International Strategies in

Higher Education

Conference Proceedings
Eger, Eszterhzy Kroly College
(June 3-5, 2014)
 Editorial board:
Dr. Judit Kdr
Dr. Beta Szp
Krisztina Nagy
Renta Zsmba

ISBN 978-615-5297-24-3

International Strategies in Higher Education-Conference

Proceedings Eger, Eszterhzy Kroly College (June 3-5, 2014)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The conference entitled International Strategies in Higher Education:
Good Practices was organized by Eszterhzy Kroly College`s Center of
International Relations, and supported by TMOP Number 4.1.2.D-
12/1/KONV-2012-0002 International Accessibility Development Program
at Eszterhzy Kroly College. The editorial board would like to express
their gratitude to the head of this project, Dr va Antal and the director of
the Project Office, Dr Ibolya Szilgyi Prokaj. Special thanks also go to all
the contributors to this book of proceedings, our institutional partners as
well as the staff of CIR, without whose invaluable help neither the
conference nor the present publication could have been realized.

3
Contents/Tartalom

Judit Kadar: Thinking International, Going Global: Internationalization

in Higher Education ....................................................................... 7
Renta Zsmba: International Strategies in Higher Education EKC
2014: Good Practices and Challenges Reflected in the
Session Talks .............................................................................. 13
Hans de Wit: Internationalisation of higher education: new meanings,
rationales and approaches .......................................................... 18
Rka Tth-Dolenszky: Internationalisation of Eszterhzy Kroly
College and the Role of Mobility and Related Services in This
Process ....................................................................................... 39
Krisztina Godsave: Dont write me an essay: Practical Approaches to
Testing Business English ............................................................ 45
Erika Gyngysi-Wiersum: Improving learning performance
Mathematics lessons across the borders..................................... 47
Florence Fontaine Cecilia Rego Klmn Zoltn Vczy: COST
Action, a European Relationship between Researchers and
End-Users ................................................................................... 52
Josef Keek: International field project on management of
mountain watersheds: a challenge for citizen science and multi-
disciplinary education .................................................................. 59
Zsuzsanna Hank Lszl Krpti: The importance of school
performance in the social integration of the Roma community
from a school psychologists point of view ................................... 65
Prima Dona Hapsari: Internalization Strategies of International
Affairs Office in Promoting the Centre of Excellence in Art
Education .................................................................................... 73
Judit Kelemen: Introducing Intercultural Elements into Lower
Primary Music and Art Education ................................................ 83
Andrea Schmidt: Towards a common education area in the Visegrad
region International Relations in Visegrad Perspective
a joint MA programme with the participation of the Univeristy
of Pcs, Hungary......................................................................... 92
Petrsovits gnes: Idegen nyelvi mentorls az EKF oktati szmra
.................................................................................................. 102
Tth va: Vltoztass, hogy vltozhass! Gondolatok az orosz nyelvi
coaching programrl ................................................................. 106

5
Petrsovits gnes: A nem idegen nyelv szakos hallgatk idegen nyelvi
kpzse az Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskoln .................................. 115
Tth va: Hogyan tovbb?: A gazdasgi szaknyelvoktats s
nyelvvizsgztats gyakorlata az Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskoln .. 120
Vinnain Vkony Mrta: Interkulturlis elemek az ltalnos iskolai
nyelvoktatsban ........................................................................ 128
rsek Attila: Megvltoztatja-e az Edu2.0 a tantsi-tanulsi
folyamatokat, szoksokat? ........................................................ 135
Spiczn Bukovszki Edit: Innovatv mdszerek a (nyelv)tants
hatkony tanulss alaktsra ................................................. 153
Jaskn Dr. Gcsi Mria: Hagyomnyok soksznsge, nemzeti
identits, drmapedaggia ........................................................ 169
Tth va Vincze Mria: Sikerek s kudarcok: Egy anyanyelvi
hallsrtsi vizsglat tanulsgai ................................................ 180
Csorba Lszl: Kontraszelekci s a hazai felsoktats ................... 204
About the Authors .............................................................................. 220

6
 JUDIT KADAR

THINKING INTERNATIONAL, GOING GLOBAL:

INTERNATIONALIZATION IN HIGHER
EDUCATION

Academics and other agents in higher education have a shared

challenge facing a paradigm shift in higer education. The facilitators of
international relations and mobility, the providers of foreign language and
intercultural services, project managers and coordinators, decision
makers and administrators supporting all these activities all need to
understand the opportunities, processes, context, goals, difficulties and
best practices in internationalization today.We share certain profound
perceptions regarding the relevance of developing international
partnerships, fostering collaboration, improving related services and
promoting the idea of global knowledge networks and knowledge, these
insights, however, ask two questions of us: first, are we familiar with the
broader concept of internationalization and secondly, are we familiar with
the tools and methods available to further these operations successfully
thus contributing to the overall success of our universities?
The internationalization of higher education has become an
increasingly common feature of our third level institution over the past 25
years and those involved in the field are now looking to the next phase.
This comes at a time when the dynamic field of international education is
undergoing some of the greatest transformations in all aspects of
teaching, learning and administration. Will this transformation change the
mould of the traditional higher education institution? What do the next 25
years have in store for us? (Prague EAIE 2014 CFP,
http://www.eaie.org/home/conference/prague/programme.html)
If we wish to better understand these transformations and wish to take
effective control over the development of our university, it is essential to
clarify the notion of internationalization. Most simplified definitions refer to
the design of an educational curriculum that will enable students to
thrive in foreign countries and in their interactions with other cultures
(http://www.investopedia.com/terms/i/internationalization.asp). However,
I believe that internationalization means so much more than this, namely

7
academic and student mobility, research collaboration and institutional
partnership development, within the broader global framework of
internationalization. Hans de Wits essay entitled Internationalization in
European higher education: European policies, institutional strategies
and EUA support (EUA membership consultation, 2013
http://www.eua.be/Libraries/Higher_Education/EUA_International_Survey
.sflb.ashx) provides a fundamental understanding of the term, its
relevance and its European context.
Nevertheless, similarly to other widely known paradigms in culture and
education, it can easily become a vague catchphrase that lacks the
comprehension of its meaning and relevance as an essential tool. For
instance those who elaborate various European projects at the
institutional level and represent one particular academic field, are not
necessarily familiar with the broader context of the mobility, partnership
building or research collaboration activity generated in/by that given
project. Moreover, if a university and its management and international
relations staff does not have a properly accentuated internationalization
strategy, then single initiatives at the individual or smaller unit level may
not fit a larger strategic line of development for the institution, they may
not work in synergy. Does the management understand its relevance?
Does it support it? Is there a creative and supportive academic
environment and proper communication between the academic units and
the international office? Are the units aware of the services provided by
the IRO/CIR and do they utilize those effectively? Do the project
managers think in terms of this synergy or just focus on carrying out their
particular tasks that are somehow related to internationalization? Do the
academics and administrators understand the relevance of their
contribution and do students, educators and researchers understand the
relevance and impact of their mobility activities? Are there clear
indicators to measure the positive changes and can the institution
develop steadily due to all the international operations practiced under its
umbrella? And finally, do we all understand that the quality work and
happy community life of any university greatly depends on how
successful internationalization works there?
In the past it was enough for a university to secure its status by
employing competent educators, supporting successful research,
maintaining well-equipped laboratories and well-stocked libraries, and
nurturing its sports clubs.. Of course, public or private funding has always
made a difference, but the international component (e.g. foreign student
and academic proportion, active relations with partners) has played a
limited role in the overall success of any given institution. International
relations could simply follow the funding source tactics and random

8
academic visits that occasionally resulted in fruitful collaborations in one
or more fields. Nowadays, though, accomplished researchers, great
educators, effective and goal-oriented management, strategic planning,
powerful services and infrastructure, an extensive institutional network
(domestic and global), unique programs, a helpful municipal environment
and many more factors have to exist in a creative synergy that is able to
face the financial challenges, the diversified needs of an emerging new
student population and the national and international competition posed
by other third-level institutions.
These challenges demand a set of skills previously unknown in higher
education, skills that mostly come from the field of business. Project-
oriented thinking at all levels seems to be a prerequisite of successful
work in mobility, grant and funding applications, academic networking,
partnership development, just to mention a few. Besides, high level
foreign (mostly English) language and intercultural skills are also
necessary to communicate in the international arena. As for the
institution itself, more complex, advanced, rapid and flexible
administrative services are needed, along with an astute management
team that is familiar with the strengths and weaknesses (SWOT) of their
university and can plan and develop following clear strategic directions
and priorities with a clear focus. Most need to possess at least some PR,
marketing and even branding skills, or should hire personnel able to
operate in these areas. If the staff and management knows how to
provide market sensitive education and research (e.g. joint degrees,
clusters), they surely can better meet the new challenges in HE. In
addition, no university can operate successfully in seclusion: on the one
hand a network of international partner institutions can enhance a
dynamic student and academic life and promote collaboration on
research projects. and on the other, the national and international
organizations promoting higher education can actively support the
individuals and units with financial resources as well as know-how
required for good practices and regulations. In the Central European
context, enterprising individuals possessing up-to-the-minute knowledge
of European Union regulations, available funding sources and methods
and networks of national organizations, as well as having the ability to
consolidate the information they gather from all these areas, are an
essential element to successfully meeting the challenges and achieving
excellency in the university rankings.
As for the latter, let us take a brief look at what factors the Global U-
Ranking of the 2013 EUA Report measures (Global University Rankings
and Their Impact: Report II. EUA Report on Rankings, Brussels:
European University Association, 2013) in order to test our perceptions of

9
the performance of our university and the areas requiring improvement.
According to this report, universities need to develop a growing
awareness and relevance of the international components in general. It is
a straightforward task to establish the proportion of international students
and staff, and the number of papers and research projects involving
international cooperation. However, the intensity, efficiency and
outcomes of these collaborations can be evaluated in various ways, and
the same applies to the international teaching and research reputation of
a university, we can only measure such features with a combination of
objective data and more subjective perceptions. Paradoxically, U-MAP
and Mixed Ranking emphasizes the relevance of qualitative and
quantitative data assessment, strategic planning and development. How
can an institution and its management resolve the contradictions, provide
an appropriate assessment of its potentials and formulate a clear
strategy for its future development? And finally, how can we
communicate it to the global public?
Well, we may all share concerns about the complexity of
internationalization. Increasing numbers of reports, conferences and
workshops attempt to aid those working in the fast-expanding and
multifaceted situation in HE, nonetheless I am convinced that sensitive
implementation tailored to the given university and dedicated facilitators
are absolutely essential in the current climate.
Let us take an example all of us are familiar with to a certain extent:
the notion of mobility. When any institution claims to have intensive
mobility, it seems almost too vague and subjective a category to apply.
Jzsef Temesi posed the question at a Hungarian Rectors Conference
workshop (Gdll, May 2014) and explored the problem of measuring
factors in internationalization, and mobility in particular. What exactly
does it mean, a three-day conference trip, a three months stipendium, or
a three year degree program or postdoctoral research for inbound or
outbound students or a faculty? What is the target? 20 or any %, of what,
and increase of what? What to measure and are numbers really
comparable (e.g. knowledge gain and employability)? Another presenter
at the same workshop, Michael Gabel, (EUA) continued with a shortlist of
other related problems, namely social bias, co-financing issues, the gap
between policy and practice, the constant challenge of recruiting, the
frequent lack of resources (including financial and human), the problem
of grading and credit transfer, the ability of the academic staff and many

10
more. These difficulties claim for the clarification of notions we apply, the
exchange of good practices and obviously effective solutions.
Although the challenges and the complexities of internationalization
demand great effort and time from us, there are new areas in which
interesting and innovative solutions are surfacing. There are new
collaborative work formats (e.g. cluster, joint grant, dual degree
programs) and there are new education formats and technologies, too,
for instance E-learning, MOOCs and intercultural training that all require
the aforementioned new skills and approaches, but which also offer non-
traditional roads to success in higher education. New forums (e.g. fairs,
grant schemes and related conferences like ACA, EUA events) provide
us with information and knowledge transfer opportunities, and last but not
least, HE is increasingly borrowing from the world of business, since
marketing, branding, data and risk analysis, management training,
competition, entrepreneurial attitudes and applying business
performances have become an integral part of our day-to-day work.
Eszterhzy College is dedicated to promoting quality education,
cutting-edge research, mutually beneficial collaborations and services for
the entire university community. The management and the Center for
International Relations seek effective ways to promote
internationalization and the exchange of ideas and good practices. This
goal has driven the selection of topics for the 2014 conference on good
practices in internationalization, and the contents of the proceedings
follows on the topics we believe relevant in the current Hungarian and
Central European context of higher education. Fruitful practices in
academic networking have been shared and discussed in the hope that
individual academics and doctoral students may utilize them. For those
visiting other countries, marketing our universities and educational
services abroad is always a challenge, thus we also facilitated a dialogue
concerning old and new methods and approaches. The various academic
and administrative units all need to know how to properly facilitate
international partners and students in Hungary as well as abroad, for
instance at embassies and cultural centers. What sources and tools to
apply and how to incorporate intercultural knowledge at the same time?
How to handle administrative challenges and identify the best practices in
international project management and efficient, high quality mobility
services? What are the grant schemes and other funding sources

11
available for individuals and institutions and how to apply them
successfully? How to enhance learning performance in foreign language
teaching and exams, and how can coaching/ mentoring help academics
in/for the global arena? How can intercultural education function best and
how can E-learning be incorporated into learning across borders?
Furthermore, how can degree and non-degree programs work between
partners, what is their most effective marketing through cultural
diplomacy? I am sure that there isn`t a university today not grappling with
these questions and I am pleased to see how much we could learn from
one another at the conference and look forward to the International Week
and Dr. de Wits special workshop on internationalization in October,
2014. As for the June conference, sharing the outcomes of the
dynamicroundtable discussions as well as the wonderful papers
presented in the workshops in this book is a wonderful opportunity for us
to provide the knowledge accrued to not only the conference participants
but to all our international partners and those working in international
relations globally. We hope it will assist you in advancing your campus
with quality internationalization strategies and to be(come) content
partners of Eszterhzy College and successful in all areas of your own
work.
***

12
 RENTA ZSMBA

INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES IN HIGHER

EDUCATION EKC 2014: GOOD PRACTICES
AND CHALLENGES REFLECTED IN THE
SESSION TALKS
The following summary presents the most pertinent ideas
discussed in the sessions and aims to review the wide range of topics
covered, all addressing the present state of internationalization in
Hungarian higher education. The purpose of this summary is to single out
certain ideas, eperiences, critical comments and examples of good
practice shared at the roundtables that we feel deserve particular
emphasis.
One of the roundtables lead by Anita Molnr (EKC Mobility Office)
addressed Efficient Mobility Services. The EKC Mobility Office is
responsible for promoting the Student Mobility Programs and also
managing administrative issues for both incoming and outgoing students
and staff members.The EKC Mobility Office also provides counselling
services.
Among the challenges the participants highlighted are: (1) the
difficulties of using the Neptun system, which the students use to enrol
for courses (2) finding ways to motivate international and Hungarian
students to interact with each other, and (3) making the language
courses more popular for both students and teachers. Number three was
identified as especially significant since student success depends on the
development of the necessary language skills. Acquiring the necessary
language skills makes it easier for students to gain confidence and
pursue courses abroad on exchange programs (Erasmus). Educators
can also benefit from language instruction since it enables faculty
members to teach or give lectures at universities abroad and to provide
courses in their home institutions in a foreign language as well.
As for good practices, the Mobility Online System was mentioned
as an asset to the students when applying for mobility exchange
programs. Intercultural training is also highly successful as outgoing
students are provided with necessary information on the country of

13
destination and incoming students are also prepared for cultural
differences and challenges they may come across in Hungary. One of
the most popular programs for foreign students is excursions to places of
interest in Hungary .
Another roundtable saw an attempt to outline the current issues
related to degree programs offered for international students, joint
master and double degrees and the challenges characterizing their
accreditation. Speakers at this session broached three related areas:
Dr. Ilona Pajtk Tari, Vice Rector for Education at EKC, Erzsbet Kal-
Szcs, noted specialist program administrator at EKC and Mrton Beke,
Deputy Head at the Ministry of Human Resources initiated a discussion
on accreditation rules and risks, which was followed up by a conversation
on some challenges related to the rules and regulations governing the
acceptance of credit points internationally, as well as the growth of
double degree programs.
Erzsbet Kal-Szcs stressed the five conditions for the joint
degree programs which must be considered in the course of
accreditation. If two international partner universities wish to launch a
joint degree program, (1) they both have to be state recognized, (2) the
certificates issued by these universities must be legally recognised
degrees of higher education and must be accepted by the universities in
the countries involved, and (3) the joint program on offer must be an
accredited program in both institutions, (in Hungary and in the partner
instituions country). Furthermore, (4) the given Hungarian institution has
to declare that 75% of the training is in line with what is included in the
contract and students are expected to achieve at least 30 credits at the
specific Hungarian institution. Finally, (5) the Senate of the Hungarian
Higher Education Institution (HEI) must comply with the conditions which
are regulated by law.
Mrton Beke shared his views on the combination of Erasmus
scholarships with joint master degrees. There is a new European
program for international collaboration and education supported by the
EU Commission from which 350 projects and 25000 students and staff
are expected to be funded over a period of 7 years. The program
Erasmus Plus Master Degrees is, in fact, not new, since Erasmus
Mundus Master courses were a noted brand worldwide between 2004
and 2013. The future aims of the initiative include the acceleration of the
internationalization of higher education institutions attracting students
from all over the world, better employability of students through more
advanced professional skills and the provision of knowledge matched to
the expectectations of the labour market.

14
 Undoubtedly, there are challenges for those who wish to create joint
degree programs, namely the bureaucratic process of accreditation, the
occasional lack of institutional commitment and strategy, and the low
level of language skills among the faculty and administrative staff.
However, the institution can greatly improve the general level of
language skills and internationalization strategies and thus foster
collaboration-based degree programs. Marketing Hungarian
universities and educational services abroad and facilitating
international partners and students in/for Hungary: challenges and
good practices is the title of the panel discussion where Prof. Carmel
Borg (Malta), Prof. Attila Borbly (Chairman of the International
Committee of the Hungarian Rectors Conference), Fanni Kitty Balog
(Hungarian Rectors Conference) and Dr. dm Novotny (EKC School of
Economics), have addressed a topic that is growing in significance in
Hungarian higher education. Dr. Novotny, a faculty member of marketing
at the Institute of Economic Science talked about the competitiveness of
Hungarian universities abroad and illustrated with data why Hungary is
not represented among the top 400 universities on the World University
Rankings published on the website of the Times Higher Education.
However, on the list of BRICS and Emerging economies, also published
by THE, three Hungarian universities are included: the University of
Debrecen, the University of Szeged and Semmelweis University in
Budapest. These universities offer high quality programs in the medical
field as well as in international programs for foreign students. Fanni Kitty
Balog is a co-ordinator and representative of the International Committee
of the Hungarian Rectors Conference, a representative body of all the
Hungarian HEI, which acts as an umbrella organisation for all these
institutions and promotes internationalization of Hungarian universities
and colleges. An example of their work is the successful Brazilian
program Science without Borders. As mentioned earlier, there is no lack
of international students at Hungarian medical schools, it is rather other
fields and courses, though offered in English, where they are poorly
represented. As for theScience without Borders program, Hungary is
currently playing host to 1500 Brazilian students pursuing courses in
English at eighteen Hungarian universities and colleges. Brazil is running
the program in 42 countries and Hungary ranks tenth among participating
nations, and is the seventh most popular in Europe.
To maintain and extend the regard in which Hungary and her HE
institutions are held, it is essential to adapt to the needs and interests of
the students and offer courses with a practical approach. Kitty Fanni
Balog stated that Hungarian universities consider themselves flexible in
providing courses corresponding to specific needs. Furthermore, to get

15
the program up and running, excellent cooperation between the
international co-ordinators of each university is essential Hungarian
universities appear to have met this challenge. New challenges,
however, are constantly arising, Attila Borbly pointed out that the
marketing activity aimed at promoting Hungarian institutions on different
continents, increasingly in Asia, North and South America, has thrown up
some very basic questions, such as the geographical location of the
country or the capital city. He also added that it is not only Hungary that
is less familiar but the whole Central and Eastern European region. Yet,
Hungary is competitive, since its universities provide high quality
education for a relatively low tuition fee and living costs as compared to
other European countries.
In the roundtable entitled Administrative Challenges and
Successful Practices in Internationalisation, Karen Gardner
(University of New Mexico), the administrative representative of the
American partner institution outlined some aspects of the
internationalization at UNM, an institution of 27,000 students, that has
agreements in place with over 200 universities, including Eszterhzy
Kroly College.The partnership has several advantages from financial
benefits (affordable tuition for everyone: 29,000 $/year) to those of an
academic nature (offering a wide variety of research collaboration and
publication opportunities). To make a partnership work especially in the
initial phase, personal exchange is essential. In the present co-operation
this is exactly how it all started: from the initiative of a visiting professor
and her host department, with a few administrative assistant sat the host
institution, the collaboration plan has emerged. Nevertheless, planning
ahead is also important, as these projects need much time, moreover,
the individuals in charge have to be flexible and willing to negotiate.
Sometimes people focus on complex issues when beginning an
exchange, although it is the simple things, such as answering e-mails
and maintaining regular communication between the partners that are
unavoidable, pointed out Karen Gardner.
This cooperation has been exemplary since both sides have shown a
willingness to find common fields of interest which seem to be
advantageous for their institutions. To mention some: an exchange of
faculties, students, publication opportunities and participation in Fulbright
programs. Regarding the exchange of Fulbright Scholars, some
departments can help financially, and others can help in kind. However,
in the United States, HEI seem to have a limited international interest and
legislators are more concerned with lower levels of education.
Furthermore, the majority of the universities is financed by the state and
there is no working relationship between local politicians and state-

16
funded universities. Considering the administrative challenges, one might
start with the difficulties in making bilateral exchange agreements.
Financial problems almost always arise as all the money is directed to a
common tuition pool instead of the faculties who do not see the financial
benefit of the exchange program and turn down the initiatives.
Consequently, it is rather the departments that tend to develop and run
their own institutional relationships.
Further challenges may involve intercultural misunderstandings. A
dedicated visiting management members may contribute to specific
internationalization initiatives, in that sense the current faculty exchange,
including the President of EKC and chief executives of UNM, may
enhance a valuable collaboration and make significant steps towards
establishing a stable partnership in future exchange programs.
Lack of information might also be a difficulty in entering into a bilateral
agreement, since between the universities of the USA and those of
Europe there are no such organizations as Erasmus Mundus or V4 which
could facilitate cooperation between the institutions. Yet, this does not
mean that American universities cannot receive Erasmus funding.
Although American universities cannot have direct access to Erasmus
funding, Hungarian universities are able to finance a specific project on
condition that there are at least two European institutions collaborating.
The key to this cooperation is the presence of a dedicated person who
sees to the circulation of information among the institutions.
Some more challenges may also overshadow the success of a stable
exchange program. American students do not necessarily choose
Europe for an academic year abroad Asian universities are among the
most popular, though students risk a higher level of culture shock or if
they do, it is mostly Great Britain, Ireland and France, partly because of
their being able to use their mother tongue and partly because they are
more familiar with these countries than the rest of Europe. Hungary is
largely unknown in the USA, so more marketing, more collaboration
among the Hungarian institutions to make the country and its universities
more established are worth considering.

***

17
 HANS DE WIT

INTERNATIONALISATION OF HIGHER
EDUCATION: NEW MEANINGS, RATIONALES
AND APPROACHES1

Introduction

This paper intends to give an overview of the why, how and what of
internationalisation in higher education. It analyses the evolution of
internationalisation of higher education over the past three decades: from
a rather static and fragmented notion of international education to a
broad, innovative process of internationalisation, in the context of a
global knowledge society. Meanings, rationales, strategies and
approaches are constantly changing as is also the global landscape.
Internationalisation is not a static phenomenon but a constantly evolving
process. There is not one model fitting all, but opportunities for those who
decide with clear rationales, strategies and approaches to move forward
in internationalising their higher education.
Internationalisation over the years has moved from a reactive to a pro-
active strategic issue, from added value to mainstream, although more in
intention and discourse than in practice. It also has seen its focus, scope
and content evolve substantially. Increasing competition in higher
education, the commercialisation and the increased cross-border delivery
of higher education, have challenged the value traditionally attached to
cooperation: exchanges and partnerships. At the same time, the
internationalisation of the curriculum and the teaching and learning
process (also referred to as Internationalisation at Home) has become
as relevant as the traditional focus on mobility (both degree mobility and
mobility as part of the home degree).

1
This paper is a shortened and updated version of De Wit, H. (2013a).
Internationalization of higher education, an introduction on the why, how and what. Pp.
13-46. In H. de Wit (Ed.). (2013), An Introduction to Higher Education
Internationalisation. Universit Cattolica University Press Vita e Pensiero, Centre for
Higher Education Internationalisation (CHEI), UCSC, Milan.

18
 It would be too easy, however, to assume that everything has
changed over the past ten years with regard to the internationalisation of
higher education, and that this change is primarily from a more
cooperative model to a more competitive model. There are different
accents and approaches. Internationalisation strategies are filtered and
contextualised by the specific internal context of the university, by the
type of university, and how it is embedded nationally. Internationalisation
strategies are shaped at the programme level by the different relationship
these programmes have to the market and society. An
internationalisation strategy can be substantially different for a teacher
training programme than for a school of dentistry or a business school.
And internationalisation strategies may be different by level: PhD, master
and bachelor.

The evolutionary concept of internationalisation in higher

education

The strategic notion and concept of internationalisation dates from the

1990s. Before, there was already a substantial tradition of research and
practice on the international dimension of higher education, in general
under the term international education, or under terms that reflect some
kind of international activity. Basically these traditional terms were either
related to mobility, such as study abroad, exchanges, international
students or academic mobility, or related to curriculum, such as
multicultural education, international studies, peace education, area
studies. These terms described a concrete element of international
education and later internationalisation, and in many cases were used as
pars pro tot and as a synonym for the overall term.
As I described elsewhere more in detail, the term international
education finds it basis in the broader domain of comparative and
international education. (De Wit, 2002, p. 104-109; see also de Wit,
2013b) It is the applied character and the related notion of practice and
policy implementation that has been dominant in the discourse on
international education before and even into the 1990s. It expresses itself
in the names of the key associations dealing with international
cooperation and exchange, such as the Institute of International
Education (IIE), which was created in 1919, and after World War II the
Association of International Educators (NAFSA), the Association of
International Education Administrators (AIEA) in the United States, the
Canadian Bureau for International Education (CBIE) in Canada, the

19
European Association for International Education (EAIE) in Europe, and
several others in the world. It also is reflected in the name of the
academic journal of the field of international educators, the Journal of
Studies in International Education, which started in 1997.
It is not clear when the transition took place from international
education to internationalisation of (higher) education. The use of
internationalisation in relation to higher education already can be noticed
in publications in the 1970s. But it is only in the 1990s that the term
internationalisation really takes over from international education as
describing the different ways the international dimensions in higher
education are taking shape. This shift is a reflection of the increasing
importance of these international dimensions in higher education and of
the related transfer from a marginal set of programs and activities to a
more comprehensive process. In Europe, this shift was very much
stimulated by the research programmes and mobility scheme ERASMUS
of the European Commission.
More than in numbers of mobile students, the impact of the
programme has been on the internationalisation and the reform of higher
education. ERASMUS has paved the way for the reform of European
higher education under the Bologna Process, has been a pilot for its
study point scheme ECTS, and was an initiator for the opening up to
countries in Central and Eastern Europe to EU-membership, as it is for
current aspiring candidate members. The programme stimulated both
national governments and institutions of higher education to develop
European and international strategies. The new ERASMUS+ programme
reflects this global approach to ERASMUS and the ambition of the
Commission to extend the scope and targets of the programme: an
additional 5 million students studying abroad between 2014 and 2020.

Meanings and rationales of internationalisation and

globalisation

The changing dynamics in internationalisation of higher education

reflect themselves both in the meaning of internationalisation and
globalisation, and its rationales. What do we mean by the
internationalisation of higher education? First of all, we have to
recognise, that there have always been many different terms used in
connection to internationalisation of higher education. (De Wit, 2002,
109-116; Knight, 2008, 19-22) In literature and in practice of
internationalisation of higher education, it is still quite common to use
terms which only address a small part of internationalisation and/or
emphasize a specific rationale for internationalisation. Most of the terms

20
used are either curriculum related: international studies, global studies,
multicultural education, intercultural education, peace education, etc., or
mobility related: study abroad, education abroad, academic mobility, etc.
Over the past ten years one can notice a whole new group of terms
emerging which were not actively present before in the debate about
internationalisation of higher education. These are much more related to
the cross-border delivery of education and are a consequence of the
impact of globalisation of society on higher education: borderless
education, education across borders, global education, offshore
education and international trade of educational services.
In 2002, I stated that as the international dimension of higher
education gains more attention and recognition, people tend to use it in
the way that best suits their purpose (De Wit, 2002, 14). This is even
more the case now in view of this further proliferation of activities and
terms. Internationalization is changing the world of higher education, and
globalization is changing the world of internationalization, remarks
Knight (2008, 1). The debate about globalisation and internationalisation
and the recent, rapid evolution of cross-border activities in higher
education have strengthened the tendency to explain and define
internationalisation of higher education in connection to a specific
rationale or purpose.
Scott (2005, 14) observes that both internationalisation and
globalisation are complex phenomena with many strands, and concludes
that the distinction between internationalisation and globalisation,
although suggestive, cannot be regarded as categorical. They overlap,
and are intertwined, in all kinds of ways. Altbach, Reisberg and Rumbley
(2009, 7) claim:
Globalization, a key reality in the 21st century, has already
profoundly influenced higher education.(...) We define
globalization as the reality shaped by an increasingly integrated
world economy, new information and communications
technology, the emergence of an international knowledge
network, the role of the English language, and other forces
beyond the control of academic institutions(...).
Internationalization is defined as the variety of policies and
programs that universities and governments implement to
respond to globalization.
Brandenburg and De Wit (2011, 15) comment that internationalisation
is often too easily regarded as good and globalisation as bad:

21
 Internationalization is claimed to be the last stand for
humanistic ideas against the world of pure economic benefits
allegedly represented by the term globalization. Alas, this
constructed antagonism between internationalization and
globalization ignores the fact that activities that are more related
to the concept of globalization (higher education as a tradable
commodity) are increasingly executed under the flag of
internationalization.
In the Bologna Declaration of 1999 and the Lisbon Strategy of 2000
the two dimensions of internationalisation meet: cooperation and
competition. On the one hand, both processes emphasise that there
should be more cooperation resulting in a European area for higher
education and research: A Europe of Knowledge. On the other hand,
there is strong emphasis on the argument that this cooperation is
required in order to cope with the competition from the United States,
Japan and, increasingly, China and other emerging economies. Also the
Communication, European Higher Education in the World, in which the
European Commission (2013) presents its internationalisation strategy,
reflects these two dimensions in the three pillars: mobility,
internationalisation at home and cooperation and partnership.
As new realities and challenges of the current environment, Knight
mentions globalisation and the emergence of the knowledge economy,
regionalisation, information and communication technologies, new
providers, alternate funding sources, borderless issues, lifelong learning,
and the growth in the numbers and diversity of actors. Therefore,
Knights definition (Knight, 2008, 21) acknowledges both levels and the
need to address the relationship and integrity between them: the
process of integrating an international, intercultural or global dimension
into the purpose, functions or delivery of post-secondary education. She
(ibid, 22-24) also states that you can see now basically two components
evolving in the internationalisation of higher education. One is
internationalisation at home activities that help students to develop
international understanding and intercultural skills. So it is much more
curriculum-oriented: preparing your students to be active in a much more
globalised world. Activities under this at home dimension are: curriculum
and programmes, teaching and learning processes, extra-curricular
activities, liaison with local cultural/ethnic groups, and research and
scholarly activities. And the second movement is that of
internationalisation abroad, including all forms of education across
borders: mobility of students and faculty, and mobility of projects,
programs and providers. These components have not to be seen as
mutual exclusive but are intertwined in the policies and programmes.

22
 When we talk about internationalisation, it is important to distinguish
the question of why we are internationalising higher education, from what
we mean by internationalisation. Many documents, policy papers and
books refer to internationalisation, but do not define the why. And in
much literature meanings and rationales are confused, in the sense that
often a rationale for internationalisation is presented as a definition of
internationalisation.
Literature (De Wit, 2002, 83-102) identifies four broad categories of
rationales for internationalisation: political rationales, economic
rationales, social and cultural rationales and academic rationales. These
rationales are not mutually exclusive, may be different in importance by
country and region, and can change in dominance over time. In the
present time, the economic rationales are considered to be more
dominant than the other three, and in connection to these, academic
rationales such as strategic alliances, status and profile are also
becoming more dominant. Knight (2008, 25) speaks of emerging
rationales at the national level such as human resource development,
strategic alliances, income generation/commercial trade, nation building,
and social/cultural development and mutual understanding; and at the
institutional level: international branding and profile, quality
enhancement/international standards, income generation, student and
staff development, strategic alliances and knowledge production.
Rationales are different over time and by country/region, they are not
mutually exclusive, and they lead to different approaches and policies.
Currently, changes are taking place at a rapid pace in different parts of
the world and rationales become more and more interconnected. Still, the
question why is in most strategic documents, both at the regional,
national and institutional level in generally only superficially and
marginally answered. But how can one define clear objectives and goals,
and how can one define and assess the intercultural and international
learning outcomes, without first having described the specific
(inter)national, institutional and-or programmatic context and, based on
that, the relevance of the internationalisation strategy? If we do not
constantly ask ourselves why, instead of assuming that it is not a
necessary question because internationalisation is positive in itself,
internationalisation will be at an end (De Wit, 2014).

