 5.3 0.15
soil
1.95
w
The soil type is sandy soil with soil 1.95 9.81 19.1kN / m 3
121lb / ft 3
The original pressiometer was introduced by the French engineer Louis Menard
in 1955. This prototype had a complex arrangement of water and air tubing and
plumbing with pressure gauges and valves for testing. More recently, monocell
designs facilitate the simple use of pressurized water using a screw pump.
Procedures and calibrations are given by ASTM D 4719 with Figure 5-17 giving a
brief synopsis. Standard probes range from 35 to 73 mm in diameter with length-
to-diameter ratios varying from L/d = 4 to 6 depending upon the manufacturer.
Figure 5-19. Menard-type Pressure meter Results for Utah DOT Project.
The cone penetration test is quickly becoming the most popular type of in-
situ test because it is fast, economical, and provides continuous profiling of
geostratigraphy and soil properties evaluation. The test is performed according
to ASTM D-3441 (mechanical systems) and ASTM D 5778 (electric and
electronic systems) and consists of pushing a cylindrical steel probe into the
ground at a constant rate of 20 mm/s and measuring the resistance to
penetration.
The standard penetrometer has a conical tip with 60 angle apex, 35.7-mm
diameter body (10-cm2 projected area), and 150-cm2 friction sleeve. The
measured point or tip resistance is designated qc and the measured side or
sleeve resistance is fs. The ASTM standard also permits a larger 43.7-mm
diameter shell (15-cm2 tip and 200-cm2 sleeve).
The CPT can be used in very soft clays to dense sands, yet is not particularly
appropriate for gravels or rocky terrain. The pros and cons are listed below. As
the test provides more accurate and reliable numbers for analysis, yet no soil
sampling, it provides an excellent complement to the more conventional soil test
boring with SPT measurements.
Most electric/electronic cones require a cable that is threaded through the rods to
connect with the power supply and data acquistion system at the surface. An
analog-digital converter and pentium notebook are sufficient for collecting data
at approximate 1-sec intervals.
Piezocone Results
Given :
Required :
Solution :
t = 8m(16kN/m3) = 128kPa
q t q c u 2 1 a
Unit cone tip resistance, 600kPa 901 0.75 622.5kPa
qt t 494.5kPa
Normalized cone tip resistance, Qcone tip 6.25
'v 79
fs 30kPa
Normalized friction ratio, Fr 100% 100% 6.1%
qt t 494.5kPa
From Figure: (SBT)Fr=Type 3 (clay, silty clay)
There are several kinds of geophysical tests that can be used for stratigraphic
profiling and delineation of subsurface geometries. These include the
measurement of mechanical waves (seismic refraction surveys, crosshole,
downhole, and spectral analysis of surface wave tests), as well as
electromagnetic techniques (resistivity, EM, magnetometer, and radar).
Mechanical waves are additionally useful for the determination of elastic
properties of subsurface media, primarily the small-strain shear modulus.
Electromagnetic methods can help locate anomalous regions such as
underground cavities, buried objects, and utility lines. The geophysical tests do
not alter the soil conditions and therefore classify as nondestructive, and several
are performed at the surface level (termed non-invasive).
Seismic refraction is generally used for determining the depth to very hard layers,
such as bedrock. The seismic refraction method involves a mapping of V p
arrivals using a linear array of geophones across the site, as illustrated in Figures
5-22 and 5-23 for a two-layer stratification. In fact, a single geophone system
can be used by moving the geophone position and repeating the source event.
In the SR method, the upper layer velocity must be less than the velocity of the
lower layer. An impact on a metal plate serves as a source rich in P-wave
energy. Initially, the P- waves travel soley through the soil to arrive at geophones
located away from the source. At some critical distance from the source, the P-
wave can actually travel through soil-underlying rock-soil to arrive at the
geophone and make a mark on the oscilloscope. This critical distance (x c) is
used in the calculation of depth to rock. The SR data can also be useful to
determine the degree of rippability of different rock materials using heavy
construction equipment. Most recently, with improved electronics, the shear wave
profiles may also be determined by SR.
