SOIL MECHANICS-II

CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
Chapter 7-Page 207

ground

1
CONTENTS OF THE CHAPTER/LECTURE
1) Settlement by elastic theory,
2) Settlement analysis of a thin stratum of clay from
index properties,
3) Thick clay stratum settlement,
4) analysis by strain versus Logarithm of pressure test
data,
5) Construction period correction,
6) Secondary consolidation.

2
SETTLEMENT

3
 SETTLEMENT
The Leaning Tower of Pisa earns its namesake
from uneven compaction of soil that causes a
"leaning" of 3.8 degrees, as shown.
One of the best examples of settlement is the
Leaning Tower of Pisa. Construction of the
tower began in 1173 and it began leaning
shortly thereafter. The lean has gotten
significantly worse over the last eight centuries
and currently leans at 3.8 degrees

4
SETTLEMENT

The lean is caused by the uneven compaction of the

soil beneath the tower. The cause for most building
leans and ground settlement is an insufficient or
weak foundation, which can occur either when the
engineer overloads the foundation to the point that
it cannot hold the weight of the structure, or the
foundation is made unevenly and one side of the
foundation is stronger than the other [3.

5
SETTLEMENT
Had the builders of the Tower of Pisa used a pile instead of a mat
foundation, there would be very little force on the weaker soil
and the lean would be all but eliminated
Settlement is extremely common in cake, creating problems for
even well practiced professionals.
If the dowels of the cake are cut too short, the weight of the upper
layers of the cake will be transferred to the lower cake layer
instead of the dowels, causing a settlement and giving the
appearance of sinking cake tiers
http://illumin.usc.edu/assets/media/747/cakes_foundation_pile.sw
f

6
SETTLEMENT

If the dowels are cut unevenly one side of the cake

is likely to sink more than the other, thus giving it a
lean like the Tower of Pisa.

7
CONSOLIDATION AND COMPACTION

Consolidation and compaction are totally

different process. Though both process results
a reduction in volume, it is important to know
the difference between them. These are:
a. Compaction reduces volume of soil by rapid
mechanical methods like tamping, rolling and
vibration; whereas consolidation process
reduces volume gradually by static, sustained
loading
8
CONSOLIDATION AND COMPACTION

b. Compaction decreases volume by expelling

air from partially saturated or dry soil; whereas
consolidation process reduces volume by
squeezing out water from saturated soil. In
compaction process water content is not
altered.

9
CONSOLIDATION
Consolidation may be due to one or more of the following
factors:
1. External static loads from structures.
2. Self-weight of the soil such as recently placed fills.
3. Lowering of the ground water table.
4. Desiccation ( Draught).
The total compression of a saturated clay strata under excess
effective pressure may be considered as the sum of
1. Immediate compression,
2. Primary consolidation, and
3. Secondary compression.

10
 Settlement
Immediate settlement Caused by elastic
deformation of dry and moist soil without any
change in moisture content
Primary Consolidation Settlement Volume
change caused by expulsion of water from voids
in saturated cohesive soils
Secondary Consolidation Settlement Volume
change after primary consolidation as a result of
plastic adjustment of soil matrix

11
 PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION
The portion of the settlement of a structure which occurs more or
less simultaneously with the applied loads is referred to as the
initial or immediate settlement. This settlement is due to the
immediate compression of the soil layer under un-drained
condition and is calculated by assuming the soil mass to behave as
an elastic soil.

If the rate of compression of the soil layer is controlled solely by the

resistance of the flow of water under the induced hydraulic
gradients, the process is referred to as primary consolidation.
1
SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION

The third part of the settlement is due to secondary

consolidation or compression of the clay layer. This
compression is supposed to start after the primary
consolidation ceases, that is after the excess pore water
pressure approaches zero.
It is often assumed that secondary compression proceeds
linearly with the logarithm of time. However, a satisfactory
treatment of this phenomenon has not been formulated for
computing settlement under this category.
13
 THE PROCESS OF CONSOLIDATION
The process of consolidation of a clay-soil-water system may be explained
with the help of a mechanical model as described by Terzaghi and Frohlich
(1936).
The model consists of a cylinder with a frictionless piston as shown in Fig.
The piston is supported on one or more helical metallic springs. The space
underneath the piston is completely filled with water. The springs represent
the mineral skeleton in the actual soil mass and the water below the piston
is the pore water under saturated conditions in the soil mass. When a load of
p is placed on the piston, this stress is fully transferred to the water (as water
is assumed to be incompressible) and the water pressure increases. The
pressure in the water is u = p

1
4
THE PROCESS OF CONSOLIDATION

This is analogous to pore water pressure, u, that

would be developed in a clay-water system under
external pressures. If the whole model is leak
proof without any holes in the piston, there is no
chance for the water to escape. Such a condition
represents a highly impermeable clay-water
system in which there is a very high resistance for
the flow of water.
It has been found in the case of compact plastic
clays that the minimum initial gradient required to
cause flow may be as high as 20 to 30.