Perils and Pitfalls of international education

The current state of internationalisation of higher education is under

debate. What are the perils and pitfalls of international education in the
present and near future? Do we have to change or at least update our

23
mindset with respect to the values and rationales for internationalisation?
Is internationalisation as we know it coming to an end?
Over the past 40 years internationalisation of higher education has
taken several forms and accents. In the nineteen seventies and early
eighties, internationalisation in many countries was primarily focused on
the development cooperation and aid. In the second half of the nineteen
eighties, internationalisation took a different direction. In most of
continental Europe, thanks to the development of scholarship
programmes and mobility schemes, in particular the ERASMUS
programme, the emphasis focused from aid to exchange of students and
teachers as well as curriculum development. In countries like the United
Kingdom and Australia, on the contrary, the emphasis shifted from aid to
trade. Instead of scholarships, universities were forced by their
governments to charge full cost fees to international students using as
argument: why should our taxpayers have to pay for the education of
these foreign students. And against all expectations, it has been
surprising to see that this did not result in a decrease of international
students but in a substantial increase, following the principle what you
have to pay much for must be of good value, making the United
Kingdom the number 2 and Australia the number 5 country in receiving
international students who want to pursue a full degree abroad, behind
the United States and close to Germany and France.
In the nineteen nineties, influenced among others by the Asian
economic crisis as the large majority of their international students
come from these countries Australia and the United Kingdom took the
lead in a new direction of internationalisation, referred to as transnational
education, cross-border delivery of education or offshore education. The
underlying assumption: if they do not come to us, why do we not go to
them. Their universities developed branch campuses and franchise
operations in countries like Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, South Africa
and so on. A shift in movement from students to the movement of
programs and universities.
Together with the United States, Australia and the United Kingdom
are the leading nations in international higher education by their inflow of
international students and their offshore activities. This shift in
internationalisation in the nineteen nineties and further evolved in the
past decade, is referred to as a shift in paradigm from cooperation to
competition, a more commercial approach to international higher
education.
In continental Europe, this more commercial approach was originally
watched with rather negative eyes. Free or low tuition fees higher
education was and still is more common there, and that applied until

24
recently also to students from outside the European Union. We see
though in the past few years also in continental Europe (Denmark,
Sweden, the Netherlands in particular) a move to full cost fees for
international students from outside of the EU, and there is an increasing
pressure on national tuition fees.
Recently though, we also notice a reaction on the strong commercial
focus in international education. The higher education sector has
understood that too much of a commercial approach will jeopardize the
quality of education, the reputation of the institutions, and by that the
future inflow of national and international students. This implies: more
selection on international students, accreditation and quality control of
their offshore operations, transfer of revenues to better facilitate, council
and guide international students, and more emphasis on the
internationalisation of their curriculum and on study abroad of the own
students.
Last but not least, we can also see a shift in geographical sense. The
traditional divide between North and South and East and West of the
past century is no longer to be taken for granted. The increasing
importance of Asia, the developments in the Middle East, Latin America
and Africa change also the higher education landscape and by that its
international dimension. They bring in new values, new approaches and
new relationships.
In this context it is not surprising that we see a call for a change of
thinking about internationalisation, a move to mainstreaming it within the
overall quality of education, a move to a more comprehensive approach
and less revenue based. Several indications of this call are at the same
time emerging. The essay with the title The end of internationalisation
by Brandenburg and de Wit (2011) might have functioned as a wakeup
call, but other initiatives developed at the same time. In particular worth
mentioning was the initiative of the International Association of
Universities (IAU) to start a discussion about the need to re-examine the
concept of internationalisation and define a call for action based on it
(IAU, 2012a and 2012b, www.iau-aiu.net). The group addressed three
questions: Is the concept and the definition of internationalisation keeping
up with developments in higher education? Is there a shared
understanding of the concept? Has internationalisation lost sight of its
central purposes? A call for action has been formulated by IAU based on
their work. (IAU, 2012b, www.iau-aiu.net)

25
 Why rethinking the concept of internationalisation?

If internationalisation is still such a relatively young concept, why is

there than a need for rethinking? I see eight main reasons (De Wit
2013c).
In the first place, the discourse of internationalisation does not seem
to meet always the reality, in which internationalisation is still more a
synonym of international education, in other words a summing up of
fragmented and rather unrelated terms, than a comprehensive process
and concept. In that respect one has to consider the NAFSA- report
Comprehensive Internationalization: from concept to action
(www.nafsa.org/cizn) by Hudzik (2011) more as a wake-up call than as
the introduction of a new concept (see also his contribution in this
publication). In my view, comprehensive internationalisation is a
tautology: internationalisation is not internationalisation if it is not
comprehensive, than it is old fashioned international education.
The further development of globalisation, the increase of
commodification in higher education and of the notion of a global
knowledge society and economy, has also resulted in a new range of
forms, providers and products, such as branch campuses, franchises,
trade in education services. And as a consequence new, sometimes
even conflicting dimensions, views and elements are emerging in the
discourse of internationalisation.
Also, the international higher education context is rapidly changing.
Was until recently internationalisation like international education
predominantly a western phenomenon, in which the developing countries
only played a reactive role, the emerging economies and the higher
education community in other parts of the world alter the landscape of
internationalisation. Moving away from a western, neo-colonial concept,
as several educators perceive internationalisation, it has to incorporate
these emerging other views. Jones and de Wit (2012) call this the
globalisation of internationalisation.
In the fourth place, the discourse on internationalisation is too much
dominated by a small group of stakeholders: higher education leaders,
governments and international bodies. Other stakeholders, such as the
professional field, and in particular the faculty and the student voice are
far less heard, and by that the discourse is insufficiently influenced by
those who should be affected most by it.
Related to the previous point, too much of the discourse is oriented to
the national and institutional level with little attention for the program
level: research, the curriculum, and the teaching and learning process,

26
which should be more at the core of internationalisation, as expressed by
movements such as Internationalization at Home.
In the sixth place, internationalisation is too much input/output
focused, a quantitative approach on numbers instead of an outcome
based approach. There has also been in the discourse too little attention
on norms, values, ethics of internationalisation practice. The approach
has been too pragmatically oriented to reaching targets without a debate
on the potential risks and ethical consequences. The recent debates on
the use of agents in the US, the problems with diploma fraud and lack of
quality assurance on cross-border delivery, illustrate the need for more
attention to the ethics and values of internationalisation.
A last point that influences the need for rethinking of
internationalisation is the increased awareness that the notion of
internationalisation is not only related to the relation between nations but
even more to the relation between cultures and between the global and
local.
These eight points are rationales for rethinking internationalisation.
The overarching reason is that we consider internationalisation of higher
education too much as a goal in itself instead of as a means to an end.
Internationalisation is not more and less than a way to enhance the
quality of education and research. That objective is too much forgotten in
the strive for quantitative goals. The rethinking exercise initiated by IAU,
more than an attempt to redefine the still young concept of
internationalisation, was a call for action to bring the core values and
objectives of internationalisation back to the forefront.

Myths and misconceptions about internationalisation of

higher education

As Brandenburg and de Wit (2011) in the essay about the end of

internationalization stated, there appears to be a trend to move from
substance to form and of devaluation of the notion of internationalization.
If one looks at recently published articles and themes at international
education conferences, one could get the impression that
internationalization has indeed an identity or mid-life crisis, as Knight
wonders (Knight, 2011a).
The changing landscape of international higher education as a
consequence of the globalisation of our societies and economies is
manifest in many ways: increasing competition for international students
and academics, growth of cross-border delivery of programmes and
emergence of international for profit providers in higher education, the
changing position of countries like India and China in the world economy

27
and in the higher education arena. They are all realities and their impact
cannot be ignored. It is manifested in the constructed antagonism
between internationalization and globalization (Brandenburg and de Wit,
2011, p. 16). Brandenburg and de Wit (2011, p. 16) phrase the
developments in internationalisation of higher education as follows:
Gradually, the why and what have been taken over by the how and
instruments of internationalization have become the main objective: more
exchange, more degree mobility, and more recruitment.
For internationalisation of higher education, it is important to go back
to the basis and look carefully at the why, how and what of
internationalisation in the current global knowledge economy. Knight
(2011b, p. 14) writes about Five Myths about internationalization. These
myths are according to her:

Foreign students as internationalization agents: more foreign

students on campus will produce more internationalized
institutional culture and curriculum;
International reputation as a proxy for quality: the more
international a university is the better its reputation;
International institutional agreements: the greater number of
international agreements or network memberships a university
has the more prestigious and attractive it is;
International accreditation: the more international accreditation
stars an institution has, the more internationalized it is and ergo
the better it is;
Global branding: an international marketing scheme is the
equivalent of an internationalization plan.

De Wit (2011) writes about misconceptions and challenges for higher

education, and identifies nine misconceptions, two of which are similar to
two of the five by Jane Knight (myth 1 and 3). Both the myths by Jane
Knight and the misconceptions by me relate to the instrumental approach
to internationalisation as referred to above. The nine misconceptions
whereby internationalization is regarded as synonymous with a specific
programmatic or organizational strategy to promote internationalisation,
in other words: where the means appear to have become the goal, are
the following.

1. Internationalisation is education in the English language

The influence of the English language as a medium of communication

in research has been dominant for a long period of time. Also, over the

28
past twenty years there has been a tendency in higher education to teach
in English as an alternative for teaching in ones mother tongue. Although
there are sufficient reasons why it can be important to teach in English,
there are several unintended negative effects, which need to be paid
attention to. Increasingly, education offered in the English language is
regarded as the equivalent of internationalisation, which results in a
decreasing focus on other foreign languages; in an insufficient focus on
the quality of the English spoken by students and teachers for whom
English is not their native language; and thus leading to a decline in the
quality of education.

2. Internationalisation is studying or staying abroad

Study or internship abroad as part of your home studies is often

regarded as the equivalent of internationalisation. In particular the
European Commissions policy to stimulate this manner of mobility has
contributed to this instrumental approach over the last 25 years. We can
question, however, the imbalanced and over-simplified approach to
mobility as being the same as internationalisation. As well, it can be said
that mobility is merely an instrument for promoting internationalisation
and not a goal in itself. Mobility needs to be better embedded in the
internationalisation of education. It should be specifically assessed as to
whether these added values are developed in the student and more
innovative reflection is required on alternative ways of achieving these
added values, for instance by the use of virtual mobility.

3. Internationalisation equals an international subject

A third misconception that continues to surface persistently is that

internationalisation is synonymous with providing training with an
international content or connotation: European Studies, International
Business or Music. Within the institutions and schools that offer these
programmes, the prevailing opinion seems to be that in this manner
internationalisation has been properly implemented. Without meaning to
overlook the valuable contribution of these kind of programmes, again, it
is too simplistic and instrumental an argument to declare regional studies
synonymous with internationalisation.

4. Internationalisation implies having many international students

A fourth misconception on internationalisation is the assumption that

having many international students equals internationalisation. Without

29
denying that the combination of local and international students in the
lecture-room can make a significant contribution to internationalisation,
also in this case, having international students is not sufficient in itself.
Unfortunately, countless examples can be given of programmes that are
oriented exclusively towards international students or where international
students are being added as an isolated group.

5. Having a few international students in the classroom makes

internationalisation into a success

The other side of the preceding misconception happens as well. In

particular many international programmes have developed a very
distorted proportion between the number of local and international
students. Partly as a result of the increasing national and international
competition for international students, the proportion between local and
international students becomes more and more unequal, so one can
hardly speak of an international classroom setting. Conversely, this
development has a negative effect on the internationalisation of
mainstream, non-English-language programmes. The local students with
a certain, whether or not motivated, international interest, preferably enrol
in the international programmes which means interest in the mainstream
education in the local language dwindles. Also in these programmes, the
presence of a small number of international students creates tensions.
Should the courses be taught in English if there are only one or two
international students in the lecture-room? How can the integration of
international students be realized in such distorted proportions?

6. There is no need to test intercultural and international

competencies specifically

A sixth misconception assumes that students acquire intercultural and

international competencies naturally if they study or do their internship
abroad or take part in an international class. This misconception is
closely related to the previous misconceptions about mobility, education
in English and the presence of international students. For, if these kinds
of activities and instruments are considered synonymous with
internationalisation, then it is obvious to assume that intercultural and
international competences will therefore also be acquired. Once again,
reality is more complicated. It is not guaranteed from the very start that
these activities will actually lead to that result. After all, a student can
completely seclude himself from sharing experiences with other students

30
and other sections of the population in the country he visits, and
therefore exclude himself from their culture.

7. The more partnerships, the more international

A seventh misconception on internationalisation is the focus on

partnerships: the more partnerships, the more successful the
internationalisation. Globalisation, competition and market processes
have reinforced the development towards strategic partnerships. This
tendency towards strategic partnerships often gets stuck in intentions
however. The majority of partnerships remain bilateral, and in several
institutions and schools the number far exceeds the number of students
and teachers being exchanged.

8. Higher education is international by nature

In particular at universities and among their researchers the general

opinion is that they are international by their very nature, and thus there
is no need to stimulate and guide internationalisation. Thereby,
references are made to the Renaissance, the time of the philosopher
ERASMUS (ca. 1467-1536), whom the European exchange programme
is named after. This historic reference ignores the fact that universities
mostly originated in the 18th and 19th century and had a clear national
orientation and function. Internationalisation does not come naturally in
universities and universities of applied sciences, but it should be
introduced. That is why the rather widely accepted definition of
internationalisation by Jane Knight speaks of an integration process.

9. Internationalisation is a goal in itself

Most of the abovementioned misconceptions see an activity or

instrument as synonymous with internationalisation, whereas in fact their
goal is merely to contribute to its realisation. The last, also fairly
prevailing misconception regards internationalisation as a goal in itself
and therefore it is in line with the misconceptions mentioned earlier.
Internationalisation is a process to introduce intercultural, international
and global dimensions in higher education to improve the goals,
functions and delivery of higher education, and with that to improve the
quality of education and research. If internationalisation is regarded as a
goal in itself then it remains ad hoc and marginal.
For a better understanding of the challenges and opportunities for the
internationalisation of higher education it is important to recognise that

31
these misconceptions are still fairly common. And to also understand that
there are even more myths and misconceptions than Knight and de Wit
have described. In 2014, de Wit for instance added two misconceptions
to the nine he formulated in 2011: You can define the what, how and
outcome of internationalisation strategies without first having answered
the why?', and local and global are two different things (De Wit, 2014).

Internationalisation Rhetoric versus Reality

In connection with the myths and misconceptions, we can also observe

a mismatch between optimistic talk about internationalisation and reality on
the ground. Many universities are not embedding change in the curriculum,
for instance. Will the future see research universities leading in terms of
innovation and progress? In 1998, Altbach and McGill Peterson wrote a
critical assessment in Change, entitled Internationalise American Higher
Education? Not exactly. They observed a discrepancy between the
optimistic rhetoric of internationalisation and the reality of significant
constraints. Nearly 15 years later, the third study Mapping
Internationalisation on US Campuses by the American Council on
Education (ACE), which studied 1,041 institutions, confirms that this
tendency is still prevalent in US higher education. And I would be inclined
to add also elsewhere.
What lessons can be learned from the mapping exercise? Would
similar studies in Europe and elsewhere come to similar results? Will the
divide between research universities and other institutions of higher
education with respect to internationalisation increase and in what way?
The results of the study by ACE are described in a positive way. More
institutions incorporate internationalisation into their mission statements
and strategic plans. There are more assessment procedures for
internationalisation in place. There is more attention paid to hiring faculty
with international backgrounds, experience and interests. Attention to
mobility issues remains strong. Partnerships, cross-border delivery of
education and joint degrees are on the rise. And in general there is an
increase in funding, in particular for study abroad and recruitment.
But the ACE report is also outspoken in its concerns. According to the
report, Altbach and McGill Peterson's observation is still valid today, in
particular with regard to the issue of student learning. It states: Although
many institutions indicated that the curriculum has been a particular
focus of internationalisation efforts in recent years, overall this is not
reflected in the general education requirements that apply to all
students. And in a clear but harsh way the report concludes: At their
core, however, colleges and universities are about student learning; no

32
matter what shape the internationalisation process takes at a given
institution, student learning must remain a central core. It adds that this
seems not to be the case in many institutions. In other words, higher
education institutions should not only talk about the importance of
internationalisation of the curriculum, but place it at the centre of their
curriculum reforms and learning outcomes.
These findings coincide with the results from the third and fourth
Global Survey by the International Association of Universities (IAU) in
2010 (Egron Polak and Hudson, 2010) and 2014 (Egron Polak and
Hudson, 2014). Also in those surveys, one can note a strong difference
between what institutions say about the importance of internationalisation
and its priority in practice in particular where it concerns the curriculum
not only in the US but also in other regions (Beelen and de Wit, 2014).
So, this discrepancy is clearly not a purely American problem, but an
issue that applies also to Europe and other parts of the world. We may be
positive about the increasing attention being paid to curriculum and learning
outcomes instead of the quantitative focus on study abroad and recruitment
of international students that is manifested in these studies. But there is still
a lot to do to make the shift a reality. Funding is not the main obstacle to
internationalising the curriculum and learning outcomes. The IAU surveys
indicate that faculty resistance and an inflexible curriculum are probably
more important. So leadership can make a difference, but the impetus for
change has to move down to the programme level to deans, department
heads, faculty and students for change to be realised. At a time when
internationalisation has become more bureaucratic and focused on
quantitative targets, this requires a substantive change of mentality and
approach.
Another interesting finding of the ACE report relates to the differences
in progress between doctoral universities and other higher education
institutions in the US: Broadly speaking, the doctoral sector does better
than all others on many of the internationalisation indicators in the
Mapping Survey. While associate institutions have made progress in
some areas, their overall levels of internationalisation are still below
those of institutions in other sectors. The report correctly notes that
approximately 40% of the student body in the US attends associate
institutions, and calls for new innovative approaches to
internationalisation since the classical focus on study abroad is not the
most useful for students in this sector. Nevertheless, we do not yet see
many signs of innovation in that sector. And that applies also tot the
sector of universities of applied sciences in Europe.

33
 Changing the internationalisation agendas: looking at the
future

The global higher education landscape and its international

dimensions are constantly changing. The global competition for talent,
the emergence of international branch campuses, growing complexity in
cross-border activity and the debate in the United States on the payment
of agents to recruit students are just some of the issues that until recently
were not at the forefront of higher education debates. However, these are
now high priorities, not only for international educators but also for
university presidents, associations of universities, politicians and other
key higher education players around the world.
The emergence of a global higher education space has implications
for our way of looking at internationalisation. As the international
dimensions of higher education have developed their own momentum
and become a global topic of interest, the growing globalisation of
internationalisation requires a more nuanced approach to its
interpretation and delivery than has hitherto been the case.
We continue to talk as though we share the same understanding, but in
fact there are many different regional and thematic interpretations of
internationalisation. It is timely to consider whether this variety in terms of
interpretation is a barrier or a benefit and to question whether we are
learning sufficiently from other global contexts, whether this is through
reading beyond our usual paradigm, collaborative international research
and practice or attendance at conferences overseas. Can we learn from
contributions to the internationalisation debate in different parts of the
world and converge our discourse to deliver more effective practice now
and in the future?
Western countries have tended to dominate research and discussions
on internationalisation, and the flow of students has been largely in their
direction. However, as more countries attract inbound students and open
up to internationalisation, their experiences offer new perspectives and
issues for consideration.
Some of the same questions arise that have long been debated in the
West, yet these different contexts offer insights that can inform practice
elsewhere, whether related to the student experience or to institutional
concerns. Over the past few years East Asia and South East Asia have
become key recruiting regions, with Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand,
for example, all declaring themselves international education hubs. To
this list can be added China, Japan, Korea, India, Brazil, South Africa
and the Middle East, among others, and many more if we include
international branch campuses of Western universities.

34
 Notions of importing and exporting countries are being turned upside
down as students choose study destinations in countries once seen as
merely sending students to the West to study. Global mobility flows are
increasingly complex, then, offering new opportunities for those able and
willing to access them.
Voices from countries with more recent international engagement
should be heard as offering new perspectives and dimensions to the
existing landscape of international education.
In essence, internationalisation efforts in higher education need to be
focused on moving away from input and output to more of a process and
outcome approach to internationalisation, ensuring that students and
faculty are prepared and competent for an increasingly global and
interconnected society.
In this process of globalisation of internationalisation to be effective,
ethical, responsible and sustainable, the following priorities are according
to Jones and de Wit (2012) essential:

Learn from other, non-Western national and cultural contexts, not

only through collaborations and transnational programmes but
also through perspectives on internationalisation itself.
Ensure that no single approach or paradigm dominates the
discourse, but take into account the nature of internationalisation
as a comprehensive process.
See internationalisation not as a goal in itself, but as a
contribution to the quality of students' education and research.
Be more explicit about institutional and individual motivations so
that internationalisation objectives and outcomes are clear and
measurable.
Pay more attention to faculty and student perspectives.
Understand better the impact of international and intercultural
learning outcomes on student employability, taking into account
the perspectives of employers.
Continue research on the benefits of internationalisation and the
impact on students, faculty and administrators.
Better understand the link between internationalisation and
multiculturalism.
In this paper I have intended to map out the evolution of
internationalisation of higher education over the past three decades: from
a rather static and fragmented notion of international education to a
broad, innovative process of internationalisation, in the context of a
global knowledge society. Meanings, rationales, strategies and
approaches are constantly changing as is also the global landscape, in

35
which the new economies of Asia, Latin America, the Middle East and
also Africa are becoming increasingly stronger actors. Internationalisation
is not a static phenomenon but a constantly evolving process.
Stakeholders: international organisations, national governments, regions,
institutions of higher education, faculties and students, have to
understand and react to this process and define their niche in it. There is
not one model fitting all, but opportunities for those who decide with clear
rationales and approaches to move forward in internationalising their
higher education. In this process, the move from a quantitative and
instrumental approach to internationalisation towards a more qualitative
and outcomes and impact approach is the key attention point for the
future.

References

Altbach, P. G. (2006). Globalization and the University: Realities in an

Unequal World. In International Handbook of Higher Education,
ed. P. G. Altbach and J. J .F. Forest. Dordrecht, the Netherlands:
Springer.
Altbach, P. G., Arnove, R. F. and Kelly, G.P. (1982). Trends in
Comparative Education: A Critical Analysis. In Comparative
Education, edited by P. G. Altbach, G. P. Kelly and R. F. Arnove.
New York: Macmillan.
Altbach, P.G., and McGill Peterson, P. (1998). Internationalize American
Higher Education? Not Exactly. In Change, 30. pp. 3639.
Altbach, P.G., Reisberg, L., and Rumbley, L. (2009). Trends in Global
Higher Education, Tracking an Academic Revolution. Boston,
Center for International Higher Education, Boston College.
American Council on Education. (2012). Mapping Internationalization on
U.S. Campuses. Center for Internationalization and Global
Engagement, ACE: Washington D.C.
Brandenburg, U. and De Wit, H. (2011) The end of internationalization.
International Higher Education., In International Higher Education,
number 62: winter 2011. Boston, Boston College Center for
International Higher Education. pp. 15-16.
De Wit, H. (2002) Internationalization of Higher Education in the United
States of America and Europe: A Historical, Comparative, and
Conceptual Analysis. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
---. (2011) Internationalization Misconceptions., in International Higher
Education, number 64: Summer 2011. Boston, Boston College
Center for International Higher Education. pp. 6-7.

36
---. (2012). Internationalisation in higher education Rhetoric and
Reality. University World News. Issue 231, 22 July 2012.
www.universityworldnews.com.
---. (2013a). Internationalization of higher education, an introduction on
the why, how and what. In Hans de Wit (Ed.). (2013), An
Introduction to Higher Education Internationalisation. Universit
Cattolica University Press Vita e Pensiero, Centre for Higher
Education Internationalisation (CHEI), UCSC, Milan. pp. 13-46.
---. (2013b). The different faces and phases of internationalization of
higher education. In A. Maldonado and R. Bassett (Eds.), At the
Forefront of International Higher Education, a Festschrift in Honour
of Philip Altbach. Springer, Dordrecht.
---. (2013c). Rethinking the concept of internationalisation. In Going
Global: Identifying Trends and Drivers of International Education,
Emerald Group Publishing, London. pp. 213-218.
---. (2014) Misconceptions about (the end of) internatinonalisation. In
University World News, 18 July 2014, Issue No. 0329
De Wit, H. and Beelen, J. (2014). Reading between the Lines Global
Internationalisation Survey. University World News, 2 May 2014
Issue No:0318
De Wit, H. and Jooste, N. (2014). Can international education be truly
equal? University World News, 23 February 2014 Issue No:0308
Egron-Polak, E. and Hudson, R. (2010). Internationalization of Higher
Education: Global trends, regional perspectives (IAU 3rd Global
Survey report). Paris: IAU.
---. (2010). Internationalization of higher education: Global trends,
regional perspectives (IAU 3rd Global Survey Report ed.). Paris:
IAU.
---. (2014). Internationalization of higher education: Growing
expectations, essential values (IAU 4rd Global Survey Report ed.).
Paris: IAU.
European Commission (2013). European higher education in the world.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament,
The Council, The European Economic and Social Committee and
The Committee of the Regions. Brussels, 11.7.2013
COM (2013) 499 final. Retrieved, June 10, 2014: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/
LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2013:0499:FIN:en:PDF
Hudzik, J. (2011) Comprehensive Internationalization. Washington
D.C.: NAFSA www.nafsa.org/cizn.
International Association of Universities. (2012a). In Focus, Rethinking
Internationalization. In IAU Horizons, Vol. 17, no. 3 + Vol. 18 no. 1,

37
 February/March 2012. Paris, International Association of
Universities.
International Association of Universities. (2012b). Affirming Academic
Values in Internationalization of Higher Education: A Call for
Action. www.iau-aiu.net. Paris, International Association of
Universities.
Jones, E., and de Wit, H. (2012). Globalization of internationalization:
Thematic and regional reflections on a traditional concept.
AUDEM: The International Journal of Higher Education and
Democracy, 3. Volume 3, 2012. pp. 35-54.
Knight, J. (2008). Higher Education in Turmoil. The Changing World of
Internationalization. Rotterdam, the Netherlands: Sense Publishers.
---. (2011a). Is internationalization having an identity crisis? IMHE Info
(p. 1). Paris: OECD/IMHE.
---. (2011b). Five Myths about Internationalization. In International
Higher Education, number 64: Summer 2011, p. 14-15. Boston,
Boston College Center for International Higher Education.
Maringe, F. en Foskett, N. (2010). Globalization and Internationalization
in Higher Education. Theoretical, Strategic and Management
Perspectives. Continuum International Publishing Group, London.
Scott, P. (2005). The Global Dimension: Internationalising Higher
Education. In Internationalization in Higher Education: European
Responses to the Global Perspective, ed. B. Khem and H. de Wit.
Amsterdam: European Association for International Education and
the European Higher Education Society (EAIR). pp. 95-106.
Teichler, U. (2004). The Changing Debate on Internationalization of
Higher Education. In Higher Education, 48: 5-26.
Van Vught, F., Van der Wende, M. and Westerheijden, D.F. (2002).
Globalization and Internationalization. Policy Agendas Compared.
In Higher Education in a Globalizing World: International Trends
and Mutual Observations. A Festschrift in Honor of Ulrich Teichler,
ed. J. Enders and O. Fulton. Dordrecht, NL: Kluwer Academic
Publishers.

***

38
 RKA TTH-DOLENSZKY

INTERNATIONALISATION OF ESZTERHZY
KROLY COLLEGE AND THE ROLE OF
MOBILITY AND RELATED SERVICES IN THIS
PROCESS
When discussing the internationalization of higher education,
international mobility programs are obviously an integral part of the issue.
Students, lecturers and researchers have always travelled abroad and on
occasion support for the international mobility of educational/scientific
purposes is put high on the agenda of governments and international
organizations. Even so, sometimes the operation of this field is merely
regarded as a matter of course in the life of universities and colleges, the
intensity of which bears little relationship to the available financial
resources. Thus activities related to mobility might figure largely in the
financial plans of the institution but they are a less important element in
its internationalization strategies. Of course, identifying and obtaining
appropriate financial sources for the international strategy and so for the
mobility activities of an institution is of key importance but if we examine
the internationalization of higher education in its complexity at the
national, regional or the institutional level we will come to realize how
powerful a tool mobility can become to enhance development in this
process.
Small institutions in Hungary outside the capital city often have limited
possibilities to devop and maintain an extensive partner network of high
quality compared to Hungary`s large universities or, indeed, even to
smaller ones if they are located in Budapest. Despite the obstacles,
Eszterhzy Kroly College (EKC) has, over the past fifteen years, given it
a go and succeeded in establishing an efficient, effective and constantly
expanding partner network which now supports the work and growth of
assorted activities at EKC:curriculum development, research projects and
improvements in teaching methods. This paper is an attempt to illuminate
the path to increased internationalization that EKC took between 1998

39
and 2014, specifically from the perspective of mobility activities and
related services.
Professor Jane Knight defined six phases of internationalization:
awareness, commitment, planning, operationalize, review, and
reinforcement (Knight 26-28). These phases are connected and
movement between the phases may occur in both ways. I use this set of
phases in this paper as a guideline to describe the development of
internationalization at EKC with particular emphasis on the role mobility
played in its evolution. I did not take into account mobility activities
to/from Hungarian speaking regions of neighboring countries as the
background of relationships with these regions is significantly different
from that of areas and countries where other languages are spoken.

Period 1998-2002
By entering the Socrates/Erasmus Programme in 1998 (later
LLP/Erasmus and Erasmus+), the College ensured a solid base for
financing and implementing mobility activities of the institution.
Realizing the importance of the Erasmus Programme, the old bilateral
relations of the College (e.g. with the University of Erfurt) have been
revised and renewed and some new partnerships, mainly in the field of
teacher training, have been established. During the EU pre-accession
period, European relationships were given priority in Hungary, but only a
few students and teachers had the opportunity to participate in the
programme and go abroad and no significant incoming mobility took
place. The structure and support policy of the Erasmus Programme
served the continuous development of the partner networks and mobility
activity of the participating institutions but the lack of programs and
services offered to any potential incoming students put paid to any
growth in the volume of mobility in EKC`s program. No related services
were available, the institution did not have any initiatives in place to
prepare outgoing teachers or students, there was a lack of a well-
planned marketing strategy including the complete absence of
multilingual brochures attracting incoming students and staff.
The transatlantic relations of the College were remarkable but these
were based on personal contacts. Due to the lack of conscious strategic
planning, these partnerships were not particularly cost effective but rather
useful for only a small group of academics. This resulted in the loss of
these connections when both structural and personnel changes took
place in 2002. Documents of the International Relations Office of the time
show that no strategy was set up either for the utilization of mobility
results or for the development of the international activities of the college.
Management, some teachers and students did travel abroad for

40
conferences, and study trips, and did have professional links with
institutions, teachers and researchers abroad but without an articulate
focus and a system supporting mobility and the share and utilization of
results benefits from it appeared only at the personal level; the use of
financial resources was far from effective. As for the rationales for
internationalization (De Wit, 2002), political rationales for
internationalization dominated the period. Internationalization was not
high on the agenda, the attitude of the management tended to react to
trends but definitely no proactive planning took place.

Period 2002-2013
With the new management, changes occured in both the institutions
international life and its intentions. Although the College still did not draw
up an international strategy, the management had a definite idea as to
the focus and objectives of internationalization. Greater emphasis was
put on establishing new international partnerships and through them
providing more opportunities for both students and teachers of the
College.
New regulations were introduced, which saw the replacement and re-
organization of various rules governing various areas such as finance,
exams, and tuition: the Senate approved regulations on the rules of and
support for teaching and non-teaching staff travelling abroad (2003),
Erasmus regulations (2007) and the regulation of support for students
international mobility (2007). With these new regulations, mobility
activities became the flagship of internationalization at the college.
The management also worked hard to get EKC recognized as a
university, an ambitious goal; it established several internationally
recognized research groups, improved human resources and
implemented a remarkable development of the infrastructure. All these
together generated a widening of courses available in foreign languages
and further financial opportunities for teachers and researchers to enter
into the international arena.
The regulations serving also as a substitute for a phased
internationalization strategy together with the supportive political and
financial environment indicated enough development to delay the need
for a more articulated internationalization strategy. As the numbers rose
steadily both within and without the Erasmus program, there seemed to
be no need for a review of the system.
The institution made the best out of this system: it established a
partner network of over 80 international partner institutions, student
mobility grew from 4-5 incoming and outgoing students/year to 60-70
students/year in several different short-term and partial degree programs,

41
significant financial resources were available for teaching and non-
teaching staff to benefit from international conferences and professional
summits and the institution managed to organize several successful
international conferences each year, thus making international
publications and so scientific development easier than before.
Some basic services related to international mobility were set up:
housing assistance, visa and administrative assistance for incomings,
administrative support for outgoings, etc. all undertaken by the Centre
for International Relations which, had by now now, a manager and two
coordinators, supported by a colleague from the Registrars Office and
the local organization of the Erasmus Student Network. As all the
statistics demonstrated ongoing development, it is hard to identify exactly
when this system lost its potential to generate further growth but by the
end of the period it had begun to stagnate. As the system was largely
inflexible and there was no proper strategy in place to handle changes in
the environment of internationalization, unfavorable demographic trends
and the decrease of financial resources caused significant difficulties.
By the end of this period the College had made it onto the
international scene, the statistics relating to its mobility operations and
the expenses it generated belied its modest size and location. At this
point, the realization that the potential of mobility as an effective tool to
generate incomes and re-boost internationalization by improving quality
and effectiveness was of primary importance. The management realized
this and within the framework of a complex EU-financed project, a plan
was set up for the development of students and teachers foreign
language skills, curriculum development of full degree programs in
foreign languages, and for the development of human resources and
services related to international mobility. This project was continued by
the next management.

2013-today
The incoming management inherited a solid basis for further
development but to attain the goals they had to set the focus and begin a
more conscious planning of internationalization. Mobility strategies and
the development of related services took on great significance in these
plans. Experience collected over the previous years in
internationalization and analysis of weaknesses resulted in the
organizational restructuring of the Centre for International Relations, the
most important task of which was the elaboration of an
internationalization strategy. The institution has all the rationales defined
by De Wit (2002): political, economic, academic and social cultural

42
rationales create a well-balanced attitude needed for planning a
successful internationalization strategy.
The assessment of current trends, opportunities and institutional
potentials enabled the creation of a planning schedule followed by the
implementation of the strategy. The new organizational structure
simplified the preparation work required in each significant field:
international relations of the institution, curriculum development
possibilities, mobility programs and related services, and foreign
language services. The new strategy links the different fields through
services which are to support their development. Foreign language skills
of students and teachers need to be developed in order to improveboth
quality and quantity in mobility, to this end a new mentoring program has
been launched which helps academics to prepare for their conference
participation or guest teaching. By improving the self-confidence of
teachers in the international environment the institution will be able to
launch more courses and degree programs in foreign languages.
Mentoring programs for incoming and outgoing students assist in their
preparation for cultural integration in their host institution.
By having this cultural and language training for students we can
minimize the number of unsuccessful mobility periods, and those
successful ones can be of more benefit to both the mobile student and
the home institution. The change in management also saw both the
geographic and the academic focus of internationalization in the pre-
existing partnership network being revised. Economic rationales call for
the opening of new horizons. The fine-tuning of courses offered to meet
the demands of the Asian education market is a relatively new element of
the institutional strategy. Focussing on new geographical regions
required a widening of the range of easily accessible mobility services for
incomings. All services related to incoming mobility are now coordinated
by the Mobility Office, which means that incomings get all assistance and
information on housing, application, study management and
administrative issues in one office. A transparent support system can be
the deciding factor in selecting an institution for prospective students,
academics and guests.
The pre-existing partner network was revised to explore the possible
fields of higher level cooperation: the development of joint and double
degrees, bilateral academic exchange programs and implementation of
common research projects. In all these activities high quality mobility plays
a key role and the utilization of mobility output is the catalyzer of the
initiatives.
Creating an international environment at EKC that is an integral part of
the academic life is to imply further financial resources, academic

43
recognition and success for the College. When each aforementioned field
supports the success of the other the system becomes stable and flexible
enabling it to appropriately meet the challenges of the ever-changing
international environment. The abilities of the system of mobility supports
and services set up at EKC will have to demonstrate their efficiency in
the upcoming years, but for now, in the phase of the first review and
reinforcement, it seems to be an effective system worth working on.