v
E 1
1 2 1
g
Where : E modulus of elasticity of medium
- unit weigh of the medium
g gravity acceleration
Poissons ratio
Example 2.2
1 time 23 10 3
.or
v1 dis tan ce 5.25
Slope 0a =
5.25
v 228m / sec(toplayer )
23 10 3
1 13.5 10 3 11
Slope ab = ; v2 814.8m / sec(middlelayer )
v2 11 13.5 10 3
1 3.5 10 3
Slope bc = ; v3 4214m / sec(thirdlayer )
v3 14.75
Thickness of layer 1 :
1 814.8 228
Z1 10.5 3.94m
2 814.8 228
Thickness of layer 2 :
Z2 65 10 3
2
4214 228 4214 2 814.8 2
1
= 0.065 0.0345830.47 12.66m
2
Therefore rock layer lies at a depth of Z1 + Z2 = 3.94 + 12.66
=16.60 m measured from ground surface
Z1
X 1 V2 V1
10.5 814.8 228 3.94m
2 V2 V1 2 814.8 228
X2 V3 V2 4214 814.8
Z 2 0.85Z 1 0.85 3.94 30 15.68m
2 V3 V2 2 4214 814.8
P-wave velocity
Type of soil or rock
m/sec Ft/sec
Soil :
Sand, dry silt, and fine-grained top soil 200-1,000 650-3,300
Alluvium 500-2,000 1,650-6,600
Compacted clays, clayey gravel, and 1,000-2,500 3,300-8,200
dense clayey sand
Loess 250-750 800-2,450
Rock :
Slate and shale 2,500-5,000 8,200-16,400
Sandstone 1,500-5,000 4,900-16,400
Granite 4,000-6,000 13,100-19,700
Sound limestone 5,000-10,000 16,400-32,800
The velocity of shear waves created as the result of an impact to a given layer of
soil can be effectively determined by the cross-hole seismic survey (Stokoe and
Woods, 1972). The principle of this technique is illustrated in Figure 2.36, which
shows two holes drilled into the ground a distance L apart. A vertical impulse is
created at the bottom of one borehole by means of an impulse rod. The shear
waves thus generated are recorded by a vertically sensitive transducer. The
velocity of shear waves can be calculated as
L
vs
t
Where t = travel time of the waves
The shear modulus Gs of the soil at the depth at which the test is taken can be
Gs v 2
determined from the relation vs or Gs s
/ g g
Where vs = velocity of shear waves, = unit weight of soil ,
g = acceleration due to gravity
the shear modulus is useful in design of foundations to support vibrating
machinery and the like.
The most common procedure for measuring the electrical resistivity of a soil
profile makes use of four electrodes driven into the ground and spaced equally
In most cases, the soil profile may consist of various layers with different rest
tivities, and equation above will yield the apparent resistivity. To obtain the actual
resistivity of various layers and their thicknesses, one may use an empirical
method that involves conducting tests at various electrode spacings (i.e., d is
changed). The sum of the apparent resistivities, Sp, is plotted against the
spacing d, as shown in Figure 2.37b. The plot thus obtained has relatively
straight segments, the slopes of which give the resistivity of individual layers. The
thicknesses of various layers can be estimated as shown in Figure 2.37b.
The resistivity survey is particularly useful in locating gravel deposits within a
fine-grained soil.
Figure 2.37 Electrical resistivity survey: (a) Wenner method; (b) empirical method
for determining resistivity and thickness of each layer
1. General information
The essential information which needs to be recorded on the log is as follows:
a. Borehole number:
This should be unique to the site and kept as simple as possible without
extraneous ciphers.
b. Location:
(i) Site, including project name, town country or state name where
necessary
(ii) Grid Reference which should always be stated to at least 1 Om
accuracy. Appropriate local co-ordinate systems should be applied
(iii) Elevation relative to C.O. for the ground level at the borehole site to an
accuracy of 0.05m.
(iv) Orientation of the borehole given as an angle to the horizontal (-ve
upwards, +ve downwards) and azimuth (0 to 360 clockwise relative
to Grid North).
c. Drilling technique:
The following should be stated
(i) The method of penetration and flush system
(ii) The make of machine with the model number
(iii) The type of core barrel and bit
d. Contract details:
The following should be noted (with the agreement of the client)
(i) Name of site investigation contractor
(ii) Name of client or authority
(iii) Job reference number
(iv) Name and profession of logger
e. Miscellaneous:
There should be an opportunity for relevant miscellaneous information to be
included in the log.
2. Drilling progress
a. Rate of drilling:
The depth of the borehole at the completion of each day or shift and the limits of
each run of the core barrel should be recorded. The actual penetration rate for
each run or part of a run should be measured. Core diameter and changes of
core size (recorded by reference to B.S. 4019 or as metric dimension).
b. Casing:
It is essential that the progress of installation of the casing be recorded relative to
the depth of the borehole; the diameter of the casing need not be recorded
except where relevant to interpretation of the data.
c. Flush returns:
The character and proportion of the circulation medium returning to the surface
should be recorded.
3. Descriptive geology
Tutorial 1
QUIZ NO.1
Part A : hilly area that most soil are residual granite that
contain mostly of granular type of soil.
(20 marks)