15
THE PROCESS OF CONSOLIDATION
If a few holes are made in the piston, the water will immediately escape
through the holes. With the escape of water through the holes a part of the
load carried by the water is transferred to the springs. This process of
transference of load from water to spring goes on until the flow stops.

When all the load will be carried by the spring and none by the water. The
time required to attain this condition depends upon the number and size of
the holes made in the piston. A few small holes represents a clay soil with
poor drainage characteristics.

When the spring-water system attains equilibrium condition under the

imposed load, the settlement of the piston is analogous to the compression
of the clay-water system under external pressures.

16
LECTURE 2 AND 3 ON SETTLEMENT

17
 WHAT IS CONSOLIDATION?

When a saturated clay is loaded externally,

GL

saturated clay

the water is squeezed out of the clay over a long time

(due to low permeability of the clay).

18
 WHAT IS CONSOLIDATION?

This leads to settlements occurring over a long time,

settlement

time

which could be several years.

19
 IN GRANULAR SOILS

Granular soils are freely drained, and thus the

settlement is instantaneous.
settlement

time

20
 DURING CONSOLIDATION

Due to a surcharge q applied at the GL,

the stresses and pore pressures are increased at A.

q kPa
..and, they vary
GL
with time.
u
A

saturated clay

21
 DURING CONSOLIDATION

remains the same (=q) during consolidation.

u decreases (due to drainage) while increases,
transferring the load from water to the soil.
q kPa
u
GL

u
A

saturated clay q
 ONE DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION

~ drainage and deformations are vertical (none laterally)

~ a simplification for solving consolidation problems
q kPa
GL

water squeezed out

reasonable
simplification if the
saturated clay surcharge is of large
lateral extent
H -E RELATION

H
average vertical strain =
Ho
q kPa
GL q kPa
H
GL

Ho
saturated clay
saturated clay
e = eo
e = eo - e

Time = 0+ Time =
ONE DIMENSIONAL THEORY

The portion of the settlement that is due to the primary

consolidation is called primary consolidation settlement or

compression. At the present time the only theory of practical

value for estimating time-dependent settlement due to volume

changes, that is under primary consolidation is the one-

dimensional theory.

25
ONE DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION
There are three variables:
the excess pore pressure (u)
the depth of the element in the layer (z)
the time elapsed since application of the loading (t)
The total stress on the element is assumed to remain constant.
The coefficient of volume compressibility (mv) is assumed to be constant.
The coefficient of permeability (k) for vertical flow is assumed to be
constant.

26
 CONSOLIDATION TEST

~ simulation of 1-D field consolidation in lab.

GL
porous stone

undisturbed soil
specimen metal ring
Dia = 50-75 mm (oedometer)
Height = 20-30 mm

field lab
 CONSOLIDATION TEST

loading in increments
allowing full consolidation before next increment

q1 q2
H1
Ho eo eo- e1

H1
e1 (1 eo ) e2
Ho
CONSOLIDATION TEST

unloading

29
E LOG V PLOT
- from the above data

loading
void ratio

v increases &
e decreases
unloading
v decreases &
e increases (swelling)

log v
PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT

H e
Hv Water eo
e1

Ho
Hs V0 1 Hs V0 1
Solid Solid

Vvoids AH voids H voids

e
Vsolid AH solid H solid
31
PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
H voids H voids