References

De Wit, Hans. (2002). Internationalisation of Higher Education in the

United States of America and Europe: A Historical, Comparative
and Conceptual Analysis. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press
Knight, Jane. (2008). Higher Education in Turmoil. The Changing World
of Internationalisation. Rotterdam, the Netherlands: Sense
Publishers.

***

44
 KRISZTINA GODSAVE

DONT WRITE ME AN ESSAY: PRACTICAL

APPROACHES TO TESTING BUSINESS
ENGLISH

The real purpose, for most people, in studying Business English is to

actually use what theyve learnt in real-life business situations. Thus the
assessment process, if it is to have any real meaning, apart from just
generating yet another qualification, should be designed to test not just
the knowldege of the 4 Skills, but the ability to apply them in a variety of
situations.
This is the aim of both the Written and Speaking components of the
LCCI English for Business test. Whilst exact replication of the work
environment is impossible under examination conditions, the material
and the atmosphere can be created to meet the need. Indeed, working in
a quiet space with logical tasks and having a conversation partner who is
attentive and helpful, are plusses that dont always figure in everyones
business environment.
Through Best Practice examples and a discussion of how LCCI EfB
exam materials are compiled and delivered, it is possible to see clear
evidence of a system which is designed to meet the career needs of
learners and at the same time, provide a reliable benchmark of actual
performance potential for employers.
For well over 100 years, The London Chamber of Commerce and
Industry Examination Board has been committed to providing realistic
assessment tools, often directly linked to specific business and industry
learning needs. As these have changed, so have the content and format
of both written and oral tests evolved to reflect them. For instance, less
than twenty years ago, no middle or senior manager would be
responsible for generating their own correspondence, that was the
province of secreataries. Nowadays however, staff at all levels are
required to create business documents for themselves and require good
levels of accuracy in order to be able to communicate effectively.
The conduct of business meetings has also become significantly less
formal and there is a need to engage in conversation and hone

45
arguments to levels not previously required. It is this conversational
aspect and the ability to communicate ideas in a lucid form, away from
the script, that the LCCI Oral Examinations aim to measure.
A further change in the commercial landscape is the universal
adoption of English as the Language of Business. An international
career, or even employment in a multinational company, cannot be
contemplated without an appropriate level of English.
Taking these factors into account, and bearing in mind the dynamic
nature of language and the communication tools of business, LCCI is at
the forefront of developing and constantly updating testing systems and
materials which meet the needs of learners, teachers and employers
alike. A further step on this path is the aquisition of LCCI by Pearson
Learning, which now provides access to a wealth of cutting-edge blended
learning materials.
The Pearson slogan Always Learning is indicative of an open-
minded approach to product development where assessment needs are
indentified and then met. LCCI is an enthusiastic part of this process,
providing relevant materials and delivering a robust and credible service.

***

46
 ERIKA GYNGYSI-WIERSUM

IMPROVING LEARNING PERFORMANCE

MATHEMATICS LESSONS ACROSS THE
BORDERS

Abstract

Many students struggle with mathematics and experience

frustration as they continuously confront obstacles. In order to
solve problems it is important to understand what effective
mathematics teaching is and what pedagogical practices
contribute to the desired outcome. Mobility, institutional
collaboration and partnership development can facilitate the
sharing of good international strategies in higher mathematics
education. Innovative ideas related to education play an
important role in finding answers and solutions to new
challenges in higher education regarding quality work.
Schools, communities, and nations need to ensure that their
teachers have the knowledge, skills, and competences to
provide students with the very best possible learning
opportunities.

Introduction

The place given to the subject in the curriculum demonstrates that

mathematical literacy is of central importance in providing individuals with
the necessary skills to live within society. Mathematical literacy is
necessary to make sense of data encountered in the world. Intercultural
education is concerned with ensuring that students from different ethnic
backgrounds have an equal opportunity of succeeding within the
education system. In the present paper examples from various areas of
mathematics will be introduced. The focus wil be on how to make
seemingly straightforward problems more interesting and also to bring
abstract mathematics concepts closer to reality. The goal of these efforts
is to help students understand and enjoy mathematics.

47
 1. Algebra
Students prefer solving interesting problems or puzzles while
studying. It is easier to learn mathematics if problems are taken from real
life and are illustrated with engaging pictures. If students gain satisfaction
and have fun while learning mathematics they will grow to like this
difficult subject.

Example 1.1. A) Calculate without using a calculator:

(152+5)50+40+365-615=?
Does anyone find this problem interesting? I doubt it. Let see how we
can make it more challenging. The most interesting thing in this problem
is to find out why two numbers are highlighted?
We can express the same example in a totally different, but more
challenging way.

Example 1.1. B) How to find out the number of your house and your
age?
1) Write down the number of your house without showing
it.
2) Double it,
3) add 5 to it,
4) multiply the result by 50,
5) add your age to it,
6) add the number of days in a non-leap year (365),
7) subtract 615.
The last two digits of the the number you arrive at represent your age,
the first digit(s) are the number of your house! The highlighted number 15
was the number of my house and 40 my age in Example 1.1. If you carry
out the instructions correctly you obtain: 1540. Try it with your house
number and age.

Example 1.2. A) Find the least common multiple of 18 and 30.

If you know the definition of the least common multiple then all you
need to do is to use your knowledge and answer the above example
according to the rules. If you do not remember the rules, then you will
need to exercise your thinking skills.. But what will motivate you to think?
Especially if you are not interested in solving this problem and you do not
expect to do it successfully.
However, you may be more encouraged to solve this problem if the
same problem is expressed in a more interesting way and is illustrated
with a stimulating picture or alternatively it is connected to the real world
and you can picture the situation better.

48
 Example 1.2. B) Romeo and Juliet walk to to the same park but
Romeo does so every 18th day and Juliet every 30th day. If they they
meet on January 1, in how many days will they meet again?

The answer to the question is in 90 days, where

90 is the least common multiple of 18 and 30.
However, this word problem gives you the chance
to find the solution in a different way more closely
corresponding to reality such as finding multiples of
18 and those of 30. Then if you choose the least
common multiple of these two numbers then you
find 90. Hence if you did not remember the rule you
still can find the solution if you think and do not
give up due to a lack of motivation.

2. Thinking methods
Logic puzzles can improve students logical thinking, problem solving
strategies and creativity. Moreover if we bring mathematics problems
closer to reality then it will not become an abstract science and students
will be more encouraged to learn mathematics.
If we want to be better prepared to solve unusual problems out in the
world then we need to develop our creativity. In puzzles, features of
creativity are revealed as several potential solutions need to be
considered before the solution is discovered. Puzzles are also useful in
that they are suitable to eliminate effects that may obstruct thinking.

Example 2. 1. A) Write down all even positive numbers from 2 up to

100.
This problem may be boring for pupils. However, if a nice story is built
up around it then it can made more interesting.

Example 2.1. B) There is a tree and there are 100 golden apples on it.
Every night a dragon sneaks to the tree and eats two apples. Is there a
day when there are exactly 5 apples on the tree? Assuming that no new
apples grow on the tree.
Since every night the number of apples decreases by 2 therefore the
remaining number is always an even number. Hence there is not a day
when there are exactly 5 apples on the tree.

49
 Example 2.2. A) Calculate.
This problem is not close to reality therefore it is considered to be
abstract. How can we adapt it to be more engaging?

Example 2.2. B) If a water lily growing in

a circular pond doubles in size every day, it
takes 30 days to cover the whole pond. How
long does it take to cover half a pond?
The solution is 29 days. With exponential
growth and reaching 100% of pond
coverage in 30 days.

3. Probability
Example 3.1. A) What do you know about independent events?

Example 3.1. B) If you toss a coin nine times and it falls tails nine
times which event is more likely?
X: it will fall tails again ten times Y: it will fall heads ten times.
If you think that the right answer is Y then you are wrong. The
probability of both events X and Y is the same, 50%, as they are
independent events and whenever a coin is tossed it falls heads or tails
without either of them being more likely to happen.
4. Geometry
Geometry originated as a practical science concerned with surveying,
measurements, areas, and volumes. Games and puzzles can be applied
with the goal of raising students' interest in Euclidean geometry.

Example 4.1. A) Draw a circle with radius 5 cm then draw another

circle with radius 3 cm touching the first circle.

Example 4.2. B) Draw a circle with radius 5 cm. Draw a second circle
with radius 3 cm just touching the most North-East part of the first circle.
Draw two small triangles, 4 cm apart, resting on top of the second circle.
Inside the second circle, arranged so that they are symmetrical about a
vertical line through the centre, draw these four things: a small triangle at
the centre two small circles 3 cm part, above the triangle the bottom half
of a circle, below the triangle.

50
 WHAT'S MISSING?

The instructions as given would have produced

something like this:

What's missing? Feet, tail and whiskers at least!

Summary

There are at least two challenges we need to face when teaching

Mathematics lessons across borders:
1) How to make Mathematics problems interesting?
2) How to make Mathematics concepts understandable in a foreign
language?
Problems making sense of the world around you, engaging pictures,
puzzles and games are all good ways to challenge students thinking and
creativity. Successful learning is more likely to take place when such
strategies are adopted.

References

Gyngysi Wiersum, Erika (2012). GCSE Mathematics workbook I-II.

Quandaries and Queries at Math Central. University of Regina. Web. 9
June. 2014.
Catastrophe Puzzle Solution. Web. 8 June. 2014.
Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopaedia. Web. 9 June. 2014.

***

51
 FLORENCE FONTAINE CECILIA REGO
KLMN ZOLTN VCZY

COST ACTION, A EUROPEAN RELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN RESEARCHERS AND END-USERS

COST - European CO-operation in Science and Technology - is the

longest running European intergovernmental network for cooperation in
research and technology. With a successful history of implementing
scientific cooperation and networking in Europe over the last 40 years,
COST now needs to look forward and take steps to respond to new
demands. The COST mission articulates the type of framework that
European research and innovation requires. COST's Actions, activities
and procedures must evolve to fit it. This will be achieved by 2014
allowing the fulfilment of COST's mission within the Europe 2020
strategy.
COST does not fund research itself, but provides support for
networking activities carried out within COST Actions. These Actions are
bottom-up science and technology networks open to researchers and
stakeholders, with a four-year duration and a minimum participation of
five COST Countries. This presented Action would like to give a good
point of view and a best practice how internationalisation can build up
and work for solving not just a scientific, but economically important
problems.
The COST Action FA1303 entitled Sustainable control of Grapevine
trunk diseases (GTD) focused on huge diseases that affect grapevine,
the trunk diseases. GTD are among the most destructive diseases of
vineyards worldwide. Fungicides with the potential to control GTD have
been banned and there are no highly effective treatments available.
Developing sustainable alternatives to manage GTD is therefore
required. Currently, there is no coordinated research approach in Europe,
even though a strong demand for innovative disease management
strategies is given. The goal of this COST Action FA1303 would be to
develop a network of European expertise to improve understanding of
GTD by acquiring knowledge on occurrence of pathogens, vine-pathogen
interaction, ecology of wood-inhabiting microorganisms, and to develop

52
new management protocols and biocontrol approaches. This COST
Action gathers leading multidisciplinary academic researchers and
institutes within Europe to propose new recommendations for the
management of GTD and establish Europe as a world leader in GTD
research to safeguard vineyards. This knowledge will be promoted in an
effort to increase knowledge and awareness of the problem by
disseminating information to end-users and authorities in the viticulture
sector, and to the general public.
Presently, experts from nearly 50 institutions and companies in 20
European (AT, BG, CH, CZ, DE, GR, ES, FR, HR, HU, IL, IT, MT, NL,
PL, PT, RO, SE, SI, UK) and neighbouring (Algeria) countries have
already responded to join this Action that covers the period from 2013 to
2017.
This COST Action is divided into four Working Groups (WG) which are
WG1 - Pathogen characterization, detection and epidemiology; WG2 -
Microbial ecology; WG 3 - Host-pathogen and fungus-fungus competitive
interactions; and WG4 - Disease management.
A detailed presentation of each working group by their respective
leader will be produced, outlining what we know and what we do not
know, with the aim of developing the prospects for a future European
project.

WG1 - Pathogen characterization, detection and epidemiology /

Leaders: Cecilia Rego, PT, and James Woodhall, UK.
The major Grapevine Trunk Diseases (GTD) are Black Foot disease,
Botryosphaeria canker, Petri disease, Esca complex (Grapevine leaf
stripe disease (GLSD) and White decay), Eutypa dieback and Phomopsis
cane leaf spot. They are caused by a wide range of fungal pathogens
which may occur successively and/or in combination. They have a
worldwide distribution and vary among different countries. Morphological
characters play a major role in the description of fungal species;
although, they alone may be not enough to delimit new species. They
have to be supplemented with phylogenetic studies using nucleotide
sequences of multiple genes (SSU, ITS, LSU, histone, EF1- and -
tubulin).
Kochs postulates are very difficult to fulfill and little information is
available concerning symptoms produced by cross inoculation of fungi
and interactions with saprophytic or endophytic fungi as well as with
other microorganisms. More information is needed on pathogens life
cycles (inocula sources, spore dissemination, environmental factors

53
involved, infection and disease development) to understand the
pathogenicity/virulence mechanisms.
This European network will improve the understanding of GTD by
increasing disease data collection and developing a set of diagnostic
protocols for identification/detection of GTD.
Ensuring standard test conditions will also be crucial to determine the
virulence of individual GTD pathogens. We will also focus on
characterization of disease cycle according to climatic conditions,
identification of the sources of inocula and the route of penetration into
the plant, in order to optimize the disease management.

WG2 - Microbial ecology / Leaders: Patrice Rey, FR and Stphane

Compant, AT.
Recent studies have described the great diversity of the fungal and
bacterial communities colonising the wood of grapevines. This diversity is
higher in healthy wood than in partially or totally necrotic wood tissues.
Depending on the age of the plants, various microbial communities have
also been detected; for instance, the fungal communities of young
grafted plants (different cultivars) are different from those of adult ones,
which raises the question of the succession of fungal communities during
plant development. Studying microbial communities could be helpful in
determining a key question in GTD: how exactly does the healthy wood
of young vines systematically turn necrotic after a period of several
years? In young vines, since potentially pathogenic and plant protective
fungi colonize healthy wood tissues, competition between them certainly
occurs; in mature vines, however, wood tissues frequently developed
necroses, with very few fungal species colonizing these areas. For
instance, in the case of white-rot, a typical necrosis of esca, Fomitiporia
mediterranea predominates. So a decrease in microbial diversity is
associated with the development of necroses. What are the factors
responsible for these changes? Climate change, cropping systems, water
stress, soil management, pruning practices, and so on, could have an
influence on microbial communities in the wood tissues. However, the
main driving factors that induce shifts in fungal or bacterial communities,
is a question that still needs to be determined. Another important
question concerns the role of the bacteria inhabiting the wood tissues of
vines. The various bacterial species can display either a positive role in
the fungi biocontrol or, a negative role by predisposing the grapevine
wood to fungal attacks, through lignin disorganization for example. That
could facilitate the process of wood tissue degradation by the fungi
already present in the grapevine wood. Interactions inside microflora,

54
such as fungi and bacteria, can be either positive for the two types of
microorganisms or negative or, even, neutral. Determining the
relationships between the most common species colonizing the woods
would thus be helpful in determining the future pathogenic status of
grapevines.
WG 3 - Host-pathogen and fungus-fungus competitive
interactions / Leaders: Eliane Abou-Mansour, CH and Eckdard
Thines, DK.
Esca disease is attributed to a group of systematically diverse fungi
that are considered to be latent pathogens, several studies present a
comparison between the mycota of healthy and diseased plants from the
same vineyard, in order to determine which fungi become invasive as
foliar symptoms of esca appear. Esca pathogens colonize woody plants
and cause the degradation of the xylem and dieback of the host plants.
Despite the serious damage caused by the disease, the reason for
expressing strong leaf symptoms in host plants colonized by wood
destroying fungi is unknown and is still an important question in plant
physiology and phytopathology. Pathogenesis factors implicate several
molecular pathogen signatures which have been identified at biochemical
level such as enzymes and phytotoxins. Esca fungal wood pathogens
produce lignin, pectin, and cellulose degrading enzymes and release
lignin monomers. Lignin monomers act as signalling molecules in
micromolar concentrations. The perception system for these signals
remains unknow. Several toxic compounds, phytotoxins, including toxic
polysaccharides and polypeptides have been isolated from the main
fungi implicated in esca disease, but, a part of eutypine from E. lata,
toxins receptors of other phytotoxins have not yet been identified. In
response to pathogen attack grapevine develop chemical barriers by
increase polyphenols and phytoalexins in wood and leaves, structural
barriers by the formation of tyloses to stop the progression of mycelia
and a burst of oxidative reactive oxygen species which directly act as
antibiotic or as secondary stress signals leading to the induction of
various defence-related genes expression. But all these stereotypic
defense responses are not enough to stop the progression of the fungi. It
is well known that fungi have a role in symptoms development but the
question of other microbiota remains, no information is available on the
interaction between other non-pathogenic fungi, bacteria and viruses and
the stimuli of phytotoxins production is still unknown. Since the repulsion
of a microbial attack by plants requires the coordinated action of
hundreds of genes, a comparative genomics will contributes to the
identification of the differences in defense strategies between tolerant

55
and sensitive plants. Identification of a molecular marker for early
diagnostic of the disease enables screening tolerant cultivars.

WG4 - Disease management / Leaders: Stefano Di Marco, IT and

David Gramaje, ES
GTD are characterized by complex interactions occurring among the
pathogens involved and agronomical, meteorological and physiological
factors. Several GTD peculiarities, mainly the erratic and not completely
cleared nature of foliar symptom expression, make the effectiveness of
control strategies much more difficult. The control is still based on cultural
practices which at best can mildly reduce the impact of the disease. GTD
can affect plants in the nursery at any phase of propagation process and
in the vineyard. In the nursery, hot water treatment, application of
biological control agents (BCA) or chemicals gave some interesting
results in the reduction of pathogen incidence, but need to be improved
for time and mode of applications. In the vineyard, the use of arsenite
compounds is banned, fosetyl-Al applied on foliage to control downy
mildew was the only treatment that provided a certain decrease in foliar
symptom expression in well-conducted vineyards. Recently, treatments
with nutrients or with formulations of copper that seem able to penetrate
woody tissues appeared to be able to reduce the incidence of
symptomatic plants; hypotheses on mode of action and mechanisms
involved are being investigated. The main effort is directed toward the
protection of pruning wounds to prevent or reduce the establishment and
development of GTD; BCA or chemicals that proved to be effective
towards artificial inoculations of GTD pathogens in the vineyard are being
tested. Treatments with BCA, Trichoderma in particular, seem to reduce
the symptomatic or dead plants after some years of applications. The
definition by this European network of a common EPPO standard for the
evaluation of plant protection products is a precondition to develop
effective and shared control methods. The management of GTD will be
focused on the development of an integrated environmentally-friendly
control strategy both in the nursery and in the vineyard: in the nursery for
the production of free (or reduced risk) material; in the vineyard for the
protection of pruning wounds and for the reduction of incidence and
severity of foliar symptom expression.
To conclude, the complexity of Grapevine Trunk Diseases was
emphasized and it was pointed out that a multidisciplinary research is
needed in order to obtain new and improved knowledge about the
biology and, epidemiology of the fungal pathogens, microbial ecology,
host-pathogen and fungus-fungus competitive interactions and disease

56
management. The main conclusion was that Grapevine Trunk Diseases
threaten viticulture and wine production in Europe. The Cost Action FA
1303 is making possible the organization of a net of European
researchers, but this is not enough to achieve the goal of a sustainable
viticulture. In this sense, it is very urgent to establish a European
Research Programme to develop sustainable strategies to control
Grapevine Trunk Diseases under the frame of the H2020 - Societal
Challenge n2 - "Food security, sustainable agriculture and forestry,
marine, maritime and inland water research and the bioeconomy.
COST must optimise all its procedures, to achieve the best quality
performance including assessment of proposals, evaluation and
monitoring of COST Actions, reducing the time from application to start of
the activities, and focusing still more on their results and impact. COST
strategy promotes integration of the best researchers in Europe,
maximising social and territorial inclusiveness and linking them within
COST countries and beyond. Specific actions for early stage researchers
and supporting skills development for innovation and competitiveness are
provided for. Individuals are fundamental to applying the strategy and
meeting the challenges. COST - researchers in COST Actions; Domain
Committee members, COST Office personnel, and any member of the
COST structure - will respect the established common European values
and ethical behaviours through the COST Code of Conduct, which allows
an adaptable and consistent application of its procedures. The strategies
of Better Cooperation together and strongly connected to
Internationalisation are one of the main goals of this mission: COST
uses research potential from all COST countries building on strengths
while facilitating access to complementary specific knowledge and
capacities. Within COST countries COST seeds opportunities to
establish long-lasting networks, in particular for early career researchers
and newly established research groups, allowing them to strengthen
effectively their capacity to be globally competitive. The
intergovernmental organisation of COST supports coordinated and
mutually consistent approaches among COST countries to respond to
major societal challenges.
COST Action is supported by the EU RTD Framework programme and
ESF provides the COST Office through an EC contract.

Kalman Zoltan Vaczy`s research was supported by the European

Union and the State of Hungary, co-financed by the European Social
Fund in the framework of TMOP-4.2.4.A/ 2-11/1-2012-0001 National
Excellence Program.

57
 ***

58
 JOSEF KEEK

INTERNATIONAL FIELD PROJECT ON

MANAGEMENT OF MOUNTAIN
WATERSHEDS: A CHALLENGE FOR CITIZEN
SCIENCE AND MULTI-DISCIPLINARY
EDUCATION

Abstract

Community participation and engagement is a key factor in

more effective watershed control. The aim of this paper is to
analyse the role of citizen scientists in the international
project of the Earthwatch Institute on Mountain Waters of the
Czech Republic, over a 22-year period (1991-2012).
Significant outcomes of the project were identified in post-
expedition reports of university and high school teachers in
transferring the knowledge to their students (96%). Some
32% of participants applied outcomes of the project in
catchment citizenship programmes in their local areas
(watershed councils, etc), to adapt the concept of best
practices in the worldwide management of mountain
watersheds.
Keywords: Internationalisation; mountain watershed
control; citizen science; multidisciplinary education; best
management practices.

Introduction

Community participation and engagement is a key factor in more

effective watershed control (Ferrier & Jenkins 2009). However, applied
scientists tend to neglect this argument focusing exclusively upon the
physical, bio-physical or even economic environment (Haigh, 2009). Over
the past few years, community engagement and environmental education
has been supported by several international projects with the

59
participation of citizen scientists (Earthwatch Institute, Citizen Science
Canada, Invasive Species Survey etc., Poudrier 2012). Silvertown (2009)
defines a citizen scientist as a volunteer who collects and/or processes
data as part of a scientific enquiry.
Since Earthwatch Institute was founded in 1971, the organisation has
recruited over 65,000 volunteers worldwide in support of 2,800 field
research projects (Earthwatch Institute, 2002). The aim of this paper is to
analyse the role of citizen scientists in the international project Mountain
Waters of the Czech Republic, over a 22-year period (1991-2012).

Citizen science, education and catchment citizenship

Ferrier & Jenkins (2009) formulated the role of active citizenship in a

new generation watershed management, where multi-disciplinary
education plays a key-role. The idea of catchment citizenship has been
developed particularly in western regions of the US. As an example, the
Los Angeles & San Gabriel Rivers Watershed Council was founded in
1996 because the five different water agencies managing water in this
region failed to adequately exchange information not only with the public
but even among themselves (Poudrier 2012). Now rebranded as the
Council for Watershed Health, this NGO has become the center for
practical watershed education, research and analysis in Southern
California focusing on the watersheds of the Los Angeles Basin. The
Watershed Council is uniquely situated at the intersection of research
and policy to drive applied research to improve policy and practice.
The citizen science projects support the qualification of participants
necessary for their valuable participation in the watershed council
procedure. Kim et al (2011) claim that the valuable citizen science
projects should not only collect adequate scientific data but those
data/project outcomes must be actually used in the decision process.
Field projects being supported by the Earthwatch Institute are based on
internalization of scientific data/outcomes and worldwide environmental
decision procedures (Earthwatch Institute, 2002).

Recovery of mountain waters: catchment-lake relations

The aim of the Earthwatch project on Mountain Waters of the Czech

Republic was to study mountain ecosystems (lakes, water courses, forest
stands of spruce and beech, clear-cuts and forest plantations) exposed
to an extreme acid atmospheric deposition and to assess the level of
their resistance, devastation or regeneration as well as to contribute to

60
the strategy of a reasonable multi-resource management of headwaters
in the Jizera Mts. (Northern Bohemia, area of 350 km2), Keek &
Hoick (2010).
Long-term integrated monitoring (multidisciplinary ecological research
of reservoirs and streams, and processes in their catchments) is a
fundamental principle to better understanding the structure and function
of fragile mountain ecosystems as well as environmental impacts of the
air pollution (Keek & Hoick, 2006). In the period of 1991-2012, 512
volunteers world-wide (Table 1), supported by the Earthwatch Institute,
participated in 72 two-week field expeditions in the Jizera Mts. Their
activities included an integrated monitoring of the acid atmospheric
deposition in headwater catchments; detailed studies of forest hydrology
and biogeochemistry in two experimental basins (clear-cut of mature
spruce stands and reforestation); investigations of three drinking water
reservoirs related to the watershed and lake management; stabilisation of
soil erosion after the clear-cut with the spontaneous succession of
herbaceous vegetation, and the revival of traditional forestry practices.

Educational aspects of volunteers participating in the pro-

ject

In Tables 1 and 2 it is possible to see a breakdown by profession and

nationality of the volunteers participating in the project. The effective data
gathering by the volunteers was not possible without their being trained
in adequate scientific disciplines within a rather limited timeframe.
Therefore, there were limits to their efficiency (Table 3).
The most effective volunteer activities in this project were found to be
tree inventory taking and water sampling from rain-gauges and streams,
where a good compromise between their motivation and skills can be
identified. The high motivation to sample lake waters was not enough as
due to the time available for their training in hydrobiology had been
limited (Table 3).
Significant outcomes of the project were identified in post-expedition
reports of university and high school teachers in transferring the
knowledge to their students (96%). Also, about 32% of volunteers used
the outcomes of the project in the catchment citizenship in their areas.

61
 Table 1: Participation of volunteers according to their country.

Country Volunteers (%)

United Kingdom 40
United States 37
Australia 8
Japan 6
Czech Republic 5
Others 4

Table 2. Participation of volunteers according to their profession.

Profession Volunteers (%)

University teacher 6
High school teacher 32
Students 12
Environment agency 13
Business 6
Personal motivation 31

Table 3. Personal preferences of participants and limits in their efficiency.

Activity Preferences Efficiency

Digging soil profile 0.1 0.5
Constructing ga. sta. 0.6 0.6
Sampling rain/fog water 0.6 0.8
Sampling stream water 0.7 0.8
Lake sampling 0.9 0.3
Tree inventory 0.7 0.9
Grass inventory 0.5 0.7
Laboratory analyses 0.2 0.1

62
 Conclusion

International citizen science projects support the qualification of

participants necessary for their valuable role in local decision procedures
in the frame of the watershed council and the adaptation of best practices
in the management of mountain watersheds worldwide (Hofer & Cecci
2012). During this 22 year period (1991-2012), 512 volunteers
participated in the project on Mountain Waters of the Czech Republic
supported by the Earthwatch Institute. The effective participation of
volunteers in the project was limited by the time, by their skills and
motivations (Table 3). However, significant outcomes of the project were
identified in follow-up teaching at the university and high school levels,
and also in the catchment citizenship roles in their home countries.

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the Earthwatch Institute, Oxford, UK

(Mountain Waters of the Czech Republic), and by the Czech Technical
University in Prague (SGS 14/128/OHK1/2T/11).

References

Earthwatch Institute (2002). Annual report 2001. Earthwatch Institute

(Europe), Oxford.
Ferrier, R.C, and Jenkins, A. (2009). Handbook of Catchment
Management. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester.
Haigh, M. (2009). Promoting environmental education for sustainable
development: the value of links between higher education & non-
governmental organizations (NGOs), in: Chalkley, B., Haigh, M. &
Higgitt, D (eds) (2009) Education For Sustainable Development:
Papers in Honour Of The United Nations Decade Of Education For
Sustainable Development (2005-2014). Routledge, London. pp. 25-
42
Hofer, T. and Cecci, P. (2012). Mission and history of the European
Forestry Commission working party on the management of
mountain watersheds. In: Keek, J., Haigh, M., Hofer, T & Kubin,
E. (eds) (2012) Management of Mountain Watersheds, Springer,
Dordrecht, pp 3-5.
Keek, J. and Hoick, Z. (2006). Forests, air pollution and water quality:
influencing health in the headwaters of Central Europes Black
Triangle. Unasylva 224, 57(2): 46-49.

63
Keek, J. and Hoick, Z. (2010). Recovery of headwater catchments
and lakes affected by the acid atmospheric deposition. In
Integrated watershed management. Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 200-
207.
Poudrier, C. (2012). Environmental education and catchment citizenship
in mountain regions. In: Keek, J., Haigh, M., Hofer, T & Kubin, E.
(eds) (2012) Management of Mountain Watersheds, Springer,
Dordrecht, pp. 31-37.
Kim, S., Robson, Ch, Zimmerman, T., Pierce, J. and Haber, E.M. (2011).
Creek watch: pairing usefulness and usability for successful citizen
science. In: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human
Factors in Computing Systems. ACM, New York, pp. 2125-2134.
Silvertown, J. (2009). A new dawn for citizen science. Trends in ecology
& evolution, 24 (9): 467-471.
American Council on Education. (2012). Mapping Internationalization on
U.S. Campuses. Center for Internationalization and Global
Engagement, ACE: Washington D.C.

***

64
 ZSUZSANNA HANK LSZL KRPTI

THE IMPORTANCE OF SCHOOL

PERFORMANCE IN THE SOCIAL
INTEGRATION OF THE ROMA COMMUNITY
FROM A SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS POINT
OF VIEW

Abstract

Education has played a key role in the social integration of

the Roma. We distinguish four different factors influencing
performance at school. The first component is the students
biological and psychological characteristics, the second is the
teacher itself, the third the pedagogical factors, and the fourth
is the social milieu. In our present study we will examine
these criteria in detail.
The goal of the following study is partially to analyse
the Hungarian sources and references. We chose Hungarian
publications, due to our conviction that the issue should be
examined firstly on a local level. We aim to uncover the
historical traditions, approaches and stereotypes that
underpin current opinions. As a second goal we wish to offer
suggestions and action plans for further discussion.
We believe that schools where Roma students are taught
in great numbers should have the ideal conditions necessary
for their functioning, both externally (in terms of equipment)
and internally (considering the mental development of Roma
students for their optimal performance).

Introduction

Eszterhzy Kroly College has traditionally considered teacher

training as one of the main components of its profile. For some time,
EKC`s Department of Psychology in cooperation with the Department of

65
Minority Studies has been studying the role of school and the importance
of school performance in the social integration process of Roma coping
with social disadvantages. Education plays a crucial role in the social
integration of this group. Success at school is a multi-dimensional
variable, where the influencing factors can be both external and internal.
Knowing the conditions of efficient teaching and discovering reasons for
success or failure at school allows teachers to devise and adopt methods
and schemes aimed at tackling the current poor success rate of Roma
students. Our examination of the factors influencing school performance
is based on four pillars The first component is the students biological and
psychological characteristics, including health status, mental stamina,
intellectual capacity, personality orientation, self-regulation, emotional
nature and motivation, The second factor is the teacher itself with his or
her personality, qualifications and respective social status, in addition to
professional commitment and attitude to children. In schools with a high
enrolment of Roma students it is imperative that teachers maintain a
good working relationship both with the students and their parents. The
educator due to his or her position and profession acts as a mediator
between the culture and value system of the majority and minority, The
third element crucial to academic achievement is the pedagogical
characteristics, which includes the quality of the education system, the
intertwining of theory and practice, the degree of student activity, and the
schools system of requirements. The fourth and final factor is the social
milieu with the family and its structure, its emotional atmosphere,
financial and cultural background, along with relationships inside class, or
between teacher and student. Moreover, peer interactions outside family
and school are also significant. In our present study we will examine
these criteria in detail.

Problem of Research
In our study we attempt to answer the following questions:
From a developmental and personality psychology point of view,
can there be any feature found in disadvantaged Roma students
that differs from the average biological-psychological
characteristics?
As far as educational psychology is concerned what challenges
do teachers meet when facing disadvantaged Roma families and
students, and what are the teachers attitudes toward them?
Do pedagogical programs offered by schools meet the demands
of disadvantaged Roma students from a pedagogical-
psychological point of view?

66
 In terms of social psychology, how great a difference can be seen
between the average students and the disadvantaged Roma
students socialisation in the family?

Applied Research Methodology

The aim of this study is, firstly, to examine Hungarian publications and
references related to this topic. We chose Hungarian researchers works
for we believe that the issue should be addressed on a local level
thoroughly and efficiently. We wish to explore the Hungarian historical
traditions, approaches and stereotypes that have lead to the formation of
current opinions and beliefs. Following this, our second goal is to offer
suggestions and action plans for further discussion.

Results of the Research Effort

We have analysed the works of several Hungarian authors working in

the field of educational psychology in detail, in addition to collating their
findings and incorporating them into our research project.
Mria Nagy (2002) found during her research that her teacher test
subjects (n=540) mainly attribute success and/or failure at school to
family. Family alone was mentioned 182 times, and in combination with
other elements a further 123 times; this is 56% of those questioned.
Students alone were mentioned 39 times and in other combinations a
further 102 times, 26% of those questioned. Teachers blamed
themselves 41 times or in combination with other elements 69 times
amounting to 20% of those questioned. The reason behind these results
is the fact that school life and life in a Roma family are worlds apart.
Teachers, partly due to their profession and their cultural affiliation,
embody the schools culture and requirements. They act on the basis of
their own socialisation (family, school and profession). However, a typical
Roma community does not follow the same rules as their socialisation
within the family differs greatly from that of the teacher.
Judit Szabn Krmn (2000) describes the following in her study: a
Roma family following Roma cultural traditions is likely to early on
develop a strong mother-child bond, and thus the mothers find it
particularly difficult to let their children go to nursery or school.
Katalin Forray R. and Andrs Hegeds T. (1991) claim that Roma
students have no delayed gratification in their early childhood and that
they also lack a fear of separation. In the family unit, it is common for the
childs desires to be immediately satisfied by the mother, e.g. feeding,

67
sleeping, playing, etc. thus the child has little to no frustration tolerance,
which is considered a key feature necessary for starting school.
Gyrgyi Bindhoffer (2012) makes it clear that in Roma societies
children have more space for moving around freely and they generally
enjoy a greater level of freedom. Consequently, adapting to the restrictive
rules of a school without any frustration tolerance is next to impossible for
them.
Ern Kllai and Lszl Kovcs (2009) found that the relatives and the
extensive family also play an important role in the socialisation of Roma
children. Thus Roma students are fully supported by their community
when confronting all kinds of problems, while facing total exclusion in
case of any difference from the rest of the communitys norms. Such
value clashes between home and school can cause an irreconcilable
conflict for Roma students.
Zsuzsa Hank (2012) states that Roma students lack a protracted
adolescence period, as they quickly find themselves treated as adults by
the family; this explains why marriage occurs at an early age. Someone
who is a child at school is an adult with all the rights this entails at home.
Repetitive absenteeism or dropping out of school entirely can also be a
source of tension between the teacher and the Roma family.
Zsolt Mogyorsi (2012) observed that within a Roma community and
family the process of socialisation is completely different and as such the
teacher needs to be prepared when handling certain situations.
Ilona Lisk (2001) reports that in the first half of the 20th century a
school representing the values of the middle classes was considered an
institution of authority in the eyes of Roma parents who were living on the
edge of society. Male teachers were held in high esteem by the Roma
community. However, today teachers are largely female and the
profession has suffered a great decline in reputation and prestige.
Consequently, among the Roma, the teachers role and profession
appears to be undervalued. Furthermore, the increase in hours required
of students to stay in school leads to greater pedagogical and
behavioural problems requiring from teachers a greater effort to handle
them. Moreover, the traditional authority-based perspective in education
has been replaced by a more democratic approach treating students and
parents as partners, a development leaving Roma parents bewildered
and confused. Members of the Roma community, far more sensitive than
the average, often find themselves in difficulty when trying to express
their feelings and opinions. This is rarely recognised and acknowledged
by teachers, which can drive a wedge between the two groups and make
further communication and acceptance arduous.

68
 The authors put a great emphasis on the fact that a successful
teacher-family relationship requires the Roma family to wholeheartedly
accept the teacher. In addition, members of the Roma community also
form a layered group hierarchy just like those of non-Roma ethnicity, thus
the relationship between school and Roma parents also requires
differentiation.

Discussion

Based on a thorough examination of the above research we can state

that there is a significant difference from a developmental and personality
psychology point of view in the case of disadvantaged Roma students
biological and psychological traits. Adolescence occurs at an earlier
period, but they lack the long and prolonged age of puberty, a period of
identity quest in itself. This leads to a quickened shift into adulthood,
while this type of biological and social maturity in the closer milieu is
often in contrast with the image held by the majority. There are, however,
no significant variations in health status, stamina or intellectual capacity
between the majority and the Roma. On the other hand, personality
orientation, self-discipline, emotional life and motivational factors show a
clear-cut distinction, in all probability due to the brief period of puberty.
From an educational-psychological point of view, teachers often state
that they face particular issues when dealing with disadvantaged Roma
families and students. In their opinion, Roma families want to play a
dominant role in the life of their child. They even go so far as to openly
confront the teachers when it comes to respecting school rules and
regulations. It is a basic necessity in schools educating a large number of
Roma students that teachers establish and maintain a good rapport both
with the students and the parents, such empathy requires excellent
communication skills. Although it is the teacher who via his or her
profession acts as a cultural mediator between the majority and minority,
meeting this newly developed challenge requires special training.
Furthermore, such training in addition to a significantly greater social
appreciation for their job, could lead to an increase in the teachers sense
of vocation as well as a positive attitude towards students.
Considering the educational-psychological factors, in many cases the
school curricula simply do not meet the demands of disadvantaged
Roma students. A greater amount of time is required to develop their
frustration-tolerance and micro-skills in their early school years.
We are firmly convinced that our current educational system needs a
stronger connection between theory and practice, along with an increase
in the level of student activity and the acknowledgement that the

69
particular needs of Roma students must be considered when designing
the curricula.
As far as social-psychology is concerned, a tremendous distinction
can be observed in the socialisation of disadvantaged Roma families life.
Family socialisation has a pronounced effect and influence on the future
life of students, while socialisation at school seems to be of little
importance and professional socialisation is relegated to the background.
The family structure with its unique emotional environment, financial and
cultural foundation displays diversity. Many authors give an in-depth
description of the communicational confrontations between student-
student and teacher-student at school. The impact of peer interaction
both within the family and in the extracurricular domain appears
insignificant.

Conclusions

We are convinced that the ideas formulated above will help in

improving Roma students school performance. It is our conviction that
schools where Roma students are taught in large numbers need to
establish those external and psychic conditions that foster the optimal
development of this group. In order to assist in the realization of this goal,
we have designed and elaborated a special training programme for
interpersonal communication titled Alma-mater. Our goal is of a dual-
nature: first, to support the further education of disadvantaged Roma
students; second, to prepare teachers for more effective communication
in teacher-family and teacher-student situations in the framework of this
special training course. Intervention, as a component of a competence
criteria expected from teachers appears as a potential solution. The
subsequent discussions in small groups require careful planning and
execution from students, parents, teachers, and peers as well. The
training courses provide a great opportunity for the acquisition of plenty
of personal experience and new information too. Teachers educating
Roma students are potentially intimidated by though they do not
necessarily fear Roma parents and families. In return Roma families
are also apprehensive of schools. Fruitful co-operation between Roma
parents and the school is only possible if the schools leadership and the
teachers are motivated to become acquainted with one another.
Displaying understanding, empathy and patience towards the traits of
Roma families along with a willingness to gradually share the knowledge,
attitudes and competences required by a school reflecting the standards
of the middle class can be effective means for achieving this goal. These
small group discussions and training programmes aimed at improving

70
communication skills will aid the participants in preparing for the start of
the school year, to accept professional work within school along with
developing a career-oriented frame of mind. An additional objective is to
prepare students to meet the requirements of the life-long learning
process. This could go a long way toward the social integration of the
Roma, while maintaining group identity and independence.

References

Bindorffer, Gy. (2012). Identits s kzssgi intzmnyek (Identity and

community institutions) Trsadalmi Egyttls 2012/4 Budapest
www.tarsadalmiegyutteles.hu
Forray, R. K.- Hegeds T. A. (1991). Cigny gyerekek hromhetes nyri
tbora 1990-ben. Egy multikulturlis kutats ksrleti kontrollja.
(Evaluation of a three week summer camp for Roma children: an
experimental assessment of a multicultural research project
performed in 1990) j pedaggiai szemle. 1991. 12. sz. Budapest
Hank, Zs. (2009). Htrnyos helyzet tanulk tovbbtanulsnak
tmogatsa specilis trningprogramok segtsgvel (Supporting
further training efforts of disadvantaged students via special
training programs) In: Bbosik I.-Torgyik J: Az iskola szocializcis
funkcii (The socialization function of schools) Etvs Kiad 179-
187. Budapest
Hank, Zs.(2012). A pedaggus csalddal vgzett munkjnak szerepe
a romk trsadalmi integrcijban (The role of cooperation
between teachers and Roma families in the promotion of social
integration) Trsadalmi Egyttls 2012/3 Budapest
www.tarsadalmiegyutteles.hu
Kllai, E.- Kovcs, L.(2009). Kihvsok s Roma kzssgek a 21.
szzad iskoljban (Challenges and Roma communities in
schools in the 21st century) In Megismers s elfogads
pedaggija (The pedagogy of recognition and acceptance) Nyitott
knyvmhely, Budapest
Lisk, I. (2001). A cigny tanulk s a pedaggusok (Roma students
and their teachers). In Andor Mihly: Romk s Oktats (The
Roma community and the education process) Iskolakultra
Knyvek sorozat 8. Pcs
Mogyorsi, Zs.(2012). Pedaggusok a htrnyos helyzet tanulk
identitsrl s egyes nevelsi tvhitekrl (Pedagogues on the
identity of disadvantaged students and on specific related
misconceptions) Trsadalmi Egyttls 2012/3 Budapest
www.tarsadalmiegyutteles.hu

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Nagy, M.(2002). Cigny tanulk az iskolban. A tanrok beszlgetnek.
(Roma students in schools. Teacher conversations) Magyar
Pedaggia, 2002. 3. sz. 301-331. Budapest
Szabn Krmn, J.(2000). Csaldi s iskolai szocializci eltr
vonsai a roma gyerekek letben. (Differing features of family and
school socialization in case of Roma children) Vdn 2000/4.sz.
27-38 Budapest

***

72
 PRIMA DONA HAPSARI

INTERNALIZATION STRATEGIES OF
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS OFFICE IN
PROMOTING THE CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE
IN ART EDUCATION

Abstract

Indonesia has been developing a modern education

system and strategies to achieve competitiveness,
collaboration, and creativity. These three issues in higher
education are expected to fulfill the needs of the integrated
curriculum of 2013 which, it is hoped, will produce
Indonesians who are productive, creative, innovative and
effective, and have the required skills and knowledge
required in today`s work places. The Indonesian Government
tries to support all manner of programs and facilities to assist
universities in developing with the hope that they will become
world class universities. Therefore, it is understandable that
Indonesian governments work to socialize and support the
educational institutions needs more attention. The issue of
strengthening university standards assists institutions in
meeting the criteria to be a world class university. Academic
challenges could also have a positive effect on this issue.
Being an international and reputable university is truly
glorious. And it is what ISI Yogyakarta expects in the future,
although it will not be easy to achieve, and ISI Yogyakarta
requires strategies to achieve the dream. By referring to the
vision and mission of ISI Yogyakarta and the management
strategies of the Unit of International Affairs, there are two
questions discussed in the paper: what are the international
programs proposed by the Unit of International Affairs to
promote ISI Yogyakarta? And what are the strategies to
strengthen the Unit of International Affairs provision of better
support in art education?

73
 Introduction

Over the past few decades, Indonesia has been attempting to realize
its potential, a very important aspect of this has been the identification of
education as a way to develop the Indonesian character .
We understand education to be one of the most important and
influential aspects a country must consider. The Indonesian government
is attempting to enhance the education system with a staged
improvement of the curriculum and the education system as a whole.
Indonesia has been developing the education system utilizing
strategies that will achieve competitiveness, collaboration, and creativity.
These three issues in higher education are expected to fulfill the needs
for the integrated curriculum of 2013 which, it is hoped, will produce
Indonesians who are productive, creative, innovative and effective, this
will be achieved by equipping students with the relevant skills and
knowledge required. It is not a straightforward task for the Indonesian
government to raise awareness of their dream of producing world class
universities. However, it is understood that the Ministry of Education and
Culture is strongly supporting universities by highlighting strategies that
will get them recognized as reputable universities.
To strengthen the strategic issues to achieve this goal, the Ministry of
Education and Culture of the Indonesian Republic works hard to support
each university, three programs have been flagged up as crucial to
achieving the raising of standards in Indonesian Universities: curriculum
development, strategic planning and the increased competence of
academic staff. It is these that are discussed in the current paper.

Building the Quality Standard of Education to Promote

World-Class Universities

The term world-class university has become a catchphrase, not

simply for improving the quality of learning and research in higher
education, but also, more importantly, for developing the capacity to
compete in the global higher education marketplace, through the
acquisition, adaptation, and creation of advanced knowledge (Salmi and
Liu, 2011:10). Being a world-class university is not easy to achieve as
many considerations and policies need to adapt to the local standard of
education and capacity building. However, it is not a dead-end for
Indonesian higher education since we are aware that strategic plans for
the education system should engage with its needs. Aldin and Lin (2004)
state that in order for a university to be world-class, a number of criteria

74
need to be met: international reputation for its research, international
reputation for its teaching, the institution has a number of research stars
and world leaders in their fields, it is recognized not only by other world
class universities but also outside the world of higher education,
internationally well-known programs and research, it attracts the best
students from around the world, has diversified sources of income, has a
first class management team with strategic vision and implementation
plans, generates innovative ideas and produces basic and applied
research in abundance, produces mould breaking research output
recognized by peers, produces graduates who end up in positions of
influence and/ or power, its graduates occupy important positions in
society, contributes significantly to society and humanity, continuous
benchmarks with the world's top universities and departments and has
the confidence to set its own research agenda.
ISI Yogyakarta as an art-institute attempting to negotiate with the
conditions and requirements of being noted and reputable. Although
being a world-class institute is far from being realised, it is hopefully not
beyond the expectations in the future. Therefore, ISI Yogyakarta has
been trying to accommodate and respond to the challenges.
The issue of improving the quality of university standards is a good
way to meet the criteria to be a world class university. Salmi and Liu
(2011:17) propose that besides having some aspects in optimizing better
quality standards of education, a university is considered to have
excellent competence which is able to:

a) Develop students potential to become great scholars who are

skillful, dignified, and useful for a countrys development and
society, and actively compete in the global market;
b) Offer solutions for social development, economics, and
welfare; develop and create science and technology which can
enhance competitiveness; and build capital knowledge through
research and peoples empowering.

Policy makers and university leaders search for strategies and

pathways, often borrowed, for establishing such universities and identify
the challenges, costs, and risks. They have developed diverse strategies,
some innovative and progressive, others copying policies elsewhere,
whether relevant or not (Postiglione and Jung, 2013:249). Becoming
WCUs could not be accomplished without a favorable policy environment
to permit individual institutions with respected academic leaders, clear
mission and goals, strategic planning, and supportive internal

75
environment for academic staff development to translate the institutional
vision into concrete targets and programs.
The Indonesian government through the Ministry of Education and
Culture is eager to answer the basic needs of better education for all
citizens. Many concepts and programs have been introduced and
socialized to enhance and support better understanding on how
important education is. Improving educational outcomes is not as easy as
implementing a one-size-fits-all exercise for the Indonesians people.
Therefore, the Ministry of Education gives many opportunities to
Indonesians to obtain a better education by providing a nine-year free
education for students. In the future, the government is expecting the
highest standard of education through the educational programs, there
will also be other possibilities for all Indonesian people to get free
education from Elementary School to University.
Academic challenges also have a positive effect on this issue. Each
university is strongly supported in managing the strategic plan and
programs in order to get the points that go towards achieving the goal of
becoming a world-class university; this includes providing the students
with scholarships, good facilities, open-access technology, as well as
supporting the academic staff in developing competency and knowledge.
There are also academic challenges that need to be addressed to meet
the criteria, i.e. tools of learning, academic environment, ever more
programs, concerns over budget, web-based information and
communication, preparedness of faculty members, facilities meeting
international standards, proactive action on identifying the potency of
networking and primary services (Sailah, 2014).

ISI Yogyakarta (Indonesia Institute of the Arts Yogyakarta)

and the Initiative Programs to be the World-Class
University

ISI Yogyakarta is a relatively well-known art institute in Indonesia.

Following the amalgamation of ASRI (Visual Art Academic), AMI (Music
Academy), and ASTI (Dance Academy) in 1984, ISI Yogyakarta has
become the largest art institution in Indonesia that operates under its own
Statute and bye laws with its main source of funding coming from the
Government grants in addition to student tuition fees. In regards to its
primary vision as acenter of excellence for art education, ISI Yogyakarta
strives to conduct exemplary education in the fields of art creation and
research that is attuned to technology advancement through intellectual
or emotional transformation.

76
 ISI Yogyakarta is located in a strategic-cultural city, Yogyakarta, and
tries to be a miniature art center. It allows scholars, academics, and art
experts to be involved in supporting art education. Collaborative
programs initiated with overseas partners have been successfully
developed. The Unit of International Affairs is one of the supporting
elements in organizing and managing the collaborative and partnership
programs with them. Exhibitions, music concerts, art workshops, joint-
seminars and master classes are common activities to develop and
strengthen cooperation between all.
Being an international and reputable university is an honour as well as
an immense achievement, and it is what ISI Yogyakarta expects for itself
in the future. It is not a simple task to arrive at that destination, ISI
Yogyakarta needs to develop some strategies in order to achieve the
dream. In 2011, ISI Yogyakarta was involved in creating the strategic
plans to accommodate the needs for cooperation with overseas
counterparts and parties with similar goals and objectives to becoming
noted universities on a global scale. Therefore, the Unit of International
Affairs was created in response to the need for ISI Yogyakarta to become
a reputable art institution, and to strengthen its internal and external
capacities in art education. Below are the initiative programs put in place
by the Unit of International Programs, ISI Yogyakarta to engage with the
remit of becoming an internationally reputable art-institute:
1. Collaboration and Partnership
ISI Yogyakarta has actively joined with international forums and
consortiums addressing collaborative research programs,
collaborative art-workshops, master classes, joint-curricula, student
and staff exchange program, and collaborative art performances. It is
hoped these activities enhance our competitiveness among the art-
institutes in self-development and institution management. Intellectual
and scientific development might also become other concerns related
to the partnership programs developed by ISI Yogyakarta and
overseas partners.
ISI Yogyakarta belongs to the US-Indonesia Partnership Program
initiated by both the Indonesian and US governments which has six
Indonesian universities and six US universities as members. Under
the umbrella of USIPP, ISI Yogyakarta has a great opportunity to
develop and introduce capacity and competence into their art-
education. Eco-Art has been acknowledged and comprehensively
discussed among the members of USIPP. This issue influences and
affects the roles of art-education at ISI Yogyakarta, particularly on
Eco-Art research.

77
 Meanwhile, ISI Yogyakarta has also been active in the Urban
Research Plaza forum which was first initiated by Osaka City
University Japan, Universitas Gadjah Mada Indonesia, and ISI
Yogyakarta. Research has been carried out by these three partners to
fulfill the needs of undertaking research into urban arts and society,
and of responding to issues in art-education.
2. Quality Assurance
Quality assessment is concerned with outcomes and how good
they are. In terms of research, assessments may affect eligibility for
funding of doctoral students or participation in particular programs
(Postiglione and Jung, 2013:251). ISI Yogyakarta has graduated good
scholars and alumni who are actively working as agents of ISI
Yogyakarta. They encourage and inspire students of ISI Yogyakarta,
either local or international students, in developing positive outlooks
and understanding what needs to be done to become great artists,
performers, and academics. Through various exchange programs and
workshops, students and academic staff are expected to acquire
better skills and competence regarding their major.
The Directorate General of Higher Education, Ministry of Education
and Culture Republic of Indonesia, is responsible for developing any
efforts and funding in engaging the quality standard and condition that
ISI Yogyakarta has. Therefore, ISI Yogyakarta and the Indonesian
government should work together to bring about improvements in
academic facilities and in the working environment.
3. Marketing
ISI Yogyakarta is proud of playing host to international students
over the years. They, the students, are interested in joining us and
learning more about arts and culture. They come to Indonesia
knowing that Indonesia has got fantastic art and culture to learn about.
This is one of the marketing targets of ISI Yogyakarta and has the
potential to attract more overseas students and raise the profile of ISI
Yogyakarta and Indonesia worldwide.
Therefore, the institution has plans in place to promote itself at the
national and international level which includes taking part in a culture
exchange program instigated by the Ministry of Education and
Culture.

78
 Strategies to Strengthen the Existence of the Unit of
International Affairs in Providing Better Support in Art
ducation

The Unit of International Affairs is one of the units in the organizational

structure of ISI Yogyakarta established on the basis of Rector Decree
No. 147/KEP/2011. Unit of International Affairs abbreviated UIA, is within
the scope of authority of the Vice Rector for Academic Affairs (a Vice
Chancellor who manages a variety of academic affairs at ISI
Yogyakarta). In this authority, UIA assists to manage the affairs of
academic cooperation between ISI and Higher Education institutions
outside Indonesia.
UIA has mainly focused on dealing with: the institutionalization of
cooperative relations at ISI Yogyakarta; institutionalization of academic
cooperation relations between individuals who registered at ISI both
teaching staff and students and overseas faculty or college students.
The ultimate goal is to ensure that the above academic cooperation
relationships can be managed properly, in order to achieve the following:

1) the value of academic credit can be arranged and managed as

ISI Yogyakarta academic capital can be used to support the
accreditation of ISI Yogyakarta generally, and also for the units
which cover the academic scope with;
2) ISI Yogyakarta is able to get optimum benefits academically,
symbolically, and economically mobilized from international
activities.

According to the book of Standard Operating Procedure of UIA ISI

Yogyakarta (Marianto, et.all., 2014:47), the programs of the Unit
International Affairs (UIA) ISI Yogyakarta must be aligned and can
dynamically support the Vision, Mission and Strategic Plan of ISI
Yogyakarta. Therefore, UIA should have clear regulations and SOP
(Standard Operating Procedures) which are confirmed by the decree of
the Rector of ISI Yogyakarta, so that all works and fruitful cooperation
through UIA programs have been agreed upon by the Rector of ISI
Yogyakarta, institutionally binding, so it shall be carried out by the UIA.

The functions of the Unit of International Affairs are outlined below:

1. UUI serves as a supporting medium to achieve the vision,
mission, and strategic plans of ISI Yogyakarta, especially with
regard to international affairs.

79
 2. UUI serves as a center of information and data that is referred to
the Directorate of Higher Education, the Ministry of Education
and Culture regarding to:
2.1. Overseas activities of ISI Yogyakarta academic staffs and
students.
2.2. Activities of Memorandum of Understanding and Memorandum
of Agreement by ISI Yogyakarta and international institutions.
2.3. Activities regarding to the Agreement of Joint Degree/Double
Degree with overseas partners.
2.4. Activities regarding to the institutional accreditation/national
quality assurance.
3. UIA serves as a center of information and data that is referred to
the General Secretary of the Ministry of Education and Culture
through BPKLN (Bureau of Planning and International
Cooperation) relating to:
- UIA activities in data management, initiating activities related to
international relations, converting academic activities into
college credit points.

The criteria for UIA being successful and to bringing about the
necessary standard of art education for ISI Yogyakarta would mainly
focus onthe following:
1. Having equal occurrence and balanced relationships which are
based on equality and mutual benefit;
2. Creating sustainable long-term relationships;
3. Supporting International Accreditation;
4. Producing equal joint-degree programs
5. Able to represent the art-Indonesian universities on an
international level.
6. All the activities of both the process and outcomes are well-
documented, detailed and comprehensive so as to be reported
to the Rector and ISI Yogyakarta chairmen.

These success criteria would be successfully supported by other

supportive elements, such as:
1. Facilities
1.1. The availability of representative facilities would be an
appropriate concern for cooperation at the international level.
The facilities should accommodate the standard of international
affairs which are good and facilitated by communication devices,
media documentation, and high standards of hospitality.

80
 The Unit of International Affairs ISI Yogyakarta has been
supported by the institution to get these facilities up to the
standard expected.
However, support facilities aside, ISI Yogyakarta is proudly
developing aspects that will make it stand out from other art
institutes and thus be attractive to international students. ISI
Yogyakarta has strong departments and study programs which
have already been held in high esteem for some time due to the
competitive skills they offer and reputable alumni. It is not too far
from the truth to state that ISI Yogyakarta has captured the
attention and curiosity of the international market already.
Facilities are provided to accommodate the needs of being
recognized and of developing competence and quality. There
have already been art studios, auditoriums, work-laboratories,
galleries, halls, self-access work stations, and other art tools
installed.
1.2. Available means of publicity and promotion that have
international competitiveness. This can be through a website,
video profiles and props, and multimedia displays to
demonstrate the typical advantages of the Indonesian art-
institute.

2. Infrastructure
The International Affairs Unit staff should be given the opportunity
to develop and explore their competence by being provided with
more training programs to support the equivalent of international
relations and sustainable competitive readiness. All staff of the
International Affairs Unit have already taken part in workshops
on management and international affairs in which they gained
more understanding and knowledge of how to manage the
International Affairs Office and of being an agent for the building
of International relationships.

Conclusion

ISI Yogyakarta as a part of art education in Indonesia is making a

great effort to build a ISI Yogyakartas profile by highlighting its study
programs and academic staff. The competitive competence and systems
for world-class status in some countries has fused national and
institutional priorities and transformed global rankings from a
benchmarking tool into a strategic instrument.

81
 The Indonesian government has actively influenced the global
appreciation of Indonesian universities as reputable and word-class
institutes. The Ministry of Education and Culture is strongly supporting
universities to become world class universities by pointing out the
strategies required to be recognized and reputable universities as the
first priority of development.
ISI Yogyakarta has many opportunities to develop and establish the
potential and strength to enhance its standing internationlly. Many
collaborative and partnership programs are being actively initiated to
strengthen and promote ISI Yogyakarta in becoming a recognized and
reputable global art institute. Therefore, programs and funding which are
the routes to becoming a world-class institute should reflect the situation
and position ISI Yogyakarta in order to maintain the high standard of art
education at the institution.

References

Alden, J., & Lin, G. (2004). Benchmarking the characteristics of a world-

class university: Developing an international strategy at university
level. London: Leadership Foundation for Higher Education.
Marianto, M., et. all. (2014). Standard Operating Procedure Unit
Urusan Internasional. Yogyakata: ISI Yogyakarta.
Postiglione, G.A., and Jung, Jisun. (2013). Frameworks for Creating
Research Universities: The Hongkong Case in Institutionalization of
World-Class University. In The Changing Academic Profession in
International Perspective. Vol. 6. Washington, DC: The World
Bank. pp. 237-254.
Sailah, Illah. (2014). To Become a Better University. Presentation at
BPKLN Meeting, Yogyakarta.
Salmi, Jamil and Liu, Nian Cai. (2011). Paths to a World-Class
University: Lessons from Practices and Experiences. In Global
Perspectives on Higher Education. Volume: 23 Rotterdam: Sense
Publishers. pp. 10-19.

***

82
 JUDIT KELEMEN

INTRODUCING INTERCULTURAL ELEMENTS

INTO LOWER PRIMARY MUSIC AND ART
EDUCATION

Abstract:

During our daily teaching we cant but avoid the question

of interculturality, at the same time it is essential for us to to
acquaint students with our own national traditions and to
strengthen our national identity. In this paper my intention is
to highlight how to keep these two seemingly incompatible
notions in balance while engaging in the teaching of music.
In response to this question Yehudi Menuhin launched an
international project Music in Europe (MUS-E) in 1993 as
part of a UNESCO project World Decade for Cultural
Development with the subtitle of Source of Music, Balance
and Tolerance. This art education project concentrates on
helping children to begin the long road to personal fulfilment
through the arts music, dance, singing, drama and visual
arts {} The project promotes social integration and aims to
reduce levels of violence, racism and social exclusion
amongst the young.This study outlines the main features of
the project and its Hungarian implementation.

National education systems, no matter their achievements or

effectiveness, are now subject to the opening of international borders, a
booming tourism industry and increasing migration. This tendency is
unavoidable and points to a world in which cultures live side by side,
giving and taking from one another. There is no hierarchy among cultures
and therefore we need to be aware of our own and those of others so
that we may all appreciate, and accept, what makes us different.
(Kismartony, 2011:51).
During our daily pedagogic routine we can not avoid these questions,
yet it is part of our job to acquaint students with our own national

83
traditions and to strengthen our national identity. These two things are
not mutually exclusive but we have to find the necessary balance.
There are two strategies for intercultural education: the first is the
cognitive side searching for that which is similar and that which is not
(NO better or worse, NO hierarchy) , the second is the affective side
passive /active reception.
A natural way to maintain the balance is through music education.
Why music? It is integrative, it is a universal language, it can help you to
connect with others and help you with self-expression and self-identity.
When speaking about music education in Hungarian schools, we must
mention Zoltn Kodly (1882-1967). He was a world-famous composer, a
collector of folksongs, a folk-music researcher, a linguist and his long-
term pedagogical system of teaching music (the so-called Kodly-
method) has become a staple in many music lessons throughout the
world. It is not a comprehensive method but a set of principles for lifelong
music education concentrating on childhood development (to describe
his concept in detail would require a separate paper).

Lets take a brief look at the main points of his approach to music
education:.

The effect of music on personality cannot be replaced by anything

else.
Music education should start as early as possible preferably at
birth.
Let music be for everyone! music education should be part of
primary school education with a proper curriculum and adequate
time in the classroom.
Musical literacy must be part of a nations culture the main
resources are adapted from existing music teaching methods
(rhythm syllables, relative sol-fa and hand signs).
The way to the art and science of music comes through active
music-making and gaining experiences (singing, listening etc.)
live music must be the means of illustrating musical principles.
Singing is the most natural way of obtaining necessary musical
experience and provides the best preparation for learning how to
play an instrument.
Kodlys music education is based on the folk art heritage of
Hungary in the very beginning children play songs only, later on
they are exposed to songs of the calendar days, folk songs, folk

84
 traditions and folk dances (short forms, pentatonic style and
simple language).
Beside Hungarian folk songs, children should also be exposed to
the music of other peoples too.
Only "good-quality" composed music is good enough to serve as
teaching material at elementary level childrens songs by great
Hungarian composers, later on works of major composers of
different music eras.
Singing in a choir (for either adults or children) can give
individuals the experience of taking part in something of artistic
value.
Kodlys dream was audience education by acquiring the basic
music skills and knowledge necessary for practising music at an
amateur level, young people also learn how to appreciate it
sensitively: music education for everyone from infants to adults.

Kodlys colleagues, friends and most talented students were those

who put his basic principles into practise. Jen dm (1896-1982) wrote
the first book on this method of Hungarian music education (Systematic
Music Teaching on the Basis of Relative Sol-Fa, first published in 1943),
whereas Katalin Forrai had the task of working out the concept of music
education for early childhood. Her two books (Music in Nursery School,
first published in 1974 and Music in Day Nursery first published in 1994)
are a great help to mothers and teachers even today.
I think it was important to introduce Kodlys ideas, because
Hungarian schools have been providing this kind of music environment
for children for more than half a century.
According to research, children are very tolerant of each other up to
the age of eleven and they only become prejudiced later on. I myself take
part in the training of school teachers and nursery school teachers at the
Comenius Faculty in Srospatak. We are very lucky as children in
nursery schools and in junior years are under that critical age, so if a
teacher is able to see and exploit possibilities in this field, children are
open. It could be a nice gesture to put up a small flag in a classroom in
nursery schools or to sing some childrens songs chosen from that
culture during the listening activity. This idea is a big part of Kodalys
concept as well, so much so that there is a song collection published by
Katalin Forrai in 1966 called European Childrens Songs. Moreover it is
advisable to establish close contact with parents that can result in the
realization of events in which parents can demonstrate music, songs
,musical instruments, traditional costumes and the folklore of their
country always in a way that is joyful and easy to understand for small

85
children. In the first years of primary school these techniques can be
adapted but there are other possibilities as well. Children are able to
wear traditional costumes taken from their culture; they themselves are
able to sing some of those childrens songs or to demonstrate some of
those simple dance moves. Classmates can also be taught some songs
of that culture Kodalys former students (later famous composers, e.g.
Lajos Brdos and Erzsbet Sznyi) published bicinia of this type already
in the sixties: a music piece recalling the atmosphere of a Spanish
bullfight, some music pieces based on ancient Greek melodic
fragmentations or an arrangement of a characteristic Turkish tune.
Beside national and ethnic minorities, in certain parts of our country
we have to take the issue of migration into consideration. Unfortunately
there are more and more children from socially disadvantaged
backgrounds excluded from their classmates communities.
In response to these social challenges Lord Yehudi Menuhin (1916-
1999) the renowned violinist launched an international project Music in
Europe (MUS-E) in 1993 as part of a UNESCO project entitled World
Decade for Cultural Development with the subtitle of Source of Music,
Balance and Tolerance. Lord Menuhin wrote: I mean especially those
schools where problems of racial intolerance and other prejudices hold
sway, at the expense of the normal development of the childs emotions,
intellect and energy.The situation varies from country to country but
each has schools, usually in the most deprived neighbourhoods, which
suffer from the prejudices adults inflict on their children.1 This art
education project concentrates on helping children to begin the long
road to personal fulfilment through the arts music, dance, singing,
drama and visual arts. The project promotes social integration and
aims to reduce levels of violence, racism and social exclusion amongst
the young.2
This MUS-E project consists of two pillars: the Kodaly-system plus a
finished experiment (Music at School) in Switzerland involving 50
schools. (Kismartony, 2011:53) The teaching method of this project was
a kind of completed Kodaly-system emphasizing the unit of body, mind
and soul based on music, singing, dancing, drama, exercise and visual
arts. Instead of teachers, professional artists worked with the children in
these special artistic workshops introducing new ways of thinking and
creating, to stimulate childrens harmonious development3 and teachers

1
http://www.menuhin-foundation.com/texts-by-menuhin/about-mus-e.html 2014-
03-16
2
http://www.menuhin-foundation.com/programmes/ 2014-02-16
3
http://www.menuhin-foundation.com/programmes/ 2014-02-16

86
were present to keep discipline if necessary. As a possible resource for
handling everyday conflicts Lord Menuhin emphasized the development
of imagination and fantasy instead of musical skills so the main task of
these artists was to let childrens fantasy run free instead of helping them
become professionals.
Lord Menuhin suggested this method be used mostly with primary
school children coming from challenging environments. The programme
served a social purpose utilizing the power of arts.
As in the Kodly Method singing together is very important as is
playing with rhythms or using musical instruments. Creating and playing
simple instruments by children is also part of these music lessons. This
programme features musical richness and variety: folk music, artistic and
church music etc. everything that is of value and can be of interest to
children can become a part of these music lessons.
The IYMF (International Yehudi Menuhin Foundation) now
coordinates MUS-E in 11 countries with 1,026 artists working with
59,189 children in 623 primary schools.4 After initial caution, Hungary
joined this project in 1994.
As all participating countries have to adapt these basic principles to
the local conditions, Hungary is in a special situation. Since music
education is an obligatory part of our school system, Hungary does not
suit the requirement of the central principle of this concept that a
participating school does not provide music education.
The first subject of this experiment was a class with children of 7-8
from socially disadvantaged backgrounds in Budapest. Each of these
lessons was given by the artists (first a composer, a school music
teacher, a folk dancer/choreographer, later on joining an actor and a
martial artist) one hour a week without feedback or marks. This first
phase was successful as observed through control classes and a
psychological impact study.
Besides fulfilling the compulsory curriculum not only in music but
other subjects as well pupils can attain a higher level than those in
general education even when the artists changed the curriculum to
accomodate childrens spontaneous interests and knowledge.
Musical elements taught in music lessons were strengthened in
lessons of movement culture, folk dance and creating music it was
much easier to assimilate new teaching material, scheduled to be taught
at a later date so that they could absorb this deeper.