Ho H solid H voids

H voids H voids / H solid

Ho H solid / H solid H voids / H solid

H voids e

Ho 1 e0

e
H voids H0
1 e0
e
S H0
1 e0

32
SETTLEMENT EQUATIONS FOR
NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED CLAYS
e e
Cc
Logp Log ( p p0 ) eo

C
Field e-p curve
e

Void ratio, e
e e
Cc
Log( p0 p p0 )
p

e
Cc po p
( p p)
Log ( 0 ) LOG Consolidation Pressure, p
p0
Sandy Strata
( p0 p)
e Cc Log

po+p
p 0 Ho
Clay

33
SETTLEMENT EQUATIONS FOR
NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED CLAYS
e
S H0
1 e0

( p0 p)
e Cc log

p0

1 ( p0 p)
S Cc log H 0

1 e0 p 0

34
 SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS

Two different ways to estimate the

consolidation settlement:
q kPa
(a) using mv
settlement = mv H
=q
H
(b) using e-log v plot
next slide
eo, vo, Cc, e
Cr, p, mv settlement H
-oedometer
test
1 eo
 SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS
~ computing e using e-log v plot

If the clay is normally consolidated,

the entire loading path is along the VCL.

initial
eo

vo ' '
e Cc log
e

vo '
vo vo+
SETTLEMENT EXAMPLE
A sample of normally consolidated clay was obtained by
a Shelby tube sampler from the mid height of a
compressible clay layer. A consolidation test was
conducted on a portion of this sample. And the natural
void ratio of the clay existing in the field is 1.65. A
footing is to be located 5 ft below ground level, the base
of the square footing is 10 ft by 10 ft and it exerts a total
load of 250 tons, which includes column load, weight of
footing, and weight of soil surcharge on the footing.
Compute the expected consolidation settlement for the
clay layer. Cc=0.695
37
SETTLEMENT EXAMPLE-2 CONTINUE

Centre of clay layer

38
SETTLEMENT EXAMPLE

Effective weight of excavation

= (128 lb/ft2) (5 ft) = 640lb/ft2, or 0.32 ton/ft2.
Net consolidation pressure at the base of footing
q = (250 ton) / (10ft 10ft) 0.32 ton / ft2 =
2.18 tons /ft2.

39
SETTLEMENT EXAMPLE

o = 128 20 + 108 x 10/2 = 3100 lb / ft2 =

1.55 ton / ft2.
u = 62.4 15 = 936 lb / ft2 = 0.468 ton / ft2.
o = o - u = 3100 936 = 2164 lb / ft2 = 1.082
ton / ft2
To determine net consolidation pressure at
midheight of the clay layer under the centre of
the footing is necessary to divide the base of the
footing into four equal 5 ft by 5 ft square areas.
40
SETTLEMENT EXAMPLE-2 CONTINUE

Here A = 5 ft, B = 5ft, z = 20 ft (from the base of

the footing to the midheight of the clay layer).
Thus

5 ft 5 ft A 5
m 0.25
z 20
B 5
n 0.25
5ft 5ft z 20

41
0.025

42
INFLUENCE COEFFICIENTS FOR POINTS UNDER
UNIFORMLY LOADED RECTANGULAR AREAS

(0.018+0.026)/2=0.022
(0.026+0.037)/2=0.032
=(0.022+0.0315)/2=0.027

43
INFLUENCE COEFFICIENTS FOR POINTS UNDER
UNIFORMLY LOADED RECTANGULAR AREAS

44
SETTLEMENT EXAMPLE CONTINUE
Effective over burden stress at the midheight of the clay
layer is given by:

Thus from the table or chart the influence coefficient Ic =

0.027. Thus the stress increment at the midheight of the
clay layer will be
= q0 x I= 4 2.18 0.027 = 0.24 ton / ft2
Final total stress at the midheight of the clay layer will be:
= o+ = 1.082 + 0.24 = 1.32 ton / ft2.

45
SETTLEMENT EXAMPLE-2 CONTINUE

Thus the consolidation settlement will be:

H
S CcLog
1 eo o
120 1.32
S 0.695 Log 2.72 in
1 1.65 1.082

46
SETTLEMENT EXAMPLE-2 CONTINUE
The soil profile at a site for a proposed office building
consists of a layer of fine sand 10.4 m thick above a
layer of soft normally consolidated clay 2 m thick. Below
the soft clay is a deposit if coarse sand. The
groundwater table was observed at 3 m below ground
level. The void ratio of the sand is 0.76 and the water
content of the clay is 43 %. The building will impose a
vertical stress increase of 140 KPa at the middle of the
clay layer. Estimate the primary consolidation settlement
of the clay. Assume the soil above the water table to be
saturated, Cc = 0.3 and Gs = 2.7,clay=17.53
47
SETTLEMENT EXAMPLE-2 CONTINUE
Determination of the specific weights 0
For sand e = 0.76
2
Gs e
sat w 3
1 e
5
2.7 0.76
sat 9.81 19.29 kN / m 2