4
http://www.menuhin-foundation.com/programmes/ 2014-02-16

87
 Martial arts develop self-discipline, persistence, concentration and
acceptance in children by encouraging them to adapt to the rules and
others.
As Lord Menuhin put spontaneity and using the senses at the centre
of his project, learning a new song by ear was much more important than
reading and writing music. Recorded music was prohibited in the
session, all music was performed live. Due to curriculum requirements in
Hungary, we had to modify the project a little as teaching elements of
music is required, also live music was not always available. Live music
dance houses were organised with childrens groups playing Hungarian,
Romanian and German music. Artistic productions of other children
made a deep impression on the children in the experiment. Professional
folk singers were invited to sing Gipsy, Slovakian and Hungarian
folksongs, and children listened to extracts of Four Slovakian Songs by
Bla Bartk.
Different musical instruments were demonstrated by young artists in
concerts and the childrens task was to recognise these instruments only
by ear later on.
According to Kodlys and Menuhins basic principles beside the
`musical mother tongue` children also had to get to know the music of
other peoples: they were taught Gipsy, Slovakian, French and other
national songs from the collection of European Childrens Songs (edited
by Katalin Forrai).
Thanks to the cooperation of foreign guests interested in this project,
children were exposed to Dutch, Japanese, English, Swiss, Belgian,
Argentinean and American songs too.
Japanese guests made a deep impression on the children. They
became acquainted with Japanese music, costumes and plays and, with
the assistance of their teacher they made origami figures and went to a
museum.
During dancing lessons, the singing and playing songs of Hungarian
folk traditions with folk costumes became a focus, also children were
exposed to the power of dancing for community cohesion, as well as the
importance of the family and mother-children relationship. Not only
Hungarian but Irish, Spanish, Russian and American dances were taught
too with the help of video recordings.
Musicmaking workshops developed musical memory, concentration,
music improvisation, rhythmic skills and small orchestras were formed.
The project helped with ethnic conflicts, too. As children encountered
problem in the course of the lessons, they were able to discuss them with
the artists and come up with solutions together. With effective
communication it was possible to deal with concrete and important

88
themes that the children were interested in. Artists could assist children
with their own methods, for example with role motivation or association
games, drawing etc.
A follow-up study on the impact of this project on children was
undertaken by Dr. Magda Kalmr on behalf of the Hungarian Music
Council. She assessed three classes from the first and fourth year: a
MUS-E class, a class specialising in music and a general class. At the
end of the fourth year the higher levels of originality and creativity of the
MUS-E class were clearly observable against control classes
(Kismartony, 2011:53).
There was another study produced in 2011 researching this first
period of the MUS-E project from the viewpoint of the adults participating
(Kismartony, 2011:51-71). The author herself took part in this project,
and so positive was her experience that her attitude to music education
changed.
Although it is not possible here to describe the study in its entirety,
some of the more important findings are listed below:

The artists had some difficulties in maintaining discipline.

However, the reaction of pupils to some exercises was pleasantly
surprising e.g. when listening to contemporary music students
were not only attentive but they also followed the unusual notation
attentively.
The breadth of disciplines in the workshops ensured that every
child could experience `success`. Those not so able at
mathematics could be good at dance, those who suffered from
difficulties in reading could excel at music. Such reinforcement
increased self-esteem and impacted positively on their self-
confidence
At the end of the fourth year a closing concert was organised
where children performed difficult music tasks. Beside their
musical skill, students displayed development in their
concentration, timing, imagination, creativity and awareness of
others and the group.
The positive results in the music project, seemed to be carried
into other subjects on the curriculum.
Gipsy children benefitted from the positive representation of their
community and its culture (music, dance, tales, lifestyle, the
power of family, etc.)
Good performers, music groups and music performers attended
the session. Children were able to demonstrate their knowledge
to the others increasing self-respect, tolerance and acceptance.

89
 There was a Gipsy boy whose musician parents wanted him to
become a musician too. He was very good at maths, visual arts
and the Hungarian language and after this project teachers
persuaded the parents to change their minds. Today this boy
studies law and politics at university.
During dance lessons children learned some basic moves and
later tried to improvise on them. They liked it very much and were
more creative than the average. This creativity partly came from
their musicality, and partly was a result of other artistic
workshops.

After the first four years the programme had to be moved to other
schools and other towns for different reasons. There were some schools
where circumstances were too good or other places where the school
was reorganised. Unfortunately there have been no follow-up studies or
other documents available from that time. However, we can be sure of
the power of art education and its positive impact on the personality,
creativity and other skills of children, even if they live live within a
different culture.

References:

Avedikan, Viktria. A zene mint az egyensly s tolerancia forrsa.

Music Europe Program
(http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00035/00134/pdf/EPA00035_upsz_2009
07_001-017.pdf 2014-02-16)
Csbfalvi, va. A Music-Europe (MUS-E) multikulturlis mintaprogram
magyar mdszere. (2009. jnius 17.)
(http://www.ofi.hu/tudastar/ptk-enek-zene-programok/music-
europe-mus 2014-02-16)
---. MUS-E. A zene, mint az egyensly s tolerancia forrsa.
(Tanulmny, Magyar Alkotmvszeti Kzalaptvny, Budapest,
1998)
(http://www.ofi.hu/download.php?docID=3405%E2%80%8E 2014-
02-16)
Forrai, Katalin. Music in Preschool. (Translated and adapted by Jean
Sinor.) Budapest, Franklin, 1988. ISBN 9631325881
Kismartony, Katalin. Tizenkt vvel a MUS-E program budapesti
ksrleti szakasznak befejezse utn Milyen eredmnyeket
hozott a tantknak, a tanroknak a program? In Az Etvs
Lornd Tudomnyegyetem Tant- s vkpz Karnak

90
 Tudomnyos Kzlemnyei XXXIII. NEKZENENEVELS 2011
(ed. Dbrssy Jnos) ISSN 1587-4249 ISSN 2063-0794, 51-71. p.
Kodly, Zoltn. Visszatekints sszegyjttt rsok, beszdek,
nyilatkozatok. I-II. (szerk. Bnis Ferenc) Zenemkiad, Budapest,
1982.
http://www.menuhin-foundation.com/ 2014-02-16
http://www.menuhin-foundation.com/programmes/ 2014-02-16
http://www.menuhin-foundation.com/texts-by-menuhin/about-mus-e.html
2014-03-16
***

91
 ANDREA SCHMIDT

TOWARDS A COMMON EDUCATION AREA IN

THE VISEGRAD REGION INTERNATIONAL
RELATIONS IN VISEGRAD PERSPECTIVE A
JOINT MA PROGRAMME WITH THE
PARTICIPATION OF THE UNIVERISTY OF
PCS, HUNGARY

Higher education is viewed as an essential part of the social and

economic fabric of most societies, countries, regions and regional trading
associations. Throughout the world, it does seem to be recognised that a
knowledge-based economy must be fostered if growth is to be sustained.
The holistic development of education in a country will underpin and
facilitate such knowledge-based economic growth and thus, it seems,
maintain the stability and longevity of prosperity as well as enchance
social cohesion. (Birtwistle, 2012)
It is generally accepted that universities have a privileged position in
the 21st century. They can serve as an extremely significant factor for
capital which is secured not only by creating competitive advantages in
the local labour market, but also by its absorbing innovative capacities.
(Gl, 2007)
Universities and research institutes as knowledge centres are playing
an increasing role in regional development. Higher education has a
potential influence on regional development, not only because of its place
in the R & D sector, but also because of its dominant position in the
training of experts and its responsibility for producing research and
technical development (RTD) outputs and technologically-developed
products. (Gl, 2010)
The process of internationalisation of higher education is generally
acknowledged. The number of international students has been increasing
and it is projected they will to continue to do so.
2001: 1 million international students worldwide
2009: 3,3 million international students
2025: 8 million (UNESCO estimation) (Pozsgai et al, 2011)

92
 Acceptance of foreign students has benefits noticable at several levels.
At the institutional level it can balance the growing costs of the
maintenance of the universities and substitute decreasing governmental
support. On the other hand, on the societal level it can serve as an
important financial commodity. According to calculations, international
students contributed approximately 19 billion USD to the US economy,
while in the UK it contributed an extra 14 billion USD to the economy in
2012. (Pozsgai et al, 2011)
Accepting international students can be a good solution for
demographic decline as it can ensure teachers and lecturers have
employment. Foreign students can also bring new perspectives to the
classroom experience in two ways; home students can get new impulses
working in mixed group of students coming from various countries, while
outgoing students can familiarize themselves with the different cultures
and behaviour of the international students. Armed with this experience
students can help their future employability on the international labour
market.
It is always a great challenge to establish a new programme
conducted in a foreign language, targeted at international students while
working in close cooperation with colleagues from different parts of the
world, or at least the European continent. On top of this, problems can
also arise with the different rules and legislation concerning higher
education in different states, be they EU members or not. It is also
difficult at times to locate common reference points using the European
Unions recommendation for several detailed issues. Working on our
international joint MA programme, we came to realise that even the
principles of opening international programmes with international
participants, or at least establishing a consortium in order to begin the
work, could cause misunderstanding due to inconsistencies between EU
recommendations, the text of the constitution, the theoretical and legal
basis and the proposed programme.
Anoother obstacle is the lack of a European Union common
educational policy, thus leaving matters of education to member states.
(March, 2012) Learning about history and culture as well as studying
geography and social subjects is seen as a powerful instrument in
constructuring identity on a national, and sometimes also on a regional
level as Zdzisaw Mach, the head of the European Institute of the
Jagiellonian University from Cracow, Poland, writes. In his work he also
states that nation states are reluctant to delegate any of their
competences in the field of education to European istitutions.
Theoretically it is a remarkable aim to create a common European
educational space without which the fundamental European value of the

93
freedom of movement and free choice of place of residence will be an
empty slogan.
What are those tools that are essential to facilitate the fulfillment of
these aims?
First of all, the young (and not so young) must have their
educational achievements recognised in order to be employable
throughout Europe.
We have to develop curricula which can be understood in all EU
countries and which meets the standards, and respects the
cultures of, individual states. .

The University of Pcs is one of the greatest univeristies in Hungary

with approximately 25,000 students and 2,000 researchers and scientific
workers, the MA in International Relations: Europe in the Visegrad
Perspective programme became the first joint MA programme. Another
programme also commenced with the participation of a consortium
created by the following universities: Karl-Franzens University Graz,
Austria (coordinating institution), Otto-Friedrich University Bamberg,
Germany, City College New York, USA, CaFoscari University Venice,
Italy, University Paris-Diderot Paris, France and the University of Pcs,
Hungary. The title of the programme was European Joint Masters
Degree in English and American Studies. It consisted of 120 ECTS for
the student and is based on a long standing cooperation created upon
the initiatives of the Alps-Adriatic regional cooperation agreement.
According to the renewed agreement, a minimum of 60 ECTS credits
have to be earned at the entrance university. Students are required to
complete at least 30 ECTS credits at one of the partner universities (one
compulsory mobility semester). Student mobility is made possible by
Erasmus contracts among all the partner universities.
These programmes faced difficulties with the accreditation and
registration process. As the programme overseen by the MA in
International Relations was the first joint programme that was sent by the
Senate for registration the whole procedure served as a reference point
for further programmes. In July, 2014, after a wait of several months, our
programme was finally registered by the Hungarian Educational
Authority, so at least a legal precedent was established.
Despite these difficulties, the University of Pcs is becoming a centre
of international programmes conducted in foreign languages with the
participation of approximately 2,000 students from all over the world. The
University of Pcs has done all it can to be at the forefront of the delivery
of international programmes in Hungary. In September 2006 the so-
called Bologna process was introduced in Hungary, it offers students an

94
opportunity to pursue their studies in a dynamically developing,
convertible European higher educational system. The traditional college
and university level training programmes were replaced by a three-tier
system consisting of a basic training programme (BA, BSc), a masters
level programme (MA, MSc), and doctoral level (PhD, DLA) programme.
Due to the credit system, first introduced in Hungary in Pcs, an
increasing number of Hungarian students participate in international
study programmes as an integral part of their education, and likewise, an
increasing number of international students and researchers come to the
University of Pcs to study and conduct research every year.1
The total number of students studying at Pcs reached 27,000 in
2011, of which approximately 1,764 student came from countries other
than Hungary. If we calculate the proportion of foreign students from the
total student population we can see that 6.5% of the students of the
University of Pcs came from different parts of the world in 2011. The
dispersion of students is not distributed equally among the different
faculties, and there are countries that are disproportionately represented.
The largest international student groups usually come from Germany,
Norway, Iran, Serbia and South Korea. The most popular faculties are
the Medical School with 50% of foreign students (1,425 from 2,912) and
the Faculty of Humanities with 169 foreign students. The University of
Pcs has several international programmes most of which are conducted
in English

1
http://english.pte.hu/menu/25

95
 Source: http://english.pte.hu/index.php?p=contents&cid=840

Source: http://english.pte.hu/index.php?p=contents&cid=840

The tables above clearly show the predominance of the Medical

School, as almost 80 % of foreign students participate in programmess
offered by the Medical School, delivered either in the English or German
language. It can be assumed that the programmes of the Medical School
are popular for a number of reasons:among them being the quality of
teaching and the language knowledge of the lecturers. Medical science
qualifications are easily transferrable as the programmes are accredited
by accreditation committees containing members from different countries.
As was remarked at an informal discussion, the limit on the number of
foreign students admitted depends entirely on the capacity of the staff
participating in the programme; in other words, theres a limit to lecturers
available. The German programme became very popular among
students arriving from Germany and Austria, however there were
difficulties keeping them for the entirety of their studies. Previously they
had usually spent 2-3 years in Pcs and after the third year tried to
continue their studies at German universities including the obligatory
clinical practice, too. In the past two years the University of Pcs has
begun to make agreements with German clinical centres and other
hospitals to accept students coming from the university.

96
 While the Medical Faculty is in quite a strong position in international
programmes, there is a lack of programmes conducted in foreign
languages at the other 9 faculties. There are three different programmes
conducted in English at the Faculty of Business and Economics at the
three levels; a BSc programme in Business Administration which is a
combined programme with Middlesex University offering degrees
awarded by both participating universities. There is an MSc programme
in Applied Management with guest lecturers from all over the world. Apart
from these programmes students can study at doctoral level, too. There
are several students from Hungary and from abroad who complete the
doctoral programme in English and obtain their qualification.
Apart from these two faculties, the Faculty of Humanities also offers
programmes conducted in foreign languages. However, most of these
programmes are organised in German and the target group is teachers
belonging to the German ethnic minority. The Faculty of Humanities is
underrepresented in joint and dual BA and MA programmes.
Students can also study in English at the Department of Political
Studies, since September, 2013 the International Relations MA
programme has also been taught in English. However it is evident that
the Faculty of Humanities is under-represented in the field of Joint MA
Programes in comparison with other foregin universities in the Visegrad
region. Thats the reason why the proposed cooperation with the
Jagiellonian University from Krakw (Poland), the Masaryk University
from Brno (Czech Republic) and Matej Bel University from Banska
Bystrica (Slovakia) to open a common joint MA programme focusing on
the Visegrad perspective is much anticipated. Year after year most
students coming into the faculty of Social Sciences are eager to
participate in the courses the Department offers in English. The
International Relations programme at BA and MA levels also requires
good language skills from the arriving students. From the statistical data
on incoming Hungarian students it is also clear that from the whole
faculty the IR programme is by far the most popular with the greatest
intake of international students.2
The University of Pcs has ten different faculties. One of them, the
Faculty of Adult Education and Human Resources Development also
prepared a common international programme. However, this dual MA
programme will be conducted in German as the partner university is from

2
From February, 2014 the program conducted in English had only two participants from
two different states, as is illustrated in the statistical data and from the applications from
September, 2014 we will have approximately 20-24 students participating in the
programme making it by far the most popular programme for foreign students at the
Faculty of Humanities.

97
Germany (Hochschule Zittau/Grlitz). Within the framework of this dual
MA programme students can study Kultur und Management in German
in Germany and Cultural Mediation in English and German in Pcs.
As is apparent from the examples abovef the University of Pcs is still
very much in the early stages of preparing its dual and joint programmes,
however it is strongly supported and financed by the European Union.
Working together with the partner universities in the preparation process
of our International Relations programme we had a wide range of
experiences. Firstly of all we quickly realised that joint programmes and
double degree programmes had become popular in the Czech Republic,
Slovakia and Poland, while in Hungary they had scarcely made a ripple.
This did not prove too much of a handicap as we swiftly obtained the
necessary skills through practice. The fact that we could have all our
queries responded to quickly and directly was of great assistance.
Discussing the details of the programme, it soon became evident to us,
the Hungarian partner, that the legal basis was also similar but there
were differences, too. If we wanted to interpret the words of the Act, the
Hungarian State with the acceptance of the Bologna System and the
European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) the Hungarian universities
became open to the contribution with foreign universities and to accept
foreign students. However theory and the practice were quite different.
Nevertheless, the increasing number of common (joint or dual)
programmes would require the revision of the whole accreditation
system. Currently it is relatively easy to establish common international
programmes yet as the government gradually withdraws from financing
higher education the universities need to find new sources of funding.
There are several projects for the establishing of common international
programmes based on the conviction of the necessity of new
experiences, practices initiated and financed by the European Union.
These projects can incorporate the addition of new core curriculums, new
regions and students can learn of these programmes; cooperation within
the potential partner universities can result a new field of education.
There are some misunderstandings with the accreditation process. It is
true that there are attempts to handle the question of accreditation, but
the various layers of decision making are proving an obstacle. There are
too many actors in the process with limited willingness to compromise
their positions. It is also problematic, that the question of accreditation
includes the involvement of international teams. A practice already
followed in medical faculties and clinics all over Europe, but at Hungarian
universities the principles of quality assurance is at a very initial stage.
There are several fears and doubts voiced mostly by members of the

98
Hungarian Accreditation Committee. We also had to confront most of
them. These are the following:
1. There can be differences in the length of the academic year at
the different instituions making it difficult to ensure that terms
follow one another at the participating universities We found this
to be one of the most difficult questions. Our students have to
spend the four terms in four different countries at four different
universities.
2. There can be differences in the process of examination and
evaluation. Sometimes a single essay can be enough to obtain
the final degree, while some universities require a final (state)
exam. It was also a great challenge to adapt the four different
types of evaluation, how to equate the numbers and letters. Apart
from this, the three other universities dont give any kind of
evaluation on the diploma bar passed or failed
3. It is also important to ascertain whether students are required to
pay tuition fees at the partner universities for further terms during
their studies. This was the easisest problem to solve, as
programmes conducted in a foreign language at universities can
request a tuition fee.
4. Sometimes the language skills are not good enough to
participate in programmes conducted in foreign languages.
According to the European Statistical data 75 % of the Hungarian
population between the ages of 24 and 64 doesnt speak any
foreign language. However, in order to get a degree it is
mandatory to have at least one exam on one foreign language at
intermediate level, so these numbers will improve in years to
come. In our experience, if somebody wants to study IR it is
evident that he or she needs to be comfortable communicating in
several languages. Looking through the applications to our
programme, prospective students are applying with two or three
language exams at B2 level or above.
5. Hungary could lose its best students as once their studies finish
and they obtain their joint degrees they will not be willing to
return. It is a much more complex question that is strongly
connected with the questions of the financial policy of the
Hungarian higher education system and whether students are
optimistic about their future careers.
It would be also essential to harmonize the work of the Hungarian
Accreditation Committee with the work of the European Consortium for
Accreditation (ECA). ECA was founded in 2003. Its aims are as follows:
1. mutual recognition of accreditation decisions.

99
 2. mutual learning and disseminating best practices in accreditation;
3. providing transparent information on quality and supporting
internationalisation of institutions and students3
Despite these fears, the former president of the Hungarian
Accreditation Committee believed it essential for Hungarian universities
to begin working with foreign-based partner universities in order to create
joint programmes in all fields of studies. Of course, the initial steps can
be difficult and risky. Sometimes a university cannot afford to finance
preparatory meetings of potential partners. Fortunately, there are
resources now to facilitate such initial contacts. In our case we, as the
members of the Visegrad region chose the most obvious solution and
applied to the International Visegrad Fund. Our programme was awarded
the VUSG Joint Degree Programmes Grant in June 2013, the first grant
of its kind.4 Thanks to this financial assistance we are even able to award
the most promising applications with scholarships.
In conclusion, we can remark that the willingness and initiative to
create joint programmes is evident among members of institutes of
higher education, nevertheless there are various ways in which to
instigate such cooperation. Hungary as a EU member state signed up to
the Bologna system and opened up Hungarian universities to
international students, but it is going to take time to popularise the joint
programmes. With the VNDREAM project5 the University of Pcs has
taken a great leap forward towards the development and deepening of
this new type of contribution.

References:

Birtwistle, Tim (2012). Europe 2020 and the Eastern Partnership: focus
on education, training, youth and employment. In: The Eatern
Partneship and the Europe 2020 Strategy, visions of leading
policymakers and academics, European Commission, Directore-
General for Education and Cultire, Louxemburg, 2012 pp. 133-145.
Gl, Zoltn (2007). Regional dimension of investment in research the
case of Southern Transdanubian knowledge base. In: Milford,
Susan Tarrsy, Istvn eds. European Higher Education in a
Changing World a View from the Danube Region, 4th DRC
(Danube Rectors Conference) Summer School on Regional Co-
operation). Publikon Books, Pcs- Vienna 2007 pp. 23-37.
3
http://www.ecaconsortium.net/main/about-eca
4
For more details: http://visegradstudies.eu/the-consortium/
5
Visegrad Network of Research Education and Mobility www.vndreamproject.eu

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Gl, Zoltn (2010). The role of research universities in regional
innovation: The case of Southern Transdanubia. In: Longworth,
Norman Osborne, Michael eds.: Perspectives on Learning Cities
and Regions Policy, practice and participation, NIACE, Leicester,
2010, pp. 84 105.
Mach, Zdzisaw (2012). Towards a common education area in the
Visegrad region. (New modalities of co-operation within
international relations and European studies programmes),
Wydawnictwo Promo, Cracow, 2012, pp. 9-11.
Gyngyi Pozsgai Attila Kajos Tmea Nmeth: University of Pcs,
Pcs: The role of creating a multicultural university environment in
the era of crisis,
http://www.uneecc.org/htmls/v_uneecc_general_assembly_and_co
nference_presentations.html
http://english.pte.hu/index.php?p=contents&cid=840
http://english.pte.hu/menu/25
http://www.ecaconsortium.net/main/about-eca

***

101
 PETRSOVITS GNES

IDEGEN NYELVI MENTORLS AZ EKF

OKTATI SZMRA

Abstract

Internationalization and increased mobility in higher

education involve a number of challenges for academics. The
proportion of those participating in international events, giving
presentations at international conferences, publishing their
academic work and teaching courses in foreign languages is
constantly growing. Eszterhzy Kroly College is proud of
hosting more and more foreign guests, having a growing
number of international students and offering over 270
courses in total in English, German and French.
The foreign language coaching/mentoring programme is
organized by the Centre for Foreign Languages and was
launched in spring 2014. Its main goal is to promote the
internalization processes at the college through providing
assistance to academics preparing for the challenges
mentioned above.
We started this programme because we realized that the
demand for this kind of support was significant. It is a kind of
foreign language training but we do not offer language
courses. The training consists of 3 or 5 one-to-one sessions,
during which we offer guidance and various forms of help to
improve the foreign language skills needed when
participating in a mobility programme, teaching a course,
giving a presentation or publishing academic work in a
foreign language.
This mentoring/coaching service is available to our
colleagues in four languages: English, German, French and
Russian, free of charge. The content of the training always
depends on the needs of the participant. We aim for
improvement, not for perfection, our purpose is to boost the

102
 academics self-esteem and confidence and increase their
motivation to further improve themselves.
It is also possible to combine foreign language training
with intercultural training when required.

Az idegen nyelvi mentorprogram 2014 tavaszn indult az Eszterhzy

Kroly Fiskoln az Idegen Nyelvi Kommunikcis Intzet szervezs-
ben. A program clja, hogy egy specilis trninggel tmogassa az intz-
mnyben zajl nemzetkziestsi folyamatokat.
A trninget olyan oktatknak s kutatknak knljuk, akik rszt kvn-
nak venni az oktati mobilits programban, idegen nyelven kszlnek
eladst tartani konferencikon, idegen nyelv kurzust terveznek tartani,
vagy idegen nyelven ksztenek publikcit.
A program elindtsra az sarkalt bennnket, hogy szmos alkalom-
mal krtek mr tlnk privt keretek kztt segtsget olyan, tudomnyos
plyafutsuk elejn ll kollgk, akik egyltaln nem, vagy csak csekly
tapasztalattal rendelkeztek tudsuk, illetve kutatsi eredmnyeik idegen
nyelven trtn kzvettsben. A jelentsnek mutatkoz ignyek hat-
sra gy dntttnk, hogy megprblunk szervezett keretek kztt, minl
szlesebb krben segtsgre lenni kollginknak, hogy minl kevesebb
nehzsggel kelljen megkzdenik s minl nagyobb nbizalommal sze-
repelhessenek nemzetkzi krnyezetben.
A program trtsmentesen nyjt segtsget, angol, nmet, francia
vagy orosz nyelven. Az Idegen Nyelvi Kommunikcis Intzet nyelvtan-
rai a trningeket kln trts nlkl biztostjk, heti fogad rik egyikt
fordtva erre a clra.
A mentorprogram nem nyelvtanfolyam, hanem egy klnleges, sze-
mlyre szabott nyelvi trning, mely mindssze nhny (a kitztt cloktl
fggen 3-5) alkalombl ll. Ezeket az alkalmakat nem az elads sz-
vegnek lefordtsra vagy lektorlsra fordtjuk, a rsztvevknek mr
elksztett anyaggal kell rkeznik. A trning sorn a kitztt cl (konfe-
rencin elads tartsa stb.) megvalstshoz szksges idegen nyelvi
kszsgek fejlesztsre koncentrlunk, az egyni szksgleteknek meg-
felelen.
A mentorls szmos pontjn a coaching mdszertannak bizonyos
elemeit alkalmazzuk, mivel ez nyelvi a trning is szksgess teszi a r
fordtott alkalmak s id korltozottsgnl fogva a clirnyossgot; a
fejlesztend terlet azonostst, konkrt s relis clok kitzst, vala-
mint olyan megoldsok keresst, amelyek a trning rsztvevinek a
mr meglev erforrsain (elzetes eladi tapasztalatok, rendelkezsre
ll nyelvtuds, problmamegold kszsg stb.) alapulnak. A trninget
tjkozd beszlgets elzi meg, mely sorn minden esetben azt krjk

103
a jelentkezktl, hogy a regisztrcis lapon pontosan jelljk meg, milyen
esemnyre kszlnek, milyen hatridvel, s milyen segtsget krnek a
kitztt cl megvalstshoz. A szolgltats csak abban az esetben
trtsmentes, ha a kitztt cl (elads, kurzustarts stb.) megvalsul.
Lehetsg van az alkalmak (3-5) szmnak emelsre is, kedvez dja-
zs ellenben.
A trning tartalmi elemei a rsztvev szksgleteinek fggvnyben
vltozak lehetnek. Gyakran szksg van pldul a prezentcik nyelv-
hasznlatnak megismersre az adott nyelven. Ilyenkor ttekintjk azt a
szkszletet, azokat a kifejezseket s egsz mondatokat, amelyek se-
gtsgvel bevezethetjk, a hallgatsg szmra kvethetbben struktu-
rlhatjuk, illetve lezrhatjuk eladsunkat, vagy amelyekkel kiemelhetnk
bizonyos, klnsen fontosnak tartott informcikat. Szksg esetn
kitrnk a tblzatok, grafikonok, diagramok szbeli interpretlsnak
kellkeire, megbeszljk, hogyan tmrthet legjobban az adott nyelven
az elads tartalma a dikon, vagy ppen fordtva; gyakoroljuk a dik
tartalmnak sszefgg szvegknt val eladst. Segtsget nyjtunk
a kiejtsi nehzsgek thidalsban, gyakoroljuk a prezentci elad-
st, mg egy gynevezett fprba lehetsgt is felknljuk, amikor
dikokbl vagy kollgkbl szervezett szkebb kznsg eltt eladhat-
jk prezentcijukat, hiszen mindenki tisztban van vele, hogy cskken a
lmpalz, ha mr nem elszr tartunk meg egy eladst.
Ms mdokon is prblunk hozzjrulni a mentlis felkszlshez.
Igyeksznk lecsendesteni az eladsra kszlben megbv bels kriti-
kus hangjt, ha az tlzottan ers, mert az izgalomnak betudhat tlzott
nkritika vagy nbizalomhiny nha kpes hossz hetek munkjt romba
dnteni. Tudatostjuk, hogy a cl nem a tkletessg elrse, hanem a
fejlds, a megalapozott nbizalom megszerzse a nyelvi eszkzk be-
gyakorlsn keresztl. A kitztt cl elrse, a pozitv lmnyekkel val
gazdagods pedig motivcit jelent az egyn tovbbi fejldshez, nfej-
lesztshez.
A program ksrleti szakaszban van, de remljk, hogy hathats se-
gtsget tudunk nyjtani kollginknak tudomnyos tevkenysgk sz-
lestshez s a sikeres tudomnyos plyafutsukhoz nlklzhetetlen
egyni fejldshez. A kapott visszajelzsek pozitvak, a program fbb
ernyei kztt emltik a rugalmassgot, az egyni szksgleteknek meg-
felelen szemlyre szabott tartalmakat, valamint a mentorok tmogat,
megerst hozzllst.
Pillanatnyilag a figyelem a kls segtsg s gyakorlsi lehetsg nl-
kl nehezen fejleszthet szbeli kszsgekre sszpontosul, de hosszabb
tv terveinkben szerepel az is, hogy idegen nyelv publikcikhoz is
fordulhassanak hozznk segtsgrt. A kvetkez tanvtl, igny szerint,

104
a nyelvi trning interkulturlis trninggel is kiegszlhet az EKF NKK
Mobilits Irodja bevonsval.
***

105
 TTH VA

VLTOZTASS, HOGY VLTOZHASS!

GONDOLATOK AZ OROSZ NYELVI
COACHING PROGRAMRL

Abstract

The coaching-mentoring programme was launched in

spring 2014 at Eszterhzy Kroly College, Eger. The
language teachers of the Institute of Foreign Languages and
Communications (IFLC) provide 5 lessons for free to
academics of the College. As a result of the growing demand
for Russian language, two academics were interested in the
Russian language coaching-mentoring programme in the
spring semester of 2014. We could provide them with a 5-
session training in Russian. The main goal of the Russian
training was to refresh and develop their Russian language
skills in order to help them to be able to study further, and
later on to give lectures and/or to present in Russian. In her
paper the author gives some background knowledge to
coaching, language coaching and shares her experience as a
coach and language teacher, and outlines the Russian
language coaching-mentoring programme its content, the
teaching methods used and the results and outcomes of the
training.

Bevezets

Az Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskoln 2014 tavaszn kezddtt el az idegen

nyelvi coaching-mentoring program. A program keretben az Idegen
Nyelvi Kommunikcis Intzet nyelvtanrai 5 alkalommal mentorltk a
fiskola oktatit. Azok az oktatk jelentkezhettek a programra, akik ide-
gen nyelvtudsukat kvntk fejleszteni idegen nyelv konferencia el-
ads, publikls vagy szaktantrgy idegen nyelven trtn oktatsa mi-
att. A fiskola oktati rmmel fogadtk a lehetsget. Tavasszal angol,

106
nmet, orosz nyelvbl volt rdeklds a coaching-mentoring program
irnt. E tanulmny az orosz nyelvi programrl kvn tjkoztatst adni.
Az Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskoln foly nyelvi coaching-mentoring prog-
ram bemutatsa eltt azonban fontosnak s szksgesnek tartjuk, hogy
ltalnossgban is szljunk magrl a coaching mfajrl, az idegen
nyelvi/ nyelvi coaching sajtossgairl, mivel manapsg nagyon npsze-
r ez az j lehetsg, de keveset tudunk rla.

Mi a coaching? Trtneti ttekints

A 'coaching' kifejezst eredetileg a sportban hasznltk. A 'coach' az

edz, a 'coaching' pedig az edz ltal vgzett segt, tmogat munka
megnevezsre szolglt.
A 'coaching' kifejezs magyar eredet. A Tata melletti Kocs kzsg
mzeumban tallhat az a kocsi/postakocsi 'coach', amely az 1500-as
vekben a tvolsgi kzlekedst forradalmastotta. A postakocsi knyel-
mes volt, jdonsga abban llt, hogy az utaz ignyeihez alkalmazkodott
azltal, hogy kzel ment az utazhoz s ti cljnl tette le. Az t megt-
telben pedig megbzhat szllteszkznek bizonyult.
Egy 1848-bl szrmaz dokumentumban mint az egyetemi hallgat-
kat segt privt tutor olvashat a 'coach' sz. 1885-ben pedig a sportban
honosodott meg a sz, mind az Egyeslt Kirlysgban, mind az Egyeslt
llamokban. Ekkor jelentse kibvlt a megtant, betant, tancsot ad s
irnyt tartalommal. Az USA-ban elssorban a sportban s lsportban lt
tovbb a 'coach' kifejezs. A sport rvn kerlt vissza a kifejezs Eur-
pba is. A sportban a 'coaching' az lsportolk teljeskr tmogatst
jelenti, amely tbb mint a hagyomnyos testi trning. A 'coach' pszicho-
lgiai trningeszkzket is alkalmaz. [1] A coaching fogalma az 1980-as
vek elejn kerlt t a sportpszicholgibl az zleti letbe.
Az zleti letben mkd coach hasonl szerepet tlt be, mint a
sportedz, legfbb clja, hogy gyfelt a lehet legjobb teljestmny el-
rsre sztnzze. A coaching-nak sokfle meghatrozsa van. Tall-
kozhatunk olyan megfogalmazsokkal, melyek a coaching egyttmkd
s prbeszdes jellegre helyezik a hangslyt, ms defincik viszont a
coaching ketts cljra, a teljestmny nvelsre s a tanuls sztn-
zsre. Alapvet felttel, hogy a coach s gyfele kztt erteljes bizalmi
szvetsg jjjn ltre.
A cl elrse rdekben tbbfle stratgit dolgoznak ki kzsen.

107
 A coaching fogalma a Nemzetkzi Coach Szvetsg (ICF) szerint:
A professzionlis coaching olyan szakmai kapcsolat, amely abban se-
gti az gyfelet, hogy kiemelked eredmnyeket rjen el akr a magn-
letben, akr a munkjban, vagy abban a szervezetben, ahol dolgozik.
A coaching folyamat sorn az gyfl elmlyti tudst, nveli teljestm-
nyt, s mindezek eredmnyeknt javul az letminsge. Minden tall-
kozskor az gyfl vlasztja meg a beszlgets fkuszt, mg a coach
figyelmesen hallgatja, megfigyelseit visszajelzi, s legfkppen krd-
seket tesz fel. Ez az interakci egyrszt segti az gyfelet abban, hogy
vilgosabban lsson, msrszt akcira/ tevkenysgre serkenti. A
coaching folyamata a fkusz s a vlasztsi lehetsgek bvtsvel
felgyorstja az gyfl fejldst. A coaching arra koncentrl, hogy vil-
goss vljon hol tart most az gyfl, s mit akar tenni annak rdekben,
hogy eljusson oda, ahov el szeretne rni. A coaching folyamat eredm-
nye az gyfl eredmnye, azaz szndknak, vlasztsnak s akcii-
nak/ tevkenysgeinek a kvetkezmnye, amelyet a coach, mint a fo-
lyamat szakrtje tmogatott. [2]
Magyarorszgon 2000 tjn kezdett megjelenni a kifejezs a tancs-
adi, trneri krben. A coaching olyan tancsad tevkenysg
/tancsadsi folyamat/, amely sajtos eszkzeivel az egyn nll fela-
datmegoldst segti el, tmogatja akr az rintett szemly (rintet-
tek) ismereteinek kiegsztsvel is s elvezeti az egynt az optimlis
dntshez, clja megvalstshoz (Por, 2007)[3]. A tancsadssal
(coach-tevkenysggel) foglalkoz kzlemnyek kettvlasztjk a kvl-
rl jv s bellrl megvalsul tevkenysget. A cg bels llomny-
bl "rkez" coach-ot mentornak, az ltala elltott tevkenysget pedig
mentoring-nak nevezik. A mentoring bels vllalati tancsad tevkeny-
sg (bels coaching), amit a mentor (bels coach) valst meg. A
coaching-nak tbb fajtjt is ismerjk gymint: business coaching /zleti/,
life coaching /magnleti/, health coaching /egszsg/, stb. s ma mr
haznkban elterjedt a nyelvi /idegen nyelvi/ coaching is, ami egy jabb
hungarikum.

Nyelvi coaching mint hungarikum fogalma s jellemzi

A nyelvi coaching olyan idegen nyelvi fejlesztsi mdszer, amely t-

vzi a nyelvi trninget s a coaching-ot az zleti letben kzismert telje-
stmnynvel mdszert. (Trkn N.K., 2012.) [4]. A nyelvi coaching
tulajdonkppen hungarikumnak" is tekinthet, mert nyelvi coachingot
kevs helyen alkalmaznak a vilgban, nemzetkzi elterjedtsgrl nincs
tudomsunk. Az Egyeslt llamokban, a coaching hazjban a nyelvtu-

108
ds nem tartozik annyira a karriert befolysol tnyezk kz, mint pl-
dul Magyarorszgon. Nagyon sok dolgoz s munkt keres ember
kzd olyan gondokkal a plyjn, amelyeket nyelvtudsbeli hinyoss-
gai, gtlsai okoznak. Ezeket a szksgleteket ismerte fel munkja so-
rn, business coachknt Kiss Ildik, a Language Coach Academy alap-
tja, s ltrehozta iskoljt, ahol a coaching szakma s a nyelvi szakrti
tuds, tapasztalat trstsval dolgozta ki a nyelvi coaching mdszerta-
nt. A mdszertan kidolgozsban gyakorl nyelvtanrok is rszt vesz-
nek, akik mr coachknt, nyelvi coachknt is dolgoznak. A nyelvi
coaching mdszertannak alapjait kt olyan sikeresen mkd coaching
modell adja, amely gazdag tapasztalati s szakirodalmi httrrel rendel-
kezik: ezek az gynevezett GROW modell, valamint a megolds fkusz
coaching modell. A kvetkez elem a pozitv pszicholgia, vgl pedig a
nyelvi coach szakrtelme.[5]

A klasszikus nyelvtanuls s a nyelvi coaching klnbs-

gei:

A klasszikus nyelvtanr dik kapcsolathoz kpest, a nyelvi

coach s coachee viszonyt j alapokra helyezi, viszonyuk
egyenrang, nem hierarchikus.
A coaching folyamatban a nyelvtanul nyelvtanulsa eredm-
nyessgrt teljes felelssget vllal.
A nyelvi coach tmogatja a coachee-t (nyelvtanul) cljai elr-
sben.
A nyelvi coach bzik abban, hogy a coachee tudja legjobban, hogy
mit s hogyan szeretne megtanulni.
Ez az egyenrang viszony megelzi a klasszikus nyelvtanuls ti-
pikus frusztrciit.
Pldul:
a) ha a coachee egyik alkalomrl a msikra nem tud kszlni, vagy
nem ri el az ltala kitztt clt, a nyelvi coach megkeresteti vele
azt az utat, amivel ez legkzelebb sikerl,

b) ha egy elads, vagy trgyals eltt a coachee nem rez magban

kell nbizalmat a feladat teljestshez ekkor a coach megkeres-
teti a coachee-val azt a megoldst, ami bels akadlyait megszn-
teti. Mindez nveli a coachee nbizalmt s fenntartja nyelvtanulsi
sikerlmnyt.

109
 A nyelvi coaching sorn egyre nagyobb szerepet kap a coachee
egyni ignyeire sszevlogatott szakanyag, (mint a hagyom-
nyos nyelvknyv). A nyelvi coach mint nyelvi szakrt ehhez ke-
res illeszked gyakorlatokat, illetve ajnl egyb hasznos cikkeket,
honlapokat s tanulsi technikkat.
A nyelvi coach olyan szakkpzett, egy-egy szaknyelvi terletet jl
ismer, tapasztalt nyelvtanr, aki rdekldik a nyelvi fejleszts j,
tt megoldsai irnt. Kulcsfontossg a msok ignyeire r-
hangoldni tuds s a j kommunikcis kszsg. A nyelvi coach
arra trekszik, hogy mindig megoldskzpont s
nbizalomnvel mdon kezelje a felmerl problmkat. [6]

A nyelvi coaching minden olyan nyelvtanulnak ajnlhat, aki egy

idegen nyelvet j, tt mdszerrel kvn elsajttani. Klnsen hasz-
nos azoknak, akik mr rendelkeznek kzpfok nyelvtudssal, s egy
konkrt idegen nyelvi feladat eltt llnak, pl. prezentci, szakmai el-
ads, trgyals, publikls, konferenciabeszlgets, interj, protokollren-
dezvny, stb. A nyelvi coaching arra ad megoldst, hogy ezekben a
helyzetekben az a szemly, aki az idegen nyelvet hasznlja (pl. a vezet,
vagy az oktat), hogyan rjen el az egyni s szervezeti eredmnyess-
ge szempontjbl kiemelten fontos magas szint teljestmnyt.

Egy lehetsges nyelvi coaching alkalom bemutatsa:

A nyelvi coach az els alkalommal a coaching szakma mdszereivel,

teht az rt figyelem, az aktv hallgats, a hatkony krdezstechnika
s clorientlt gondolatmenet segtsgvel (pl. GROW-modell, 4D-
modell, EI-modell) a coachee-val meghatroztatja nyelvtanulsi cljt s
megkeresteti vele az oda vezet utat. Mindezt gy teszi, hogy feltrja s
fejleszti a nyelvtanul erssgeit.
A coachee akcitervet is kszt sajt kpessgeinek s lehetsgei-
nek kiaknzsval, amely ppen ezrt minden nyelvtanul esetben ms
s ms.
A nyelvi coach a szemlyes akadlyok elhrtsban is tmogatja a
coachee-t (pl. az nbizalom fejlesztse idegen nyelven trtn kommuni-
kci esetn, idt keresni a nyelvtanulsra, stb.).
A coaching tpus egyttmkds miatt a kt fl kztt bizalmi lgkr
alakul ki. Ez a nyelvtanulnak megteremti a sikeres nyelvtanuls felsza-
badult lgkrt, a nyelvi coach-nak pedig lehetv teszi a nyelvtanul
ignyeire val nagyobb rhangoldst. A clkitzs s akciterv kszt-
se utn az alkalom a kitztt nyelvi elemek elsajttsval s gyakorl-
sval folytatdik, majd megerst s fejleszt visszajelzssel zrul. [7]

110
 Az orosz nyelvi coaching-mentoring program bemutatsa:

Az orosz nyelvi coaching-mentoring programra 2014 tavaszn kerlt

sor az Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskoln Egerben. Az orosz nyelv irnti foko-
zd rdekldst mutatja, hogy kt fiskolai oktat is jelenkezett az j
programra. Mindketten a Mdiainformatika Intzet tanrai, s korbban
mr tanultak oroszul. A nyelvvlaszts mr nmagban is klnleges,
hiszen nem a npszer angol nyelvi coaching kpzst, hanem az orosz
nyelvi kpzst vlasztottk. t alkalommal kerlt sor coaching tallkoz-
sokra, melynek f clja az orosz nyelvtudsuk fejlesztse volt annak r-
dekben, hogy egy orosz nyelv eladsra felkszljenek.
Munknk sorn Sir John Whitmore-nak, a coaching ttrjnek szel-
lemben dolgoztunk, aki az albbiakban hatrozta meg a coaching l-
nyegt: A coaching a bennnk rejl kpessgek felszabadtsa annak
rdekben, hogy maximalizljuk sajt teljestmnynket. Nem tant, ha-
nem tanulni segt. [8]
Az orosz nyelvi coaching-mentoring programunkban a coaching lta-
lnos jellemzi kzl a kvetkezket tartottuk szem eltt:

A coaching-mentoring programunkban a jelenre s a jvre kon-

centrltunk. Az orosz nyelvi coachingnak az volt a clja, hogy
sztnzze s tmogassa az oktatk szemlyes s szakmai fej-
ldst. A kollgkkal kzsen olyan stratgit s akcitervet
dolgoztunk ki, amelynek segtsgvel az oktat kollgk maguk
rtk/rik el a kitztt clokat. A figyelem kzpontjban a kt kol-
lga tanulsa s fejldse llt, amelyet az nknt vllalt feladatok
s hatridk betartsa, nyomon kvetse rvn rhettek el. A vl-
tozs, a fejlds eredmnye a kitztt cl megvalstsa volt.
A coaching sorn a ''hogyan" volt a vltozshoz vezet krds.
Arra kerestk a vlaszt, hogy az oktat kollgknak miben kell
vltozniuk, fejldnik, milyen eszkzkkel hrthatjk el az akad-
lyokat az ppen aktulis problmik tjbl. Nyelvi coach-knt az
volt a feladatom, hogy krdezzek, az oktatk pedig megkerestk
a sajt vlaszukat. (A coach ugyanis nem ad megoldst a prob-
lmkra, hanem clirnyos krdsekkel, odafigyelssel s elt-
letek nlkli meghallgatssal vezeti r az gyfelt a megoldsra.
Nem mondja meg, hogy az egynnek mit kell tennie, hanem
hagyja, hogy maga talljon r a neki legmegfelelbb tra s md-
szerre.)[9]
Mint nyelvi coach nem a sajt tudsomat, tapasztalatomat kellett,
hogy tadjam a kollgimnak, hanem j tuds s tapasztalat megszerz-
sre sztnztem ket.

111
 A coaching alkalmak a ksrletezsre is lehetsget adtak, ahol a
hibs lpsek vagy elakadsok kivl lehetsget nyjtottak az
nismeretre, a bels erforrsok felfedezsre, azaz a kollgk
fejldsre.
A szmos coaching folyamatmodell kzl mi a GROW modell alapjn
dolgoztunk.
A GROW modellt is Sir John Whitmore dolgozta ki. Az angol GROW
sz jelentse nvekeds, halads, fejlds.

GROW-modell

Goals a cl meghatrozsa
Reality a jelenlegi helyzet feltrsa
Options a lehetsgek szmbavtele
Wrapup, What (will you do) Mit fog/fognak tenni?

Goals a cl meghatrozsa
a kollgk meghatroztk a coach segtsgvel az ltaluk v-
gyott jvkpet, kijelltk az irnyt, a megvalstand clt.

Reality a jelenlegi helyzet feltrsa

Ebben a fzisban coachknt a jelen helyzetet mrtem fel, azaz
mi a kiindulpont, honnan indul a coaching folyamat, mik az ok-
tat kollgk kihvsai.

Options a lehetsgek szmbavtele

Opcikat, lehetsgeket trunk fel annak rdekben, hogy
meghatrozhassuk, hogyan lehet elrni a fent kijellt irnyt, clt.

Wrapup, What (will you do) Mit fog/fognak tenni?

Ebben a fzisban coachknt abban tmogattam az oktatkat,
hogy az sszegyjttt alternatvk kzl melyik utat vlasszk
valamint, hogy a kivlasztott utat vgig is jrjk, el is rjk a cl-
jukat, s ne htrljanak meg az els akadlynl. [10]

Az orosz nyelvi coaching-mentoring programnak az orosz nyelvtuds

fejlesztse is rsze volt, ez a nyelvvlaszts miatt is szksges s indo-
kolt volt, hiszen az orosz nyelvvel nem foglalkoztak napi szinten az okta-
t kollgk. A nyelvfejleszts sorn tismteltk a cirill bets rst, a kiej-

112
ts-helyesrs alapvet tudnivalit. A szksges nyelvtani ismereteket is
szmba vettk s megbeszltk, hogy milyen mdszerrel lehet aktivizlni
a korbbi nyelvtudst. A tmk kzl a bemutatkozsra, a munkahelyre
s a szaktantrgyakra vonatkoz szkincs feleleventse, fejlesztse volt
az elrend cl. Ezen kvl a szbeli kommunikcihoz szksges nyelvi
funkcik rendszerezshez s az orszgismereti tudnivalk aktualizl-
shoz szksges nyelvi eszkzk elsajttsnak lehetsges mdszerei-
vel foglalkoztunk. Vgezetl pedig az idegen nyelv eladshoz szks-
ges tartalmi s formai elemek kerltek megbeszlsre.
A kollgk rtkelse alapjn elmondhat, hogy egy sikeres
coaching-mentoring programot zrhattunk, ahol mind a kt fl,- a
coaching folyamatban rszvev kollgk s jmagam is, aki coach-knt
mkdtem kzre- sok, hasznosthat, j tapasztalattal gazdagodott. Jl
es rzssel nyugtzhattuk azt is, hogy elrtk a kollgk a kitztt clt.

sszegzsknt elmondhat, hogy a coaching alap GROW modell

felhasznlsval egy megoldskzpont s eredmnyorientlt programot
tudtunk megvalstani. Az oktat kollgk az orosz nyelvi coaching-
mentoring programban tmogatst kaptak egyni nyelvi cljaik pontos
meghatrozsban, a szksges nyelvismeret megszerzsben, a
nyelvtanulsi folyamatok tudatostsban, a szemlyre szabott akciterv
kidolgozsban, a nyelvtuds gyakorlati lethelyzetekben trtn alkal-
mazsban s az esetleges nyelvi, ill. kommunikcis gtlsok felolds-
ban.
Az orosz nyelvi coaching-mentoring program hozzadott rtke a
nyelvoktatsban az, hogy szemlyre szabottan, motivlva s hatkonyan
segtett egy specifikus idegen nyelvi feladatra trtn felkszlsben,
nevezetesen egy orosz nyelv elads elksztsben. Erre a programra
is igaz az a gondolatot, mely szerint letnk nem vletlenl lesz jobb,
hanem a vltozsok segtenek abban, hogy jobb, eredmnyesebb
tegyk azt.

Felhasznlt irodalom:

1. http://www.lemma-coaching.hu a coaching rendszer

http://www.coachOK.hu a coach portl
2. http://www.coachkor.eu/coaching.html
3. http://www.hrportal.hu/hr/mit-jelent-a-hr-esnek-a-coaching-coach-
mentoring-es-a-trening-fogalom-%28ii%29-20070608.html
4. http://coachszemle.hu/iranyok-88/99-a-nyelvi-coaching-mint-a-nyelvi-
fejlesztes-uj-modja

113
5. http://www.ohe.hu/hrmagazin/cikkek/2in1-azaz-coach-es-nyelvtanar-
egyben
6. http://coachszemle.hu/iranyok-88/99-a-nyelvi-coaching-mint-a-nyelvi-
fejlesztes-uj-modja
7. http://coachszemle.hu/iranyok-88/99-a-nyelvi-coaching-mint-a-nyelvi-
fejlesztes-uj-modja
8. http://nyelvi-coaching.hu/nyelvi-coaching-bemutatkozs/
9. http://www.coachkor.eu/coaching.html
10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GROW_model [2]

***

114
 PETRSOVITS GNES

A NEM IDEGEN NYELV SZAKOS HALLGATK

IDEGEN NYELVI KPZSE AZ ESZTERHZY
KROLY FISKOLN

Abstract

This presentation will acquaint you with the opportunities

that Eszterhzy Kroly College offers students to improve
their foreign language skills and what efforts the language
teachers of the Institute for Foreign Languages and
Communication make to enhance students performance.
Improving communication skills in foreign languages is a
major issue in Hungary. One of the challenges that language
teachers need to face is how to motivate learners, how to
raise awareness of the fact that learning a foreign language
may be time consuming and troublesome, but that it has
multiple benefits.
What can be done to improve students motivation? What
innovations in the field of language pedagogy can boost
students performance? Do the requirements match real-life
needs? How can foreign language knowledge be turned into
a useful instrument? Is it rewarding to start ESP at lower
levels of linguistic competence? How can a language exam
reliably test the foreign language skills required in the job
market? These are some of the questions that the author
looks at in this presentation.

Valsznleg kevesen vonjk ktsgbe, hogy legalbb egy idegen

nyelv legalbb kzpszintet megkzelt ismerete nem tlzott elvrs
azoktl, akik rettsgi bizonytvnyt szereznek kzpiskolai tanulmnyaik
vgn, s valsznleg kevesen nem rtenek egyet azzal, hogy ez a
nyelvtuds legalbb a felsfok tanulmnyok vgre rjen el egy hasz-
nlhat kzpfok nyelvtuds szintjre. Ennek ellenre a hasznlhat
idegen nyelvtuds megszerzse komoly kihvst jelent mg ma is a ma-

115
gyar dikok szmra. Hossz-hossz veken t (nha 11-12 ven t is)
vesznek rszt nyelvrkon iskolai keretek kztt, m az eredmny mesz-
sze nem kielgt.
Az Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskolra felvtelt nyert hallgatk tbbsge ta-
nulmnyaik megkezdsekor nem rendelkezik a diploma megszerzsnek
feltteleknt elrt ltalnos s/vagy szakmai nyelvvizsgval, s tuds-
szintje meg sem kzelti a minimumknt elrt B2 szintet, ezrt nagy
szksg van arra, hogy a hallgatk segtsget kapjanak idegen nyelvi
kszsgeik fejlesztshez. Klnsen igaz ez azon szakok esetben,
melyek egynl tbb nyelvvizsgt rnak el kimeneti kvetelmnyknt.
Az Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskola, tudatban annak, hogy milyen komoly
anyagi ldozatokat kvetel az iskolai kereteken kvli nyelvtanuls, 4
flven t tmogatja hallgatit trtsmentesen ltogathat, heti 4 rs
idegen nyelvi kurzusokkal. A knlatban egyrszt ltalnos nyelvi kurzu-
sok szerepelnek 6 klnbz szinten, 5 klnbz nyelvbl (angol, n-
met, francia, orosz s knai), msrszt szaknyelvi kurzusok (zleti, turiz-
mus, informatika) angol, nmet s orosz nyelvbl. A hallgatknak lehet-
sgk van arra is, hogy helyben nyelvvizsgt tegyenek, hiszen az intz-
mny a BGF, az ECL, az Origo s a Goethe nyelvvizsgk akkreditlt
vizsgahelye.
A szksges nyelvvizsgval mr rendelkez hallgatk sem esnek el a
tovbbi, ingyenes nyelvtanulsi lehetsgtl, a nyelvtanri kapacitsok
fggvnyben szmukra is hirdetnk kurzusokat, melyeket a 4 felvehet
flv keretei kztt ltogathatnak.
Sajnos az az orszgosan jellemz jelensg, hogy a hallgatk jelen-
tsnek mondhat rsze az elrt nyelvvizsga bizonytvny hinyban
nem veheti t diplomjt a felsfok tanulmnyai vgeztvel, a mi intz-
mnynkben is tapasztalhat. Ezrt megvizsgltuk, milyen szervezeti,
oktatsszervezsi s mdszertani innovcik segtsgvel lehetne az
idegen nyelvtantst/tanulst hatkonyabb tenni intzmnynkben.
A vltoztatsok egyik els lpseknt 2013 nyarn ltrehoztuk az
Idegen Nyelvi Kommunikcis Intzetet, amely lehetv tette az emberi
erforrsok hatkonyabb kihasznlst azltal, hogy a korbban a k-
lnbz karokon szttagoltan mkd nyelvtanri kapacitsokat ssze-
vontuk. Egysgestettk nyelvenknt s szintenknt a tananyagot, a k-
vetelmnyeket s a teljestmnymrs mdszereit. Ennek eredmnye-
knt a kurzusokon rsztvev hallgatk pontosabb visszajelzst kapnak
haladsukrl.
A hallgatkat szintfelmr eredmnyk alapjn soroljuk be a tuds-
szintjknek megfelel ltalnos nyelvi kurzusokba, s a flv sorn elrt
eredmnyeik tlaga el kell, hogy rje a 60%-ot ahhoz, hogy tovbb lp-
hessenek a kvetkez szint kurzusra. Sajnos, a kurzust nem teljestk

116
arnya magas, 30% krli, fggetlenl az adott kurzus nehzsgi szintj-
tl. Taln meglep, hogy a nem teljestk szinte mindegyike kurzuselha-
gy, vagyis a flv kzben valami okbl kimarad a kurzusrl. A kurzust
vgigcsinlk szinte 100%-ban megfelel szinten teljesteni tudjk a kur-
zuszr rsbeli s szbeli szintfelmrt. Egy plyzat keretn bell a
nyelvtanulsi sikertelensg lehetsges okairl nemrgiben felmrs k-
szlt a hallgatk krben. A kapott adatok feldolgozsa s elemzse
folyamatban van, a konklzik tovbbi tmutatst jelentenek majd sz-
munkra, arra vonatkozan, mit is tehetnk a nyelvtants/tanuls hat-
konysgnak tovbbi javtsa rdekben.
A szksges nyelvvizsgval nem rendelkezk szmra kritriumkve-
telmny a nyelvi kurzusok ltogatsa, amennyiben a hallgat nem teljes-
ti a 4 flvet, nem bocsthat zrvizsgra. A megfelel eredmny el-
rsnek egyik nlklzhetetlen felttele a megfelel tanuli motivltsg,
melyet bizonyos mrtkig nvelhet a kvetelmnyek formjban jelent-
kez kls nyoms, de ez nmagban ritkn elegend. Ezt tmasztja al
az fent emltett a tny is, hogy sok hallgat nem teljesti a diploma meg-
szerzshez elrt nyelvi kvetelmnyeket, st a kritriumkvetelmny-
knt megszabott 4 flvet sem. Ezrt a kvetelmnyek mellett fontos,
hogy legyenek egyb motivl tnyezk is.
Amita Magyarorszg az Eurpai Uni tagja lett, llampolgrai sz-
mra knnyebb vlt az utazs, a klfldi munkavllals vagy tanuls is.
Globalizlt vilgunkban az informci-ramls hihetetlenl felgyorsult, az
informatika forradalmastotta az informcihoz val hozzfrs lehets-
geit. m ezen pozitv vltozsok elnyeit igazn csak az tudja lvezni,
aki rendelkezik az ehhez szksges nyelvtudssal. Ezen tnyezk soka-
kat motivlnak arra, hogy fejlesszk meglv nyelvtudsukat, ennek el-
lenre a nyelvrkon szmtalanszor talljuk szembe magunkat azzal,
hogy a dikok nem rtik, mirt kell nekik idegen nyelvet tanulniuk? A
nyelvtanuls idignyes s rendkvl fraszt foglalatossg, klnsen
azok szmra, akik nincsenek tudatban a nyelvtuds jelentsgnek.
Abban, hogy a nyelvtanuls szksgessge mg egyltaln krds le-
het, valsznleg szerepet jtszik az is, hogy Magyarorszg npessge
meglehetsen homogn, a multikulturlis krnyezet nem naponta meglt
lmny s tapasztalat a felnvekv nemzedkek szmra. Az is tny,
hogy a fiskolai hallgatknak j rsze csaldi vagy anyagi okok miatt
mg soha nem jrt az orszghatron kvl, soha semmilyen mdon nem
kerlt kapcsolatba klfldiekkel, s soha nem kerlt olyan helyzetbe,
amikor a vals letben szksgt rezhette volna annak, hogy kpes
legyen idegen nyelven kommuniklni. Teht a nyelvtants mellett az is
feladatunk, hogy tudatostsuk a hallgatkban, mirt rtk az idegen nyel-
vek ismerete, s meg kell prblnunk minl tbb olyan helyzetet terem-

117
teni, amelyben a nyelvtanulk felismerhetik, hogy nem az iskolnak ta-
nulnak, hanem azrt, hogy birtokukba vehessenek egy olyan eszkzt,
amely segti boldogulsukat plyjuk s magnletk sorn egyarnt.
Alkalmat kell teremtennk, hogy ezt az eszkzt hasznlatba is vegyk,
vagyis vals helyzetekben a gyakorlatba is tltethessk megszerzett
elmleti tudsukat.
Ebben jelents szerepe lehet a klnbz, klfldi tanulsi lehets-
get biztost programoknak, mint pldul az Erasmus program, amelybl
a hallgatk szmos mdon profitlhatnak. A programban val rszvtel
kivl lehetsg a nyelvtuds fejlesztsre, a nemzetkzi krnyezetben
trtn tapasztalatszerzsre. Ezrt fontos, hogy segtsnk a hallgatknak
eljutni a dntsig, hogy belevgjanak egy ilyen vllalkozsba. Segte-
nnk kell, hogy elhiggyk, rdemes energit fektetni a nyelvtudsuk gya-
raptsba, mert akkor meg tudnak felelni a kihvsnak, amit egy klfld-
n tlttt szemeszter jelent, s nem csak tl tudjk lni, de lvezni is fog-
jk azt. A hallgatk nbizalmnak tpllst szolglhatja az is, ha minl
tbb alkalmat teremtnk arra, hogy itthon is megtapasztalhassk a nem-
zetkzi kzeget, vagyis tallkozzanak az itt tartzkod klfldi hallgatk-
kal. Ezrt vendgl hvunk a nyelvrkra klfldi dikokat, meghallgatjuk
magyar dikok klfldi egyetemeken szerzett lmnyeit, rendszeresen
elmegynk hallgatinkkal egytt azokra az interkulturlis rendezvnyek-
re, ahol szemlyes lmnyeket szerezhetnek, kapcsolatokat teremthet-
nek nem magyar anyanyelv dikokkal. gy arrl is tbbet megtudhatnak,
milyen egy Erasmus hallgat lete, de mindenekeltt vals helyzetekben
hasznlhatjk nyelvtudsukat. Fel tudjk mrni, milyen szint nyelvtuds-
ra van szksgk a programban val rszvtelre, s l pldt ltnak,
hallanak arra, hogyan boldogulnak msok, hogyan kzdik le esetleges
kommunikcis nehzsgeiket. nbizalmat merthetnek ebbl, beleks-
tolhatnak a nemzetkzi lgkrbe, s tapasztalataink szerint nyitottabbak-
k vlnak. Ezek a programok egyre nagyobb npszersgnek rvende-
nek, ebben az vben mr j, tgasabb helysznt kellett tallni pldul a
Global Cooking Night szmra a nagy rdekldsre val tekintettel.
A szemlyes lmnyek s tapasztalatok jelentsgt tmasztja al az
a megfigyels is, hogy j nhny, a kollgiumban, a nemzetkzi dikok
kzvetlen kzelsgben lak hallgatnk hozzllsa a nyelvtanulshoz
jelentsen megvltozott, aktvabban s nagyobb rmmel foglalkozik
tudsa fejlesztsvel.
Btortjuk hallgatinkat arra is, hogy minl tbben vegyenek rszt a
fiskola ltal szp szmmal knlt idegen nyelv kurzusokon, ahol szin-
tn a gyakorlatban ersthetik meg nyelvi kszsgeiket a nemzetkzi
dikokkal val egyttmkds sorn. A fenti pldk azt bizonytjk, hogy

118
szmos olyan tanrn kvli lehetsg is a hallgatk rendelkezsre ll,
amelyek nem felttlenl kvetelnek meg anyagi ldozatokat.
Megllapthatjuk teht, hogy a felsoktatsban s azon bell az in-
tzmnynkben zajl nemzetkziestsi folyamatok a szemlyes l-
mnyszerzs lehetsgn keresztl motivl ervel brhatnak, magtl
rtetd, elkerlhetetlen, termszetes, letszer kzeget teremtenek a
nyelvgyakorls szmra, gy segthetnek lednteni olyan pszicholgiai
gtakat, amelyek gyakran bntan hatnak a dikok idegen nyelv kom-
munikcijra.

***

119
 TTH VA

HOGYAN TOVBB?: A GAZDASGI

SZAKNYELVOKTATS S
NYELVVIZSGZTATS GYAKORLATA AZ
ESZTERHZY KROLY FISKOLN

Abstract

In the paper the author gives a detailed introduction to the

practice of the teaching of ,and the exams for, Business
foreign languages at Eszterhazy Karoly College, Eger. The
main features are as follows: in order to get a diploma, the
students of Eszterhazy Karoly College (EKC) are required to
obtain an intermediate level foreign language exam
prescribed by their major. Students of Business Studies
majors are required to obtain at least one ESP (Business
and/or Tourism and Catering) B2 level foreign language
exam. The students are provided with 4 classes a week for
four terms. The Business language courses are in English or
German. A course is worth 2 credits. Students of the Tourism
and Catering BA major are required to acquire two special
foreign language exams in two different languages.
Therefore, they are provided with 2 extra terms of Tourism
and Catering language courses in English, German or
Russian with 4 classes a week. Students at EKC are
prepared for the special language exams provided by the
Foreign Language Examination and Training Centre of the
Budapest Business School. There is an accredited exam site
at the Institute of Foreign Languages and Communications
in Eger - that organizes the ESP exams for the students.

120
 1. Bevezets

A nyelvi soksznsg s a tbbnyelvsg jelents szerepet jtszik le-

tnk minden terletn. Az idegen nyelvek tudsnak fontossgt nap
mint nap megtapasztalhatjuk. Megjelenik az oktatsban, a hivatalos gy-
intzsben, a kultrban, a gazdasgban, a kereskedelemben egyarnt.
Egerben, az Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskoln kzel msfl vtizedes mlt-
ra tekint vissza a gazdasgi szaknyelvoktats s nyelvvizsgztats.
1993-ban a Kereskedelmi, Vendgltipari s Idegenforgalmi Fiskola
kihelyezett tagozataknt az idegenforgalmi szakmenedzser OKJ-s kp-
zsben kezddtt el az idegenforgalmi szaknyelv oktatsa angol s n-
met nyelven. 1998-ban kezddtt meg a fiskoln a kzgazdszkpzs,
melynek keretben a gazdlkodsi szakos hallgatk szmra ktelez
elrsknt elkezddtt a gazdasgi szaknyelv oktatsa.
Intzmnynkben 2006-ban kezddtt el az j Bologna rendszer
kpzs. Az j kpzsi rendszerben j alapszakok indultak. Ekkor gazdl-
kods s menedzsment, emberi erforrsok valamint turizmus s ven-
dglts BA szakokon oktatunk gazdasgi szaknyelvet. E mellett korb-
ban a felsfok/ jelenleg felsoktatsi szakkpzs keretben is
folyt/folyik gazdasgi szaknyelvoktats.
A felmerl ignyek kielgtsre az Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskoln, a
Gazdasgtudomnyi Intzetben 1999-ben megalakult a Szakmai Idegen
Nyelvi Csoport. Immr 15 ve oktatunk zleti s idegenforgalmi szak-
nyelvet mind a nappali, mind a levelez tagozaton. Jelen tanulmnyunk-
ban a gazdasgi szaknyelvoktats s nyelvvizsgztats gyakorlatt k-
vnjuk bemutatni s egyben ttekinteni az eltelt idszakot s megfogal-
mazni j feladatainkat.

2. A gazdasgi szaknyelv oktatsnak helyzete az Eszter-

hzy Kroly Fiskoln

Fiskolnkon 1998 ta oktatunk gazdasgi szaknyelvet. Kezdetben

gazdasgismeret (GA) tanr szakos hallgatknak, majd gazdlkodsi
(GZ) szakos hallgatknak tantottunk szaknyelvet. Intzmnynkben
2006-ban kezddtt a kpzs az j BA szakokon. Jelenleg Gazdlkodsi
s menedzsment (GZM), Emberi erforrsok (EE)/ valamint Turizmus s
vendglts (TV) BA szakokon oktatunk gazdasgi szaknyelvet nappali
s levelez tagozaton egyarnt. Az Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskola tanulm-
nyi tjkoztatjban valamennyi fent emltett szakon elrtak/elrnak
idegen nyelvi kvetelmnyt:

121
 Idegen nyelvi kvetelmny: az alapfokozat megszerzshez legalbb
egy idegen nyelvbl llamilag elismert kzpfok (B2) komplex tpus
Gazdasgi/Kzgazdasgi szaknyelvi, vagy llamilag elismert felsfok
(C1) komplex tpus ltalnos nyelvvizsga, vagy ezekkel egyenrtk
rettsgi bizonytvny vagy oklevl szksges. (GZM-EE BA alapszak
tanegysglista 2013)
Idegen nyelvi kvetelmny: az alapfokozat megszerzshez legalbb
kett (klnbz) idegen nyelvbl llamilag elismert kzpfok (B2)
komplex tpus Gazdasgi/Kzgazdasgi/Idegenforgalmi szaknyelvi
nyelvvizsga amelyek kzl az egyik llamilag elismert felsfok (C1)
komplex tpus ltalnos nyelvvizsgval kivlthat, vagy ezekkel egye-
nrtk rettsgi bizonytvny vagy oklevl szksges. (TV BA alapszak
tanegysglista 2013)
Az eltelt idszakban az idegen nyelvi kvetelmnyekben nem trtnt
vltozs, de a kpzs keretei tbbszr is vltoztak. Az albbi sszefoglal
tblzatban mutatjuk be a kpzsi keretek legfontosabb jellemzit s a
vltozsokat.