1 0.76
For clay w = 43 % 20

wGs 0.43 2.7

e 1.161
S 1 48
SETTLEMENT EXAMPLE-2 CONTINUE

Determination of effective stress at the

midheight of the clay layer
Total stress

(10.4 19.29) (17.53 1) 218.146kN / m 2

Neutral stress

u (7.4 1.0) 9.81 82.404kN / m 2

49
SETTLEMENT EXAMPLE-3 CONTINUE

Effective stress
` u
` 218.146 82.404 135.742kN / m 2

Total effective stress including super structural load

` 0
` 135.742 140 275.742kPa

50
SETTLEMENT EXAMPLE-2 CONTINUE

Determination of primary consolidation

settlement of the clay having:
H = 2.0 m, e0 = 1.161,

H `
S H Cc log
1 e0
2.0 275.742
S 0.3 log
1 1.161 140
S 0.0817m 81.7mm Ans
51
NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED AND
OVERCONSOLIDATED SOILS

1. Normally consolidated, whose present effective

overburden pressure is the maximum pressure
that the soil was subjected to in the past.

2. Over consolidated, whose present effective

overburden pressure is less than that which the
soil experienced in the past.

The maximum effective past pressure is called the

pre consolidation pressure.
 SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS
~ computing e using e-log v plot

If the clay is overconsolidated, and remains so by

the end of consolidation,
vo ' '
e Cr log
vo '
initial
eo

e
note the use of Cr
VCL

vo vo+
OVER CONSOLIDATED SOIL

Cc can be replaced by Cr (the recompression

index) for use in over consolidated soils where
the final effective stress is less than the
preconsolidation stress. When the final effective
stress is greater than the preconsolidation stress,
the two equations must be used in combination
to model both the recompression portion and the
virgin compression portion of the consolidation
process, as follows:
54
 SETTLEMENT COMPUTATIONS
~ computing e using e-log v plot

If an overconsolidated clay becomes normally

consolidated by the end of consolidation,

p' vo ' '

e Cr log Cc log
initial
vo ' p'
eo

VCL
vo p vo+
Coefficient of compressibility (av)

The coefficient of compressibility is defined as

the decrease in voids ratio per unit increase of
pressure.

=

56
Coefficient of Volume Change (mv)

The coefficient of volume change or the

coefficient of volume compressibility is defined
as the change in volume of a soil per unit initial
volume due to a given unit increase in the
pressure.

57
COEFFICIENT OF VOLUME CHANGE (MV)
v V
mv ( ) / `
` V
AH
mv ( ) / `
AH
H 1
mv ( )
H `
H mv H `
s mv H `
58
COEFFICIENT OF VOLUME CHANGE (MV)

s mv `H
For entire thickness
H
s mv `H
0

59
EXAMPLE

A vertical section through a building foundation

at a site is shown in figure. The average modulus
of volume compressibility of the clay is
mv = 5 x10-5 m2/kN. Determine the primary
consolidation settlement.

60
EXAMPLE
200kPa

1m

Clay 10 m

Gravel

Foundation: Width B = 10 m, Length L = 20 m 61

SOLUTION

Divide the clay layer into five sub layers, each of

thickness 2 m that is, Ho = 2 m. find the vertical
stress increase at the middle of each sub layer
under the center of the rectangular foundation.
Assume a rough base.

62
 SOLUTION CONTINUED

B=10m, L= 20 m, L/B=2, qs=200 KPa

1.0

2.0

3.0
10 m
4.0

5.0

63
VERTICAL STRESS DUE TO POINT LOAD
Influence factors for vertical stress increase due to a point
load (Craig, 1997)
r/z I r/z I r/z I
0.0 0.478 0.8 0.139 1.6 0.020
0.1 0.466 0.9 0.108 1.7 0.016
0.2 0.433 1.0 0.084 1.8 0.013
0.3 0.385 1.1 0.066 1.9 0.011
0.4 0.329 1.2 0.051 2.0 0.009
0.5 0.273 1.3 0.040 2.2 0.006
0.6 0.221 1.4 0.032 2.4 0.004
0.7 0.176 1.5 0.025 2.6 0.003