1. sz. tblzat: A gazdasgi szaknyelv kpzsi keretei az Eszterhzy Kroly

Fiskoln

Gazdasgismeret s gazdlkodsi szak /hagyomnyos kpzs 1998-2006

szak a tantrgy neve a kpzsi ra a tantrgy sttu-
flv szm sza
GA zleti szaknyelv I.-II. 3.- 4. flv heti 6 ktelezen vlaszt-
ra hat
GZ zleti szaknyelv I.-II. 2.- 3. flv heti 6 ktelez
ra
Gazdlkods s menedzsment s Emberi Erforrsok BA szak 2006
Szak a tanegysg neve a kpzsi ra kredit a tan-
flv szm rtk trgy
sttusza
GZM zleti szaknyelv I. 3. flv heti 4 3 SZV*
EE ra
zleti szaknyelv I. 4. flv heti 4 3 SZV
ra
Idegen nyelven tartott 5. flv heti 2 3 SZV
eladsok ra
Gazdlkods s menedzsment s Emberi Erforrsok BA szak 2007-
2008
Szak a tanegysg neve a kpzsi ra kredit a tan-
flv szm rtk trgy
sttusza

122
Gazdasgismeret s gazdlkodsi szak /hagyomnyos kpzs 1998-2006
Bevezets az zleti 2. flv heti 4 3 SZV
GZM szaknyelvbe ra
EE zleti szaknyelv I. 3. flv heti 4 3 SZV
ra
zleti szaknyelv II. 4. flv heti 4 3 SZV
ra
Idegen nyelven tartott 5. flv heti 2 3 SZV
eladsok ra
zleti kommunikci 5. flv heti 2 2 SZV
idegen ny. ra

Turizmus s Vendglts BA szak 2008

Szak a tanegysg neve a kpzsi ra kredit a tan-
flv szm rtk trgy
sttusza
zleti szaknyelv I. 1. flv heti 4 3 SZV
TV ra
zleti szaknyelv II. 2. flv heti 4 3 SZV
ra
zleti szaknyelv III. 3. flv heti 4 3 SZV
ra
zleti szaknyelv IV. 4. flv heti 4 3 SZV
ra
Gazdlkods s menedzsment, Emberi Erforrsok, Turizmus s Ven-
dglts BA szak 2009
Szak a tanegysg neve a kpzsi ra kredit a tan-
flv szm rtk trgy
sttusza
GZM zleti szaknyelv I. flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
EE ra
TV zleti szaknyelv II. 2. flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
ra
zleti szaknyelv III. 3. flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
ra
zleti szaknyelv IV. 4. flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
ra
Turizmus s Vendglts BA szak 2011
Szak a tanegysg neve a kpzsi ra kredit a tan-
flv szm rtk trgy
sttusza
zleti szaknyelv I. flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
ra
TV zleti szaknyelv II. flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
ra

123
 zleti szaknyelv III. flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
ra
zleti szaknyelv IV. flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
ra
Idegenforgalmi szak- 3.v 5. flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
nyelv I. ra
Idegenforgalmi szak- 4.v. 6.flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
nyelv II. ra

Turizmus s Vendglts BA szak 2013

Szak a tanegysg neve a kpzsi ra kredit a tan-
flv szm rtk trgy
sttusza
zleti szaknyelv I. flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
ra
zleti szaknyelv II. flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
ra
TV zleti szaknyelv III. flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
ra
zleti szaknyelv IV. flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
ra
Idegenforgalmi szak- 3.v 5. flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
nyelv I. ra
Idegenforgalmi szak- 4.v 6. flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
nyelv II. ra
Idegenforgalmi szak- 3.v 5. flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
nyelv III. orosz ra
Idegenforgalmi szak- 4.v 6. flv heti 4 2 K/SZV**
nyelv IV. orosz ra

* SZV szabadon vlaszthat

** Akik a szak idegen nyelvi kvetelmnyeinek megfelel nyelvvizsgval nem
rendelkeznek, azoknak ktelez, msoknak szabadon vlaszthat. A tanulm-
nyaikat nem idegen nyelvi szakon folytat hallgatk szmra a Fiskola a jog-
szablyban elrt nyelvvizsga-bizonytvny megszerzsig a tanulmnyok
megkezdstl legfeljebb 4 flven keresztl trtsmentesen heti 4 rban
idegen nyelvi kurzusokat r el kritriumkvetelmnyknt. Forrs: EKF TVSZ
(2013).

A kpzsi keretek vltozsairl sszegezve elmondhat, hogy 2009-

re a GZM, EE, TV BA szakokon egysgess vlt a gazdasgi szaknyelv-
oktats kpzsi kerete. ltalnoss vlt a 4 flv, heti 4 ra, 2 kredit. A
tanegysg kredit rtke ugyan a korbbiakhoz kpest cskkent, ugya-

124
nakkor a tantrgy sttusza javult, hiszen ktelezv vlt azon hallgatk
szmra, akik mg nem rendelkeznek az elrt nyelvvizsgval.
A Turizmus vendglts BA szakon kt nyelvvizsga az elrs. Mind-
kt nyelvvizsga megszerzshez akartunk segtsget adni hallgatink-
nak, ezrt 2011-ben be tudtuk vezetni az idegenforgalmi szaknyelvet kt
flvig angol s nmet nyelvbl. Az orosz nyelv irnti fokozd rdekl-
dst figyelembe vve 2013-ban az idegenforgalmi szaknyelvek kre b-
vlt 2 flv orosz idegenforgalmi szaknyelvvel. 2014 szeptembertl az
orosz nyelv sajtossgait szem eltt tartva valamint a tretlen hallgati
rdekldst, tovbbi kt flvet tudunk biztostani az orosz idegenfor-
galmi szaknyelv tanulsra.
A gazdasgi szaknyelv oktatsval kapcsolatban nagyon fontos ki-
emelni, hogy kreditet s gyakorlati jegyet kapnak a hallgatk, valamint a
trgy teljestsvel egyben az elirt szabadon vlaszthat trgyakat is
teljestheti a hallgat.
A fenti kpzsi keretek a nappali tagozatos kpzsre vonatkoznak.
Egerben a levelez tagozatos hallgatknak is oktatunk gazdasgi szak-
nyelvet. Ez a maga nemben egyedlll, hiszen vagy egyltaln nem
oktatnak szaknyelvet, vagy ahol van, ott tvoktats keretben oldjk meg
a levelez tagozatos hallgatk nyelvoktatst.
Szlni kell mg az oktatott nyelvekrl s a szemlyi felttelekrl is, hi-
szen ezek a krdsek is szerves rszt kpezik a minsgi oktatsnak.
A jelenleg oktatott gazdasgi szaknyelvek az zleti angol/nmet, illetve
az idegenforgalmi angol/ nmet/ orosz.
Mg ma is aktulis az a krds, hogy ki tantsa tulajdonkppen a gaz-
dasgi szaknyelvet? Nyelvtanr, aki kevsb jratos a szakmai terleten,
vagy gazdasgi szakember, aki nem rendelkezik tanri kvalitsokkal.
Ezen a tren szerencss helyzetben vagyunk, hiszen minden gazdasgi
szaknyelvet tant oktatnk a nyelvtanri blcssz diploma mellett ren-
delkezik gazdasgi msoddiplomval/szakkpestssel is, s akkreditlt
gazdasgi nyelvvizsgztatk is egyben. Hrom oktatnk PhD fokozattal
is rendelkezik. A Szakmai Idegen Nyelvi Csoportban t flls kollga
vgzi a gazdasgi (zleti/idegenforgalmi) szaknyelv oktatst, s a vizs-
gztatst komplexen, magas szinten mind a nappali, mind a levelez
tagozaton, a BA szakokon s az FOSZ kpzseken egyarnt.
Oktat munknkhoz hozztartozik a vizsgztats is. Az Eszterhzy
Kroly Fiskola Szakmai Idegen Nyelvi Csoportja a Budapesti Gazdasgi
Fiskola Nyelvvizsga s Tovbbkpz Kzpont Akkreditlt Gazdasgi
Nyelvvizsgahelye 2000 mjusa ta. 2000 mjustl 2014 szeptemberig
kzel 6000 vizsgzja volt az egri Akkreditlt Gazdasgi vizsgahelynek.
12 f akkreditlt vizsgztatnk van, angol, nmet, zleti s idegenforgal-
mi szaknyelvet vizsgztatunk alap-, kzp s felsfokon, vente hrom

125
alkalommal. A szakmai nyelvvizsgk eredmnyessgt folyamatosan
nyomon kvetjk, s ennek alapjn elmondhatjuk, hogy az Eszterhzy
Kroly Fiskola nappali tagozatos hallgatinl 65-75%-os az eredm-
nyessg a gazdasgi nyelvvizsgn, amely j eredmnynek szmt.
Vgezetl leend munkavllali/hallgati vlemnyeket mutatunk be a
szaknyelv-tanuls s oktats krdsrl. Az Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskola
Gazdasg- s Trsadalomtudomnyi Karnak jelenleg zleti szaknyelvet
tanul I. illetve II. vfolyamos Gazdlkods s Menedzsment-, Emberi
Erforrsok s Turizmus Vendglts BA szakos hallgatinak vlem-
nybl lljon itt nhny vlasz arra a krdsre, hogy Kell- e szaknyelvet
oktatni a felsoktatsban? A feltett krdsre a hallgatk 2013 szeptem-
berben vlaszoltak egy rsbeli szksgletelemz krdv kitltsekor.
A vlaszokhoz indoklst is krtnk.

Kell- e szakmai idegen nyelvet oktatni a felsoktatsban?

Igen, szerintem nagyon fontos, mert sok kzpiskolban nem

veszik elg komolyan az idegennyelv-oktatst. n ngy v alatt
sokat felejtettem abbl, amit ltalnos iskolban mg tudtam. Sok
ra elmaradt, s ha volt is, keveset tanultunk. (EKF I. vf.
GZM)
Kell, hogy rvnyeslni tudjunk llskeresskor, illetve ha va-
laki klfldre szeretne menni dolgozni. Msrszt kvetelmny a
diploma megszerzshez a szakmai nyelvvizsga s ehhez is kell
segtsg. (EKF I. vf. TV)
Szerintem fontos, mert mg soha nem tanultam zleti angolt
s e nlkl nagyon nehz lenne felkszlnm a szakmai nyelv-
vizsgra. (EKF II. vf. EE)
gy gondolom, a mai kvetelmnyek s elvrsok tkrben
szksges a felsoktatsban a szervezett nyelvoktats, hiszen ez
nagyban befolysolja, hogy a jvben hogyan tudunk rvnyesl-
ni klfldn. (EKF II. vf. TV)
Szerintem kell, mert a mai vilgban nagyon fontos a nyelvtu-
ds. A kzgazdsz vgzettsghez pedig elengedhetetlennek tar-
tom. (EKF II. vf. GZM)

Hallgatink egyrtelmen, pontosan fogalmaztk meg ignyket, elv-

rsukat, mely szerint szksges a felsoktatsban a szaknyelv tantsa.
A vlaszokban egyrszt fny derl a kzpiskolai nyelvoktats hinyos-
sgaira, msrszt arra a fontos tnyre is, hogy szaknyelvet nem tantunk
kzpfokon. Ebbl addan a felsoktats nem kerlheti meg a szak-
nyelv oktatsnak krdst, klnsen akkor nem, ha szakmai nyelv-

126
vizsga a kvetelmny a diplomhoz. Ugyanakkor hallgatink, mint leend
munkavllalk azt is vilgosan ltjk, hogy mind a hazai, mind a klfldi
munkaerpiacon a szakmai idegennyelv-tuds alapvet elvrs.

3. sszegzs

A leend munkavllali/hallgati ignyek alapjn egyrtelm, hogy

szksges a felsoktatsban a gazdasgi szaknyelv tanulsa, oktatsa.
ttekintve a gazdasgi szaknyelvoktats helyzett elmondhatjuk, hogy
az Eszterhzy Kroly fiskoln a gazdasgi alapkpzsben biztostott a
minsgi, eredmnyes gazdasgi szaknyelv tanulsa, oktatsa. A tan-
trgy fontossgt ismertk el azzal, hogy mindazon hallgatk szmra
ktelez a trgy, akik nem rendelkeznek a diplomhoz elrt nyelvvizsga
bizonytvnnyal valamint az, hogy a trgy teljestsrt kreditet kap a
hallgat. Hallgatinknak teljes kr szolgltatst tudunk nyjtani azzal,
hogy intzmnynkben nemcsak tanulhatjk a gazdasgi szaknyelvet,
hanem letehetik a gazdasgi nyelvvizsgt is.
A gazdasgi szaknyelv tanulsban, oktatsban is elengedhetetlen
az innovci a megjuls, megjts mind tartalmi mind formai s
mdszertani terleten egyarnt. A svos nyelvoktats bevezetse, a tu-
dsszint alapjn kialaktott csoportok mind-mind hozzjrulhatnak ahhoz,
hogy a jvben mg hatkonyabb, eredmnyesebb nyelvoktatst nyjt-
hassunk hallgatinknak.

Felhasznlt irodalom:

Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskola Tanulmnyi tjkoztat (2006, 2007, 2008,

2009)
Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskola Tanulmnyi s Vizsgaszablyzata (2013)

***

127
 VINNAIN VKONY MRTA

INTERKULTURLIS ELEMEK AZ LTALNOS

ISKOLAI NYELVOKTATSBAN

Abstract

Language teaching, including elementary ELT, has been

affected by interculturality fromits very beginnings. The aim of
this paper is to raise awareness of the increasing appearance
and importance of intercultural elements in early childhood
language teaching as this issue is one of the key concepts in
contemporary education. In the 21st century elementary ESL
teachers are likely to find themselves teaching not only
language but also the cultural settings of the target language.
In this way they can help young learners to use the new
language more effectively for learning and foster socialization.
It will also be discussed how to strive to be internationally
knowledgeable and how to support teachers and trainees in
gaining intercultural competence.

Bevezet

A tanri plya mindig is a kihvsokkal teli plyk kz szmtott, a

pedaggusoknak soha nem csak a szigoran vett oktats volt a feladata.
Klnsen nagy jelentsget kap ez a megllapts jelen idben, a XXI.
szzad elejn. A tanroknak az rk megtartsn kvl az egyb admi-
nisztrcis teendk elltsa sorn nap, mint nap elre nem ltott szitu-
cikkal kell szembenznik, reaglniuk az j helyzetekre s sok esetben
nllan a felelssg minden diumt vllalva kell azonnali dntse-
ket hozniuk. Mit tegyek? Hogyan reagljak a vratlan szitucikra? Jo-
gom van dnteni? Rendelkezem-e megfelel mennyisg s minsg
ismeretekkel a dntshozatalhoz? Ezek a krdsek folyamatosan felme-
rlnek magn- s szakmai letnkben egyarnt, br teljes egszben
soha nem lehet a vlaszt megadni. A tanrkpzsben azonban trekedni
kell a vlaszok keressre, azoknak az alapvet fontossg kompeten-

128
ciknak a kialaktsra s fejlesztsre, melyek hozzsegtenek a per-
manens dntshozatal eredmnyessghez (Byram, 1997).

Az interkulturlis oktats s a nyelvtants kapcsolata

A nyelvtantst szinte trtnetnek kezdettl thatja, befolysolja az

adott nyelv kultrjnak megismertetse. Az interkulturalits jelenlte az
oktatsban mr az als tagozatos oktatsban is napjaink egyik kulcs-
krdse, br ez a jelenlt nem zkkenmentes, lland szakmai vitk
kereszttzben ll, rsze a globalizcival kapcsolatos szlesebb krben
lefolytatott vitknak. Mivel a gyermekeink olyan vilgban lnek, melyben
egyre kevsb beszlhetnk izollt kultrkrl, mikro- s makro krnye-
zetnk jellemzjv a soksznsg, a multikulturalits vlik. A tanrkp-
zs feladataihoz szzadunkban hozzkapcsoldott az interkulturlis is-
meterek beptse a tantervbe annak rdekben, hogy a trsadalmi ig-
nyeknek, kihvsoknak meg tudjon felelni. Risager (2007) elkpzelhetet-
lennek tartja a tovbbiakban az eredmnyes oktatst a tradicionlis kere-
tek kztt. A hagyomnyos folyamatokat gy jellemzi, mint egy-egy nem-
zet kultrjval izolltan foglalkoz, azt zrt egysgben bemutat tev-
kenysget. j perspektvbl vizsglja a nyelvtantst, a nemzeti hatro-
kon tvel oktats mellett rvel. Vallja, hogy napjainkban ez a megkze-
ltsi md lehet az adekvt vlasz komplex s dinamikus vilgunk kihv-
saira. Knyvben ttekinti a kultra s a nyelvtants trtnett, olyan
pedaggiban hisz, mely az interkulturlis kompetencia kialaktst is
magban foglalja, ennek szerves rsze a nyelvtuds, a tbbnyelvsg.
Meggyzdsem, hogy knyve nagymrtkben befolysolni fogja a
nyelvoktatssal kapcsolatos eddigi llspontunkat s reflexiinkat.
Kramsch (2009) rszletesen fejti ki vlemnyt arrl, hogy az egyre n-
vekv migrci s mobilits korban alapvet fontossg pldul a tbb-
nyelvsg krdse, mely a szemlyisgfejlds kognitv oldala mellett az
rzelmi fejldst is ersen befolysolja.
Az emltett szakirodalmi pldk is azt tmasztjk al, hogy napjaink-
ban az interkulturlis oktats mr minden gyereknek egyformn fontos,
fggetlenl attl, hogy vrosban vagy falun l, olyan iskolba jr melyet
etnikai soksznsg jellemez vagy olyan intzmnybe, melynek tanuli
dominnsan a tbbsgi illetve a kisebbsgi (pl. Magyarorszgon a roma)
kultrhoz tartoznak. Az interkulturalits sszekt kapocsknt jelenik
meg az egyn legyen sz akr tanrrl akr dikrl , az iskolai tanterv
s a trsadalom kztt. Annak a felismerse s elfogadtatsa, hogy az
emberek kztti eltrs termszetes dolog, alapvet pedaggiai feladat,
nem letkorhoz kttt kampnyszer tevkenysg. Klnsen fontos
feladata ennek beptse az ltalnos iskolai tantk munkjba, hiszen

129
sok kszsg s belltds, amely dnt jelentsg lehet a ksbbi
letszakaszban, itt fejldik ki s dominnsan befolysolja a ksbbi let-
szakaszokat.
A nyelvtants s a nyelvtanuls az interkulturlis kompetencia fej-
lesztsnek egyik legfontosabb kulcseszkze. Nem knny viszont a
nyelvtanrok helyzete, az ltalnos iskolai tantervek s tanmenetek tl-
zsfoltak, eleget kell tennik a szakma ltal megszabott kimeneti kve-
telmnyeknek. A tlterhelt s ugyanakkor lelkiismeretes tanrok krben
ltalnos agglyknt merl fel a tants sorn az attl val flelem, hogy
nem rendelkeznek elegend ismerettel egy-egy orszg szoksairl, kul-
trjrl. Az interkulturlis oktats a fenti megllaptsok tkrben teht
jogosan nevezhet idignyes tevkenysgnek, mely lnyegesen tbb
id- s energia rfordtst ignyel a gyakorl pedaggusoktl. Az inter-
kulturlis tanuls tlnyom rsze termszetes ton trtnik, egy rejtett
tanterven keresztl, a gyermek mikro- s makro krnyezetben, a szo-
cilis szfrban. Elengedhetetlen azonban, hogy az ltalnos iskolai s
ezzel egy idben a tanrkpzs formlis tanterveibe is bepljenek
ezek a korunkban alapvet fontossgnak szmt elemek.

Az interkulturlis oktats kvnatos jegyei az ltalnos isko-

lban:

az ltalnos iskolai tantervbe begyazva kell megjelennie, annak

szerves rszt kell, hogy kpezze, ne csupn egy fggelk, ki-
egszts legyen a tanterv vgn
nem nll tantrgyknt kell elkpzelnnk, hanem sszefggs-
ben a tbbi tantrggyal, az iskolai let egszvel
a pedaggusok felkszltsge, a pozitv iskolai krnyezet dnt-
en befolysolja a az interkulturlis oktats eredmnyessgt
az interkulturlis oktats elemei begyazdnak a gyermekek tu-
dsba, az rtkrendjkbe, mindennapi belltdsaikba, kszs-
geik rszv vlik
Lssunk egy egszen egyszer gyakorlati pldt az interkulturalits
megjelensre az ltalnos iskola falain bell, altmasztand azt az
elz lltst, hogy napjainkban mr minden gyermek szmra egyfor-
mn fontos az ilyen jelleg ismeretnyjts. vtizedekkel ezeltt csak Bu-
dapesten illetve a nagyvrosokban volt jellemz, de napjainkban mr a
kisvrosokban, falvakban is elfordul, hogy ms orszgbl szrmaz,
teljesen eltr kultrbl rkez gyermek (pl. knai, hiszen zleteik a leg-
kisebb teleplseken is megtallhatk) vlik az osztlykzssg tagjv.
Mit tehet a pedaggus, milyen informcik segtik a zkkenmentes beil-
leszkedst, a klnbz kultrk egyttlst? Hogyan ksztse fel a

130
nevel a tanulkat az j trsuk fogadsra? Az elfogads s tolerancia
kulcsszavak ebben a folyamatban, de a gyermekekkel val foglalkozs
sorn nem ezeknek a fogalmaknak az rtelmezse, megismertetse a
cl, sokkal inkbb az, hogy j megkzeltsi mddal szemlljnk kzsen
eddig evidenciknak szmt dolgokat.
j, ms kultrbl rkez tanul esetben egyik els lps lehet a
gyermek nevnek helyes ejtse. Jles rzs, ha az ismeretlentl val
flelembe legalbb egy biztos pont vegyl. Gyakoroljuk s gyakoroltas-
suk elre mind a keresztnv mind a csaldnv helyes ejtst sajt tanu-
linkkal, az internet vilgban nem nehz hozzjutni a szksges infor-
mcihoz. Kedves gesztus rkezskor megkrdezni a becenevt, szlk
nevt s egytt ismtelgetni. Semmisgnek tnik, de feszltsgold sze-
repe risi lehet. t kell gondolnunk azt is, hogy van-e olyan specilis
tudnival a gyermek kultrjval kapcsolatban, amirl elzetesen beszl-
jnk a tanulkkal. Feladatokat adhatunk ki, hogy akr szli segtsggel
gyjtsenek informcit az adott orszg teleivel, tkezsi- s ltzkdsi
szoksaival, viselkedsmintival kapcsolatban. A pedaggus is kszljn
fel az j feladatra, lltson ssze szemlltet anyagot. Hasznos s nem
lehetetlen feladat, ha nhny, a mindennapi letben hasznlt kifejezst,
szfordulatot megtanulunk az jonnan rkez gyermek anyanyelvn. Egy
huszont fs osztlyt alapul vve ez huszont szt illetve kifejezst je-
lent, ez a mennyisg jelents informci kzlsre alkalmas. A gyerme-
kek rmmel vllalnak ilyen jelleg feladatokat, egyet-egyet minden tanu-
l kpes megjegyezni, j mknak fogjk fel. A biztonsg kedvrt egy
kis papr cetlin hordhatjk magukkal az els idben a kapott szavakat,
kifejezseket. A lista szavai lehetnek pldul: dvzlsi formk, igen,
nem, krem, ksznm, dicsr szavak, gyere, j tvgyat, ne tedd, te is
csinld, stb. Fontos krdsknt merlhet fel a valls, a mindennapi val-
lsgyakorlat is, van-e ennek valamilyen hatsa az osztlyra, a viselke-
dsre? A felsorolst mg hosszan lehetne folytatni, ez a nhny plda
annak szemlltetsre szolglt, hogyan is szvi t mindennapjainkat az
interkulturalits, milyen apr lpseken t vezet az t mr gyermekkor-
ban egyms megismershez, elfogadshoz, egy j, addig ismeretlen
vilg tolerlshoz.

Nyelvknyvek s interkulturalits

A nyelvtanrok esetben az els lnyegi dntsek egyike a nyelv-

knyvekhez val viszonyulsuk: hogyan vlasztanak tanknyvet, van-e
egyltaln szabadsguk a vlasztsban, kvetik-e minden esetben a
tanknyv mdszereit, alkalmazzk-e vltoztats nlkl a benne foglalt
tananyag-tartalmat, avagy sajt utat jrva, egyes rszeket mellzve, kl-

131
s forrsokat is hasznlva tantjk a gyermekeket. A j tanknyv nagyon
fontos, kiemelten fontos az ltalnos iskolai tanulk esetben. Jeremy
Harmer (2001) tallan rja le a gyermeki tanuls jellemzit, valamint
gyakorlati tancsokat is ad, hogyan, milyen mdszerekkel tegyk hat-
konny a nyelvi rkat klnbz kultrj tanulk esetben. A gyerme-
kek a nyelvtanuls kezdetn egyltaln nem, vagy csak nagyon kis mr-
tkben rendelkeznek informcival a clnyelvi orszg szoksaival, kult-
rjval kapcsolatban, ppen ezrt nincs prekoncepcijuk. Ezrt is na-
gyon fontos a nyelvknyvekben tallhat olvasmnyanyag, mely nagy
mrtben hozzjrul a nyelvtanuls irnti pozitv attitd kialaktshoz s
a clnyelvi kultra irnti rdeklds felkeltshez. Meggyzdsem sze-
rint egszsges kompromisszumot kell ktnnk a nyelvtants sorn,
vallom, hogy a j knyv nlklzhetetlen, klnsen a kezd tanrok
esetben szolglhat brmikor kznl lev mankknt. A j knyv nma-
gban azonban kevs, tanri kreativits nlkl mit sem r, ljnk ht
btran sajt tartalkainkkal forrsainkkal, aknzzuk ki az interkulturlis
oktats lehetsgeit, hiszen a nyelvi rk lehetne a legalkalmasabb kz-
vett kzegei.
rdekes krds annak a vizsglata, hogy milyen tmakrk, olvas-
mnyanyagok szerepelnek a tanknyvekben, milyen kultrt is kzvet-
tenek. Ezen tanulmnynak nem clja a kultra fogalmnak kifejtst,
hiszen knyvtrnyi irodalom foglalkozik vele. A nyelvtanrok szempont-
jbl elgedjnk meg azzal a szktett rtelmezssel, hogy a kultra ma-
gban foglalja egy bizonyos npcsoport mindennapi lett, szoksait,
viselkedst, hitt, nyelvt s mvszett. Milyen kultrt tkrznek az
ltalnos iskolai angol nyelvknyvek? Mit is kell a gyerekeknek meg-
emszteni? A legtbb angol nyelvknyvben a kvetkez tmakrk je-
lentik a kulturlis ismereteket: nnepek, hres emberek, vrosok, turiszti-
kai ltvnyossgok, telek, tkezsi szoksok, a trtnelem egy-egy
szelete. Az autentikus anyagokat a mesk, versek, dalok, mondkk s
egy-egy brosra reprezentljk. Sok angol knyvben tallhat mr gy-
nevezett kulturlis sarok, nhny oldal a knyv vgn, mely ltalban az
angol s/vagy az amerikai kultra npszer, gyermekek rdekldst
figyelembe vev szeleteibl kzl ismereteket. Minden esetben a peda-
ggus joga s felelssge, hogy mennyi s milyen jelleg ismeretet kzl
a szigoran vett nyelvtants mellett, a kvetkez krdseket csupn
gondolatbresztnek sznom az ltalnos iskolai angol nyelvet oktat
tanrok szmra.
Kultra semleges-e a lingua francaknt megjelen angol? (Baker,
2009; House, 2002; Kirkpatrick, 2007; Meierkord, 2002)?
Mikor kezddjn az ltalnos iskolai nyelvoktatsban a kulturlis
ismeretek tantsa?

132
 Mely orszg kultrjt, a kultra mely szeleteit ismertessk meg a
gyerekekkel?
Ragaszkodjunke a clorszg kultrjhoz vagy tgtsuk-e a krt
az angolul beszl orszgok (pl. USA, Ausztrlia) kulturlis isme-
reteivel?
Milyen szinten milyen kulturlis ismereteket tantsunk?
Milyen rott, auditv, vizulis illetve audiovizulis tananyagok a
legalkalmasabbak a kultra tadsra?
Milyen tanrai tevkenysgek s mdszerek a legalkalmasab-
bak?

sszegzsknt elmondhat, hogy az interkulturlis kompetencia

melyen azt a kpessget rtjk, hogy az egynek klnbz kulturlis
krnyezetben megfelelen valamint hatkonyan tudnak viselkedni s
cselekedni megszerzsnek egyik legfontosabb ptkve napjainkban
a nyelvtanuls, az alkalmazhat nyelvtuds. A nyelvtanrok feladatkre
jelentsen bvlt, kulturlisan rzkeny tudst kell tovbbadniuk, hozz
kell jrulniuk egy jfajta kszsg-egyttes kialaktshoz mely magban
foglalja a nyitottsgot, a kvncsisgot, az elfogadst, a tolerancit, a
mssg tisztelett, vagyis az interkulturlis attitdt. A folyamat nem
zkkenmentes sem tanr sem dik szmra, tudatossg, j szndk s
akarat is szksges ahhoz, hogy kpesek legynk klnbz kultrkat
befogadni, rangsorols nlkl elfogadni, egyenlnek tekinteni a sajtunk-
kal. A tanrkpz intzmnyeknek kulcsszerepk van abban, hogy az
interkulturlis oktats terletn is megalapozzk a jv pedaggusainak
kreatv gondolkodst.

Felhasznlt irodalom

Baker, W. (2009). The cultures of English as a lingua franca. TESOL

Quarterly, 43(4).
Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative
competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Crandall J. (1998). The expanding role of the elementary ESL teacher:
doing more than teaching language. In ESL Magazine 1/4: 10-14.
http://eslc.teachers.ab.ca/SiteCollectionDocuments/The%20Expan
ding%20Role%20of%20Elementary%20Teacher.pdf Creese. Letl-
ts dtuma: 2014. mjus 23.
Harmer, J. (2001). The practice of English language teaching. Third
edition. Longman

133
House, J. (2002). Developing pragmatic competence in English as a
lingua franca. In K. Knapp & C. Meierkord (Eds.), Lingua franca
communication (pp. 245- 267). Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang.
Kirkpatrick, A. (2007). World Englishes: implications for international
communication and English language teaching. Cambridge: Camb-
ridge University Press.
Kramsch, C. (2009). The multilingual subject. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Meierkord, C. (2002). 'Language stripped bare' or 'linguistic masala'?
Culture in lingua franca communication. In K. Knapp & C.
Meierkord (Eds.), Lingua franca communication (pp. 109-134).
Frankfurt am Main: P. Lang.
Risager, K. (2007). Language and culture pedagogy. From a National to
a Transnational Paradigm. Clevedon Multilingual Matters.

***

134
 RSEK ATTILA

MEGVLTOZTATJA-E AZ EDU2.0 A
TANTSI-TANULSI FOLYAMATOKAT,
SZOKSOKAT?

Abstract

Among the focal points of the conference the theme

relates to the topic of E-learning as a tool for
internationalization. The title of my presentation: Is Edu 2.0
changing teaching-learning processes and habits? This paper
is part of my research on the opportunities for measurement
and development of critical thinking in an electronic learning
environment in the subject of history in secondary school.
The aim of the pedagogical overview is the opportunity of
increasing learning and performance with the help of an
internationally available Web 2.0 technology, the Edu 2.0. I
proceed from the system-oriented approach of the teaching
and learning process based on Bthory,1 Nagy,2 Komenczi3,
and the German system-oriented approach.
In this paper I will I clarify the concept of Web 2.0, and the
possibilities of Edu 2.0, in the teaching-learning process.
First, I examine the impact of Web 2.0 on the educational
process on the basis of Julianne Lynchs study, then I will
illustrate it with a concrete example of its efficient usage from
teaching practice.
At the research theory approach of the topic, I explore
some interpretations of critical thinking on the basis of the
literature and I describe the taxonomy of historical critical
thinking and discuss the possible empirical research

1
Bthory Zoltn (1997): Tanulk, iskolkklnbsgek. Tanknyvkiad, Budapest.
2
Nagy Jzsef (2000): A XXI. szzad s nevels. Osiris Kiad, Budapest.
3
Komenczi Bertalan (2009): Elektronikus tanulsi krnyezetek. Gondolat Kiad, Buda-
pest.

135
 opportunities of the analysis of resources shared in an e-
learning environment and critical thinking.
The importance of the research, besides highlighting the
possibilities of the usage of the device, is that it demonstrates
the efficient development of the educational and content
objectives with 21st century skills related to the subject of
history but its subject-independent elements can be utilized
by other teachers also.

Bevezets

A kutats a konferencia fkuszpontjai kzl az E-learning as a tool for

internationalization tmjba illeszkedik. Az elads cme: Megvltoztat-
ja-e az Edu2.0 a tantsi-tanulsi folyamatokat, szoksokat? A vizsglt
tma rsze a kutatsomnak: Elektronikus tanulsi krnyezetben a kritikai
gondolkods mrsnek, fejlesztsnek lehetsgei a trtnelemokta-
tsban.
Rvid sszefoglal rsomban szeretnk nevelselmleti s praktikus
ismereteket tadni gyakorl pedaggusoknak, akiket rdekel a w3 (world
wide web) vilga, akik a tantsi-tanulsi folyamatba olyan elemeket sze-
retnnek integrlni, amely nvelheti a dikok rdekldst. Pldimat
majd a trtnelemhez kapcsolom, de az eszkzhasznlat s a web 2.0-
s vilg felhasznlsnak tantrgytl fggetlen elemei hasznosthatak
ms szakos pedaggusoknak is.
Az elmleti ismeretek terlett olyan mrtkben rintem, amely feltt-
len szksges a tma nevelselmleti htternek trgyalshoz, illetve
szeretnk rvilgtani, hogy bennnket, tanrokat foglalkoztat probl-
mk nem j keletek.