64
 Using the table for rectangular area with rough
rigid base (Milovic and Tournier, 1971).
Layer Z (m) z/B Ip qs x = Ipqs

n 857.2
S mv H 0 `
i 1

S 5 105 2 (857.2) 0.08572m 85.72mm

65
66
67
EXAMPLE
A large oil storage tank 100 m in diameter is to
be constructed on the soil profile shown in the
figure. Average depth of the oil in the tank is 20
m, and the specific gravity of the oil is 0.92.
Consolidation test from the clay layer revealed eo
= 1.1, Cc = 0.36, sat = 15 kN/m3. Estimate the
total settlement of the tank; neglect any
settlement in the sand. (a) Consolidation at the
mid of the clay is typical of the entire layer and (b)
Dividing the clay layer into four or five sub layers
68
EXAMPLE

0m OIL G=0.92

2m
Dense Sand
sat=18kN/m3
20 m
Clay
e0=1.1,Cc=0.36, sat=15kN/m3
40 m

69
SOLUTION
Using only one layer of thickness = 20 m and
assuming sand above WT is saturated due to
capillary action.
1. Calculate 0 (510)

2. Calculate u (275)

3. Calculate 0 (235)

4. Calculate q Pressure due to oil (180.5)

5. Determine I from chart to calculate (153)

6. = 0 + (388)

7. Find S(746) 70
 VERTICAL STRESS DUE TO POINT LOAD
Influence coefficients for points under uniformly loaded circular area

Back 71
SOLUTION CONTINUED
8. Divide the clay layer into five sub layers, each of thickness 4 m that is, Ho
= 4 m.
9. find the vertical stress increase at the middle of each sub layer under the
center of the circular foundation. Assume a rough base.
10. Find Settlement as before
Layer z Overburden z/a r/a Ip qs x = = Settlement
(m) stress 0 Ipqs 0+ S

1 2 193.8 0.04 0 0.9 180.504 162.45 356.25 0.1813

2 6 .
3 10
4 14
5 18
0.7225

72
EXAMPLE

A building is supported on a raft 45 m by 30 m,

the net foundation pressure (assumed to be
uniformly distributed) being 125 kN/m2. The soil
profile is shown in the figure. The value of mv for
the clay is 0.35 m2/MN. Determine the final
settlement under the center of the raft due to
consolidation of the clay.

73
EXAMPLE

74
SOLUTION

A = 45 m
B = 30 m
Z = 23.5 m q = 125 kN/m2
mv = 0.35m2/MN
H=4m

75
SOLUTION STEPS

1. Divide area into 4 area find m and n to

calculate I then Find using I(70 kN / m2 )
2. Find S(98 mm) from

76
EXAMPLE

An 8 ft clay layer beneath a building is overlain by

stratum of permeable sand and gravel and is
underlain by impermeable bedrock. The total
expected total settlement for the clay layer due to
the footing load is 2.5 in. the coefficient of
consolidation (cv) is 2.68 10-3 in2/min.

77
EXAMPLE

1. How many years it will take for 90 % of total

expected consolidation settlement to take
place.
2. Compute the amount of consolidation
settlement that will occur in one year?
3. How many years will it take for consolidation
settlement of one inch to take place?

78
EXAMPLE

79
SOLUTION

U = 90 % ; t =??; CV = 2.68 10-3 in2/min

Hdr = H = 8 ft = 96 in (single drainage)
Step:
1. Find t

2. Find T (t=1 years, in above)

3. Find t, first find U from deltas/s(0.82 years)

1. Find T from U with graph
2. Find t as above

80
Time-Rate of Consolidation
UNDRAINED OR IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT

Those settlement that take place as the load is

applied or within a time period of about 7 days, is
called immediate settlement. Immediate
settlement analysis are used for all fine grained
soils including silts and clays with a degree of
saturation S and for all coarse grained soils with
a large coefficient of permeability,
[say above 10-3 m/s]

82
UNDRAINED OR IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT

The assumption that the soil below a foundation

behaves as an elastic body may also be adopted
in the evaluation of surface displacement, i.e.
settlement due to elastic compression. The effect
of non-homogeneity only produces significant
errors when the inter stratum differences are
considerable. In the case of uniform loading, the
vertical surface displacement of a soil layer of
infinite depth is given by:
83
UNDRAINED OR IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT
qB
Si ( 1 )I p
2
Where E
q = intensity of contact pressure
B = least lateral dimension (Breadth or
diameter)
u = Poissons ratio
E = modulus of elasticity
Ip = intensity factor for vertical displacement
84
UNDRAINED OR IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT

The vertical displacement influence factor Ip is

dependent on the shape (circular or rectangular,
etc) and stiffness (rigid or flexible) of the
foundation. Values of Ip obtained using elastic
theory for the displacement at the center or a
corner of a uniformly loaded rectangle are given
in the table

85
EXAMPLE
A concrete raft foundation of length 32 m and breadth 18 m will
transmit to the soil below a uniform contact pressure of 240 kPa
at a depth of 2.0 m. determine the amount of immediate
settlement that is likely to occur under the center of the
foundation, assuming that it is flexible. Eu = 45Mpa, = 0.5 and
=20kN/m3
Solution
1. Find Ip from Skempton's table
2. Find net pressure qn q z
3. Find Si from equation

86
INFLUENCE FACTOR IP
Shape Flexible Rigid
Center Corner Average
Circle 1.00 0.64 0.85 0.79
Rectangle L/ B
1.0 1.122 0.561 0.946 0.82
1.5 1.358 0.679 1.148 1.06
2.0 1.532 0.766 1.300 1.20
3.0 1.783 0.892 1.527 1.42
4.0 1.964 0.982 1.694 1.58
5.0 2.105 1.052 1.826 1.70
10.0 2.540 1.270 2.246 2.10
100.0 4.010 2.005 3.693 3.47

Giroud (1968), Skempton (1951) 87

SETTLEMENT MEASUREMENT THROUGH
PLATE LOAD TEST

88
PLATE LOAD TEST
Sand bags

Plate form Main girder

Hydraulic jack
Masonry support
Loading post

Datum bar
Dial gauges

Test plate
89
PLATE LOAD TEST

5Bp

Bearing Plate
Dp Foundation level

Bp
90
PLATE LOAD TEST

91
 SETTLEMENT DETERMINATION BY PLT
Terzaghi and Peck (1948) proposed the following
equation to predict the settlement of a footing on
the basis of a plate-bearing test with a 0.30 cm
(1.0 ft) square plate.
2
2B
For sandy soil S f Sp
B Bp
Where
Sf = settlement of a prototype foundation 2
2B
Sp = settlement of square plate of 0.3 m by S f Sp
0.3 m B 0.3
Bf = width of prototype foundation
Bp = width of the plate
92
SETTLEMENT DETERMINATION BY PLT

For clayey soils

Bf
Sf Sp
B
p
Where
Sf = settlement of a prototype foundation
Sp = settlement of square plate of 0.3 m by 0.3 m
Bf = width of prototype foundation
Bp = width of the plate

93
EXAMPLE

The results of a plate load test on dense sand at a depth of 1.5 m

were 7 mm and 8 mm. the plates were 0.305 m square and
applied load was 20 kN. Determine the size of square foundation
and load it would carry at the same depth if the limit of settlement
were 25 mm.
SOLUTION
The average settlement of the plate is taken as
Sp = 7.5 mm; Bp = 0.305 m; Sf = 25 mm; Q = 20 kN; Bf =?
Load carried by the foundation =?
1. Find Bf from equation( 3.14 m)
2. Find Q=( q x A

94
ELASTIC SETTLEMENT

Those settlement that take place as the load is

applied or within a time period of about 7 days, is
called immediate/elastic settlement. Elastic
settlement analysis are used for all fine grained
soils including silts and clays with a degree of
saturation S and for all coarse grained soils with
a large coefficient of permeability,
[say above 10-3 m/s]

95
ELASTIC SETTLEMENT

The assumption that the soil below a foundation

behaves as an elastic body may also be adopted
in the evaluation of surface displacement, i.e.
settlement due to elastic compression. The effect
of non-homogeneity only produces significant
errors when the inter stratum differences are
considerable. In the case of uniform loading, the
vertical surface displacement of a soil layer of
infinite depth is given by the following equation:
96
ELASTIC SETTLEMENT

qB
Si = (1 - )/I p
2

97
98
PRELOADING

Preloading at West Kowloon Expressway, Hong Kong.

(5-10 m embankments for 2-5 months)
99
PRELOADING

Piezometers measure pore pressures and thus

indicate when the consolidation is over.

100
PRELOADING

Cross section of PVD

Installation

Prefabricated Vertical Drains to Accelerate Consolidation

101
PREFABRICATED VERTICAL DRAINS

Installation of PVDs
102