1. A tantsi s tanulsi folyamat rendszerszemllet meg-

kzeltseibl

A tantsi-tanulsi folyamat rendszerszemlletei kzl nhny plda

segtsgvel szeretnm a tmm elhelyezni a pedaggiai rendszerben.
Alapkrdsknt felvetdik, hogy mi a clom a tants sorn tanrknt?
Vallom, s a szakirodalom is megersti, hogy az alapvet cl a tanulk
szemlyisgnek fejlesztse.
Az 1. brn Bthory (1997) modellje lthat. A bemeneti tnyezk
esetben a pedaggiai tervezmunkt meghatroz dokumentumok
(NAT, kerettanterv, helyi tanterv stb.) tartalmi ttekintse, ismerete fontos
a pedaggusnak. A kritikai gondolkods a fejlesztend terletek egyike.

136
A tantsi-tanulsi folyamat kzben ennek konkrt fejlesztse klnbz
eszkzkkel s mdszerekkel trtnik. E tanulmny keretei kztt csu-
pn elmleti megkzeltsre van lehetsg. Egyik eszkz az Edu 2.0
alkalmazs hasznlata a tantsi-tanulsi folyamat kzben (rszleteseb-
ben ksbb fejtem ki). A vltozs, amit ekzben elrnk, a tanulk sze-
mlyisgnek fejldsben (ismeret, kpessg stb.) mutatkozik meg.

4
1. bra. A tants-tanuls rendszerszemllet modellje.

A szemlyisgfejlesztshez kapcsoldik a szemlyisg funkcionlis

modellje, amit Nagy (2000) dolgozott ki (2. bra). Csnyi Vilmos s
Kampis Gyrgy kutatsaira alapozva gondolta tovbb a komponensrend-
szer-elmletet. Eszerint az ember, mint szemlyisg s a csoport, mint a
szemlyisget ltrehoz szocializcis s perszonalizcis rendszer is
komponensrendszer. A rendszereknek van formja, klcsnhatsa s
bels mkdse. A rendszer mdosulhat. Ennek a mdosulsnak az
elrse az egyik f cl a pedaggiban.

4
Bthory Zoltn (1997): Tanulk, iskolkklnbsgek. Tanknyvkiad, Budapest. 19. o.

137
 5
2. bra. Egzisztencilis kompetencik

A kompetencit meghatrozott funkci teljestsre val alkalmas-

sgnak tekinti Nagy (2000). Az alkalmassg dntsek s kivitelezsek
ltal rvnyesl, a dntsek felttele a motivltsg, a kivitelezsek felt-
tele a kpessg. A kritikai gondolkodssal kapcsolatban ezek pontos
meghatrozsa segten a kutatst. A kutatsom kapcsn mindezt a
vizsglatot elektronikus tanulsi krnyezetben vizsglom. Komenczi6
(2009) a tants s tanuls felttelrendszernek nevezi az elektronikus
tanulsi krnyezetet, a most vizsglt tma esetben ez az Edu 2.0 al-
kalmazs. Meghatrozak teht a rendszerben az IKT eszkz, sajtos
interfsz fellet, ahol szervezett tudstartalom megosztsa zajlik kln-
bz instrukcik s programok segtsgvel.
A megosztshoz kapcsoldik Luhmann (1987; idzi Bang,7 2011) l-
tal vizsglt szociolgiai rendszerelmlet. Eszerint a szocilis kommunik-
cinak kzponti szerepe van, a nevels elsegtse a cl. A kommunik-
cit informciknt rtelmezi, amely a kzls s megrts szintzise.
Minden szocilis rendszer kommunikci ltal jtt ltre s tarthat fenn:
interakci (a jelenlvk kztt), organizci (munkamegoszts) s a tr-
sadalom (kommunikcik sszessge). Holtz (2008) megfogalmazst
idzem Bang (2011) alapjn: Az iskola, mint organizci feladatul
tzte ki, hogy egynekbl szemlyeket formljon, akik kpesek kommu-

5
Nagy Jzsef (2000): A XXI. szzad s nevels. Osiris Kiad, Budapest. 35. o.
6
Komenczi Bertalan (2009): Elektronikus tanulsi krnyezetek. Gondolat Kiad, Buda-
pest.
7
Bang Jen (2011): Rendszerelmlet s pedaggia Niklas Luhmannl. Kutats kzben,
2011. 1. sz. pp. 110-116.
http://epa.oszk.hu/01500/01551/00055/pdf/educatio_EPA01551_2011-01-
Kutkozben2.pdf (2014. jnius 4.)

138
niklni.8 E szemlletnek is vgs soron a szemlyisg fejlesztse a f
clja a kommunikci fejlesztse ltal. A tmhoz kapcsoldan az
elektronikus kommunikcinak van jelentsge.

2. A globlis falu terijtl napjainkig

Az albbiakban Lynch9 (2002) tanulmnyt foglalom ssze az elektro-

nikus kommunikcis technolgik (IKT) s a jv iskolja tmakrben.
A szerz arra a krdsre keresi a vlaszt, hogy mit tanulhatunk
McLuhantl? A szerz ltal trgyalt tmt aktualizlom, s az Edu 2.0
alkalmazsra vonatkoztatom.
Az 1960-as vekben Marshall McLuhan azt jsolta, hogy a tantst s
a trsadalom egszt t fogjk alaktani az elektronikus kommunikcis
technolgik. McLuhan s ms mdiaelmleti szakemberek vitztak a
technolgiai fejlds trsadalomra gyakorolt hatsairl. Felvetettk mr
akkor, hogy az elektronikus kommunikci egyre nvekv dominancija
mly hatssal lesz az iskolzsra. McLuhan (1911-1980) azt vallotta,
hogy a nvekv dominancija az elektronikai kommunikcis technolgi-
knak a trsadalom szles kreiben hat majd, talakthatja s jjleszt-
heti a formlis/hivatalos oktatst. Mc Luhan tletei radiklisnak szmtot-
tak az idejben, s sok kritikt vltottak ki a kortrsaktl. Megjegyzem:
nzeteit az internet kora eltt fejtette ki.
Az eszkzelmlet azon az tleten alapul, hogy a kommunikcis esz-
kzk (s ma mr a szmtgp az) nemcsak az informcik szimpla ki-
cserlst jelentik, hanem az eszkzk milyensgnek szocilis hatsa is
van. A dominns eszkztpusoknak hatsa van a trsadalomra. Nz-
pontvltst fejezi ki Marshall McLuhan hres kijelentse: Az eszkz ma-
ga az zenet.
McLuhan tleteit a kommunikcis technolgik hatsairl rszben
Harold Innis (1894-1952) munkssga inspirlta. Innis amellett rvelt,
hogy a kommunikcis technolgik jtsszk a kzponti szerepet az em-
beri trsadalmak formiban azzal, hogy befolysoljk az informcik
ramlst s ellenrzst.
McLuhan megllaptsai tbbek kztt arra irnyultak, hogy a kom-
munikcis technolgik miknt hosszabbtjk meg az emberi rzkel
kpessget, s hogyan vltoztatjk meg azt, hogy mit jelent embernek

8
Holtz, Karl Ludwig (2008) Einfhrung in die Pdagogik. Heidelberg, Carl Auer Verlag.
Idzi: U.a. 4. 110. o.
9
Lynch, Julianne: What can we learn from McLuhan? Electronic communication technol-
ogies and the future of schooling. https://deakin.academia.edu/JulianneLynch (2014.
mjus 5.)

139
lenni a vilgban. Azt lltotta, hogy az j kommunikcis technolgik
jfajta szlelst s ltezst hoznak ltre. rvelse azon alapult, hogy a
kommunikci megrtst a testnk kiterjesztsnek tekintette: gy a
szmtgpek az emberi test kiterjesztsei, meghosszabbtsai. Fokoz-
hat az egyttmkdsnk s szlelsnk a vilggal a technolgik
hasznlatval.
Lynch megllaptsa szerint McLuhan s msok meglttk az eddigi
legjelentsebb vltozst az emberi trsadalomban, ahogy az egy szbe-
li/akusztikus trbl egy rstud/vizulisba megy t. Az elektronikus
kommunikcit a cselekvs egyik formjnak tekintik, amely azonnali
reakcit s rszvtelt kvetel. A tuds egy globlis hlzatban van trol-
va, azonnal hozzfrhet a fldrajzi helyzet figyelembevtele nlkl. Ezt
tudomsul kell vennnk ma mr a tantsi-tanulsi folyamat tervezse-
kor. Az Edu 2.0 erre lehetsget ad.
McLuhan megalkotta a globlis falu fogalmt, elrevettette, hogy az
iskola szerkezete, amely tkrzi az j globlis logikt, tartalmazza a k-
vetkezket (s az Edu 2.0 virtulis tantermben ezek megvalsulnak):
az integrcit,
a tanuls a problmk felvetse s a megoldsa kr szervezdik
s projekt alap kutatsi feladatokat tartalmaz,
rugalmasan szervezhetek a tanulk s az id,
a tantermeket (az elektronikus tantermeket rtem alatta) a tanuli
tevkenysgekre s klcsnhatsokhoz tervezik,
a klnbsgek a munka s a jtk, s az iskoln kvli, illetve be-
lli lt kztt sszemosdnak.

Br az j oktatsi eszkzk fontosak, nem ezek a kzponti krdsei a

tantsnak, a tanulk s a tanrok j szerepei jelennek meg az Edu 2.0
esetben is:
a dikok s a tanrok is tanulk,
a tanrok elremozdtjk az informciinak megrtst,
a klnbsgek a tanrok s az adminisztrtorok kztt homlyo-
sak,
a tanulk szabadon mozoghatnak az iskola pletben s terle-
tn,
a dikok kztti kommunikci sztnztt,
a tanulk kzvetlenl rszt vesznek a valdi problmk megold-
sban,
a dikok egyttmkdnek.
McLuhan legtbb publiklt nzetnek hatsa egyrtelm teht napja-
inkban: az IKT hatssal van a tantsra

140
 3. Fogalmak tisztzsa

Mi is a web 2.0? A Web 2.0 egy jelensg-egyttes megnevezse.

Ennek a jelensg s szolgltats-egyttesnek kt kzs vonsa van: az
interakci s a tartalommegoszts. A Web 2.0 az a vltozs, amikor az
internethasznlk az addigi fogyasztbl (tartalom)szolgltatv vltak.
Az addig egyirny webes kommunikci ktirnyv vlt rendkvl
egyszer lett tartalmak, kpek, szvegek, linkek, videk, esemnyek s
kapcsolatok megosztsa. Ez a vltozs az emberi interakcik forradal-
mt indtotta el. A Web 2.0 teht olyan internetes szolgltatsok gyjt-
neve, amelyek elssorban a kzssgre plnek, azaz a felhasznlk
kzsen ksztik a tartalmat vagy megosztjk egyms informciit.10

3. 1. Web 2.0 szolgltatsok fajti pldkkal11

Blogok (WordPress, Blogspot, egyb)
Kzssgi tartalomszerkeszts (wiki)
Videomegosztk (YouTube, Videa, Indavideo)
Kpmegosztk (Picasa, Flickr)
Kzssgi oldalak (Facebook, iWiw)
Online dokumentumszerkeszts (GoogleDocs, Google Drive)
Microblogok (Twitter)
Podcast (Google Hangouts)
e-Portflik
Kzssgi knyvjelzk (Delicious)
Online jtkok, krnyezetek (Second Life)
Online prezentcik (Prezi, Slideshare)
Online gondolattrkpek (MindMeister, bubbl.us, Mindomo,
VUE12)
e-Learning keretrendszer (Moodle, Edmodo, Edu 2.0) stb.

Az Edu 2.0 teht e-learning keretrendszer, web 2.0 eszkzknt fel-

hasznlhat a tantsi-tanulsi folyamatban. Az e-learning olyan szm-
tgpes hlzaton keresztl elrhet kpzsi forma, amely a tananyag
feldolgozshoz digitlis mdiumokat hasznl (DVD, CD-ROM, internet).
A tanulsi-tantsi folyamatot hlzaton keresztl mkd szoftver ke-

10
Z. Karvalics Lszl (szerk.) (2009): Web 2.0 az oktatsban. INFONIA Alaptvny, Bu-
dapest. p. 19.
http://www.infonia.hu/webketto_az_oktatasban.pdf (2014. mjus 7.)
11
A felsorols sszelltshoz felhasznlt elektronikus krdv: A web 2.0-s eszkzk
alkalmazsa (a kutats vezetje dr. Nmesztovszki Zsolt)
12
http://matchsz.inf.elte.hu/TT/VUE/ (2014. mjus 5.)

141
retrendszer segtsgvel szervezik meg. A keretrendszerekben helyezik
el a tananyagot, itt trtnik a kommunikci a diktrsak s a tutor (onli-
ne oktatst segt tanr) kztt, itt trtnik a konzultci, a szmonkrs
is klnbz mdszerek segtsgvel (tesztek, kooperatv, kollaboratv
tanulst elsegt kommunikcis felletek felhasznlsval), illetve a
tanulsi folyamat menedzselse.13

4. Az Edu 2.0 felhasznlsa a tantsi-tanulsi folyamatban

A tmval kapcsolatos tanri magatartst nagymrtkben befolysol-

jk a technikai felttelek: van-e a tanteremben tanri asztali szmtgp
vagy laptop, internetkapcsolat, tanuli laptopok (esetleg okostelefon,
tablet)?
Ebbl kvetkezik, hogy tanrn nem mindig van lehetsg ennek al-
kalmazsra. Sajt tapasztalatombl kiindulva n inkbb a tanrn kvli
tantsi folyamatoknl hasznlom az EDU 2.0 alkalmazst is. A tanuls
sorn sorban kell haladni a lecke tanegysgein. Az elmleti tudnivalk
mellett a gyakorlati tapasztalat szerzse is fontos. A tmval kapcsolat-
ban nll tanulsi tevkenysg rszeknt nll keress s feldolgozs
is lehetsges. A plusz informcik linkjei s fjljai a kzs felleten meg-
oszthatak egymssal.
Javaslom, a tagok ksztsenek magukrl maximum 1 000 karakteres
bemutatkozst, s lehetsg szerint tltsenek fel magukrl fnykpet (ha
ezt nem szeretn valaki, akkor javasolt olyan avatar alkalmazsa, amely
jellemzi t). gy a csoport rszeknt szemlyess vlik a tanulsi folya-
matban trtn rszvtel. A tanuli attitd kulcsfontossg.

4. 1. Az Edu 2.0 keretrendszerrl14

Az EDU2.0 internetes portlknt (www.edu20.org) brhonnan elrhe-
t, gy a hallgatk nemcsak az iskolai krnyezetben tudnak tanulni.
Hasznlathoz nincs szksg az tlagosnl tbb szmtgp-hasznlati
ismeretre vagy kln szerverre. A szoftver letltseket sem ignyel. A
weblap magyar nyelv (lehet angol nyelv is a nyelvi kompetencik fej-
lesztsre), magyar kezetes betkkel. 2000 tanul regisztrcijig in-
gyenes. A rendszer nem ktdik tantrgyhoz, csak egy keret, amelyet a
tutor tlt ki tartalommal.

13
Flp Hajnalka (2014) Hol tart ma az online oktats Magyarorszgon? Modern Iskola,
2014. 2. szm http://moderniskola.hu/cikk/hol-tart-ma-online-oktatas-magyarorszagon
(2014. mjus 25.)
14
Krpt Jzsef (2014): EDU2.0 tananyagtartalom szervez rendszer alkalmazsa a
kzpiskolban. http://goo.gl/n3AjWi (2014. mjus 24.)

142
1. kp. Belps utni tjkoztats az Edu 2.0 elektronikus tanulsi krnyezetben

Az Edu 2.0 egy tananyagtartalom szervez rendszer (LCMS). Segt-

sgvel digitlis iskolt lehet ltrehozni. A hallgatk osztlyokba, cso-
portokba tudnak beiratkozni, akr tbbe is. A tanulcsoportok szmra a
tanr tananyagelemeket, a tantrgyhoz kapcsold kiegszt informci-
kat tud feltenni. Ezek lehetnek, szvegek, kpek, animcik,
videoklippek, linkek stb.
A rendszeren bell kommunikcis lehetsg van a tanrok-dikok s
dikok-dikok kztt. Az osztlyblog lehetsget ad a tanulk rsainak,
keressi eredmnyeinek, tleteinek kzzttelre, megvitatsra. Admi-
nisztrcis feladatokat is ellt a rendszer. Ha jelenlti rn hasznljk a
tanulk, akkor a jelenlvket regisztrlja. Egyni tanuls esetn a tanr
ltja, hogy a dik hnyszor hasznlta a rendszert, s mikor lpett be utol-
jra.
A gyakorls, ellenrzs a klnbz tpus tesztfeladatok, krdvek
segtsgvel vgezhet. Az online mrssel kapcsolatban Lengyeln
(2013) rt rszletes tanulmnyt: Az online krdvek elterjedse a kom-
munikcis formk talakulsnak is ksznhet. Az e-mailben trtn
tovbbts, az egyszer, nhny kattintssal elrhet kitlts a felhasz-
nlk ignyeihez is jobban igazodik.15 E tanulmny segti az Edu 2.0
felleten is a tesztek, krdvek szerkesztst, st az elemzst is.

15
Lengyeln Molnr Tnde (2013): Online mrs-rtkels. EKF, Eger. p 8.

143
 A tanr ltal ksztett online tesztek eredmnyeit a tanr a feladat be-
fejezsvel megkapja a belltstl fggen, pontszmban, szzalkban
vagy osztlyzatban. A rendszer gyjti a hallgatk eredmnyeit, s a nap-
lbl megnzhetk, ellenrizhetk. Az elksztett tesztek a hozzfrsre
jogosult tanrok ltal a klnbz csoportokban felhasznlhatk. A teszt
szerkesztse sorn bellthat a kezds s befejezs idpontja, csak
egyszer vagy tbbszr is kitlthet. A krdsek nehzsg szerint slyoz-
hatk.
A YouTube videomegoszt oldalon Simon Gbor tmutatst ad a k-
vetkez tmkban (a felhasznlt irodalom listjban megadtam az elr-
hetsget): Edu 2.0 regisztrci, tankrk ltrehozsa, tanulk hozz-
adsa; Edu 2.0 adminisztrci; Edu 2.0 foglalkozsok ltrehozsa; Edu
2.0 feladatlap kszts.

4. 2. Milyen mdon tmogathatja az Edu 2.0 a napi munkt?

Akit rdekel tanrknt az IKT eszkzkkel tmogatott ratervek kipr-
blsa tanrn vagy tanrn kvl, valamint kzel ll hozz a konstruktv
pedaggia s a projekt alap tants mdszertana, a tantst hatko-
nyabb teheti. Milyen mdszertani megoldsokkal tudjuk elrni, hogy a
digitlis technolgia hatkonyan szolglja a nevelsi kpzsi clokat?
A tanulsi folyamatot sajt ignyeinkhez kell igaztani. Az albbi tanu-
lsi tevkenysget vgezhetik pldul a tanulk: iskoln kvli adatgyj-
ts, munkanapl ksztse, a projekttermk elksztshez szksges
munkatevkenysg, klcsns visszajelzsek, forrsfeldolgozs stb.
Tanulsmenedzsment rendszerknt hasznlhatjk a dikok az Edu 2.0
alkalmazst, aminek teht sajt online platformja van, amely biztostja a
kommunikci helyt s eszkzeit. A felleten lehetsg van megosztani
dokumentumokat (pl. szveget, kpet stb.). Munkaformaknt a kooperatv
munka, prmunka s egyni munka is lehetv vlik.
Egyb digitlis eszkzk is hasznlhatak a tanulsi folyamat kzben:
videoszerkeszt eszkzk, kollaborcis eszkzknt linkmegoszts,
kommunikcis eszkzknt chat, digitlis mdiaeszkzk (lap topok,
digitlis fnykpezgp, videokamera, asztali szmtgp), interaktv
tbla (a projekt, feladat bemutatsra), mobileszkzk (okostelefonok),
videomegoszt oldal (You Tube), widget-ek (Google alkalmazsok, esz-
kzk pl.: Google Maps).

144
 2. kp. Az adminisztrtor mensora

A tanulsi folyamat sorn a tanulk egyttmkdsi kszsge, kreati-

vitsa, kritikai gondolkodsa fejldhet. A kollaboratv munka sorn digit-
lis eszkzknek s a web2.0-s szolgltatsnak kiemelt szerepe lehet a
tartalomfejlesztsben, egyttmkdsben s megvalstsban. A tanul-
si folyamat sorn az IKT olyan alkalmazsait lehet megmutatni, amelyek
norml rai kereteken bell nem lehetsgesek.
A dikok informcikat kereshetnek a weben az aktulis tmrl,
megosztott online dokumentumba gyjthetik ssze a keressek eredmnyt.
A tanulknak munkanaplt is lehet vezetnik projekt esetben. A munkanapl
megrsa sorn a tanuli kompetencik fejldnek. A kvetkez elemeket
kell tartalmaznia a naplnak: a projekt tartalmt tkrz, kreatv cm; a
csoport tagjainak megnevezse; a projekt rvid sszefoglalsa a fbb
tmkkal, tevkenysgekkel, a projekttermkkel; a tevkenysgre ford-
tott id a tantsi rn kvl; a tanuli tevkenysgek felsorolsa az el-
kszts, a projektfeladat vgrehajtsa sorn; a szksges eszkzk,
forrsok (hardver, szoftver), a felhasznlt szakirodalom megnevezse.
Munkltat trtnelemtantsknt is fel lehet fogni az ezen a felleten
trtn munkt. A szerzi jogokkal kapcsolatos tudsa is bvthet a
dikoknak, megszokjk, hogy hivatkozssal kell elltni az elksztett
anyagaikat. Az idzs, forrsmegjells szablykvet magatartsa az
letk rszv vlhat.
Az Edu 2.0-val trtn tantsi-tanulsi folyamat fejldst hoz az IKT
pedaggiai cl hasznlata szempontjbl. A tanulk tanulsi attitdjt
pozitvan befolysolja az itt vgzett tevkenysg. A didaktikai funkcija is
jelents, hisz alkalmas az rdeklds felkeltse mellett j ismeretek kor-

145
szer tadsra, lehetsget kapnak elemzsre, rendszerezsre, gya-
korlsra. A tanulk ltal elksztett s megjelentett informcik hitele-
sekk, szemlletesekk vlnak szmukra, bvlnek ismereteik, kpes-
sgeik. Fejleszthet szocilis kompetencijuk, az rzelmi intelligencijuk,
a kommunikcijuk, a szvegalkotsuk az Edu 2.0 hasznlatval. Az
eszkzhasznlati tevkenysg mellett az igazi elny a nevelsi s tar-
talmi clok mlytsnek lehetsge.

sszefoglalom vzlatosan az eddig lertakat.

1. 2. 1. Milyen elnykkel jrhat az Edu 2.0 alkalmazsa a tanr

szmra?

Elsegti a pedaggusok szemlletvltst.

Bvti a rsztvevk szakmdszertani repertorjt.
Gyakorlati segtsget biztost szaktrgyi tmk feldolgozshoz.
Lehetv vlik a nevelsi-tanulsi krnyezet jszer megoldsai-
nak megismerse.
A szakmai egyttmkdsek szntere biztostott lesz.
A tanrnak rendelkeznie kell azokkal a pedaggiai s fejleszt,
tmogat mdszerekkel, melyek nlklzhetetlenek a XXI. sz-
zadi kszsgek elsajttshoz.

2. 2. 2. Milyen elnykkel jrhat az Edu 2.0 alkalmazsa a tanul

szmra?

A rsztvevk kulcskompetencii fejldnek a kvetkez terlete-

ken: anyanyelvi kommunikci, idegen nyelvi kommunikci (tl-
lthat a nyelvi bellts), digitlis kompetencia, szocilis kompe-
tencia, kezdemnyezkpessg (pl. a tudsmegosztsnl) hat-
kony, nll tanuls.
A 21. szzadi kszsgek fejlesztse lehetv vlik:16
Tanulsi s innovcis kszsgek (kreativits s innovci,
kritikai gondolkods s problmamegolds, kommunikci s
egyttmkds).

16
Intel Teach Program Essentials Tanfolyam Alapvet 21. szzadi kszsgek anyaga
alapjn
Forrs: Partnership for 21st Century Skills (www.21stcenturyskills.org). A felhasznls
engedlyezve.

146
 Informcis, mdia- s technolgiai kszsgek (informcis
mveltsg, mdiamveltsg, informcis s kommunikcis
technolgiai mveltsg).
letvezetsi s karrierkszsgek (rugalmassg s alkalmaz-
kodkpessg, kezdemnyezkszsg s nirnyts, trsas
s multikulturlis kszsgek, teljestmny s elszmoltatha-
tsg, vezeti kszsgek s felelssgvllals).

A fenti felsorols alapjn lthat, hogy az elektronikus tanulsi kr-

nyezetnek szmt web 2.0-s eszkz (Edu 2.0) s a XXI. szzadi k-
pessgek kztt sszefggs van. A kritikai gondolkods a fent emltett
besorols szerint a tanulsi s innovcis kszsgek kz tartozik.

5. A kritikai gondolkods fogalma s szerkezete

A kritikai gondolkods fogalmi lersa az 1960-as vekben megtrtnt:

Ennis (1992; idzi Molnr, 2002) ltal, e tanulmny keretei kztt csak
rviden rintem. A szakirodalom a kritikai gondolkods fogalmt ketts
rtelmezsben hasznlja. Egy rszk nll s komplex kognitv kpes-
sgnek tekinti, ms rszk megtlse szerint nem nll kpessgrl
van sz, hanem egy gondolati eszkzrl. Ez az eszkz segt abban,
hogy az adott szituciban hatsosan aktivljuk s alkalmazzuk a szk-
sges kognitv kpessgeinket.
Ennis (1962; idzi Molnr, 2002) kezdetben kritikn alapul helyes l-
ltsok meghozatalnak folyamataknt rtelmezte. Tbb mint hsz vvel
ksbb fellbrlta korbbi elkpzelseit, s a kritikai gondolkodst sz-
szer s elmlyed gondolkodsi folyamatknt jellemezte.
A kvetkezkben nhny megfogalmazst sorolok fel a kritikai gon-
dolkodsrl Molnr (2002) kutatsaira tmaszkodva:
Tervszer, nirnytott dntst jelent, mely magba foglalja az in-
terpretcit, az analzist, az rtkelst s a kvetkeztetst is.
A cltudatos s nirnytott tletalkots folyamata. E folyamat a
jelen lev tnyezk tgondolst jelenti, a bizonytkokra, a kon-
textusra, a fogalmakra s a mdszerekre val tekintettel.
Olyan kifinomult gondolkods, mely kvetkezetes a smk gya-
korlati alkalmazsban; ragaszkodik a bizonytkokhoz s a k-
vetkeztetsek szigor szablyaihoz.
Fejlett gondolkods, mely elktelezett az sszes nzpont egye-
nrtk bemutatsa mellett, kizrja az egyoldal, szubjektv meg-
kzeltst

147
 Kpessg, amely a problma megrtsre koncentrl, s a t-
nyek elemzse s hipotzisek fellltsa utn megoldhat a prob-
lma.

Bloom (1. tblzat) s trsai szmra a kritikai gondolkods egyet je-

lent az rtkelssel. Ez nluk a legfels fokozat az oktats kognitv
cljainak nevezett hat gondolkodsi kszsg kzl: ismeret, felfogs,
alkalmazs, elemzs, sszegzs s rtkels. Bloom hrom magasabb
rtelmi mveleti szintet jell meg: analzis, szintzis, rtkels. E negye-
dik szinten a tantsi kontextusoktl fggetlenedve, az lettapasztalat
szintjre kellene emelkednik a tnyeknek, fogalmaknak, sszefgg-
seknek.
17
1. tblzat. A bloomi ltalnos rtkelsi taxonmia

Szint I. rtelmi II. Motoros III. rzelmi-akarati

Terlet (Kognitv) (Pszichomotoros) (Affektv)
1. A) Felidzs A) Utnzs A) Nyitottsg
2. B) Megrts B) Kls vezrls B) Befogads
3. C) Alkalmazs C) Bels vezrls C) rtkkpzs
D) Magasabb rtelmi D) Interiorizci D)rtkrendszer ki-
4. mveletek (analzis, alaktsa
szintzis, rtkels)
E) Magatarts (jel-
lem)

Fisher (2002) knyve tartalmaz Bloom klnfle kategriihoz a gon-

dolkodsi folyamathoz rendelt hvszavakat, a kritikai gondolkods 12
jellemz sajtossgt hatrozta meg Ennis alapjn (2. tblzat):

3. tblzat. A kritikai gondolkods alapelvei.

Alapelv Krds
Megragadni egy llts jelentst. rtelmes?
Eldnteni, hogy van-e ktrtelmsg az Vilgos?
okoskodsban.
Eldnteni, hogy ellentmond-e egymsnak kt llts. Kvetkezetes?
Eldnteni, hogy szksgszeren kvetkezik-e a Logikus?
kvetkeztets?
Eldnteni, hogy egy llts elgg meghatrozott-e. Konkrt?

17
Kdrn Flp Judit (1979): Az rtkelsi taxonmia-ltalnos pedaggiai perspekt-
vbl. Pedaggiai Szemle, 21. 4. sz. p. 315.

148
 Alapelv Krds
Eldnteni, hogy az llts alkalmaz-e valamilyen Kvet-e szablyt?
elvet.
Eldnteni, hogy egy megfigyels megbzhat-e. Pontos?
Eldnteni, hogy az induktv kvetkeztets Igazolhat?
bizonythat-e.
Eldnteni, hogy meghatrozott-e a problma. Lnyegbevg?
Eldnteni, hogy vannak-e benne feltevsek. Adottnak vesz
valamit?
Eldnteni, hogy a definci megfelel-e. Jl meghatrozott?
Eldnteni, hogy vajon az llts megllja a helyt. Igaz?

Fisher, (2002) Az rtkelshez a kvetkez krdseket kapcsolja:

Hogyan tlnd meg? Mirt gondolod gy? Az rtkels kpessge alap-
vet teht a kritikai gondolkodsban. A klnbz nzetek szembestse
elsegti az rtkel kpessg fejldst (Knausz, 2001). Ez nem ms,
mint a gondolatok, bizonytkok, rvek, tettek s megoldsok rtkelse.
Az rtkelshez szksg van az elbrls alapjt kpez kritriumrend-
szer kialaktsra. Ha felismerte a kritriumokat a tanul, dntenie kell. A
dikok, akkor vlnak kritikus s elfogulatlan gondolkodv, ha gyakorol-
jk a kritikus tletalkotst. A kritikus gondolkod szmra nemcsak az a
krds, hogy mit csinlunk, hanem az is, hogy mirt csinljuk (Fisher,
2002).
A kritikai gondolkods szerkezetnek vizsglata fontos kutatsi prob-
lma. A szerkezet feltrsa kzelebb visz annak megvlaszolshoz,
hogy e kpessgnek milyen a kapcsolata az ltalnos kognitv kpes-
sggel? A hazai didaktikai szakirodalomban a taxonmia nven ismert
kategriarendszerek egysges fogalmi keretknt szolglnak a tanuls
klnfle terleteken megmutatkoz eredmnyeinek sszevetshez s
rtelmezshez. Ezek a taxonmik rtkelsi taxonmik, s kzs
jellemzjk, hogy a teljestmnyt egy lezrt tanulsi folyamat vgllapo-
taknt rjk le.18 Molnr (2002) is igyekszik a kritikai gondolkods szer-
kezetnek feltrsra, s a klfldi szakirodalom alapjn a kvetkez
megllaptsokra jut:
Facione (Facione, Facione s Giancarlo, 1996; idzi Molnr, 2002)
koncepcijban a kritikai gondolkods gondolati eszkz, teht nem
nll kpessg. Hat kognitv kpessget s hat gondolkodsi jegyet
sorol fel.

18
Kdrn Flp Judit (1979): Az rtkelsi taxonmia-ltalnos pedaggiai perspekt-
vbl. Pedaggiai Szemle, 21. 4. sz. p. 314.

149
 Legbens kpessgek: interpretci, analzis, rtkels, kvet-
keztets, nszablyozs, magyarzat.
Gondolkodsi jegyek: nyltsg, alapossg, rettsg, magabiztos-
sg, szisztematikussg, igazsgkeress.
A legbens kognitv kpessgek ismrveit Paul (1995; idzi Molnr,
2002) trta fel: rtelmezs (kategorizls, mondatok dekdolsa, jelents
tisztzsa); elemzs (tletek alapos feltrkpezse, argumentumok
/rvek, bizonytkok/ azonostsa s elemzse); rtkels (clok megha-
trozsa, argumentumok /rvek, bizonytkok/ becslse); kvetkeztets
(bizonytkok elemz megkrdjelezse, lehetsges kvetkeztetsek,
alternatvk, kvetkeztets levonsa); magyarzat (eredmnyek megl-
laptsa, az eljrsok indoklsa, az argumentumok /rvek, bizonytkok/
bemutatsa); nszablyozs (alapos nvizsglat, nkorrekci).
Ennis (Norris s Ennis, 1989; idzi Molnr, 2002) j defincija megal-
kotsakor fellltott egy kognitv kpessgeket tartalmaz taxonmiai
rendszert a kritikai gondolkodssal kapcsolatban: (1) rvek vizsglata,
(2) forrsok valdisgnak vizsglata, (3) kvetkeztetsek megtlse,
(4) defincik tisztzsa, (5) hipotzisek azonostsa, (6) helyes cselek-
vs (dnts) meghozatala.
A trtnelem tmakrben alkalmazhat kritikai gondolkods taxon-
mijt sszelltottam korbbi kutatsi eredmnyemre tmaszkodva: (1)
rvels, (2) rvel szvegbl lnyegkiemels, (3) kvetkeztets forrs
(szveges, kpi stb.) alapjn, (4) forrsok (szveges, kpi stb.) kritikai
elemzse, (5) fogalom azonostsa (kpi informci, szveg alapjn), (6)
bra, szveg, tblzat, grafikon rtelmezse, (7) okok, clok feltrsa.
Az elektronikus tanulsi krnyezetben megosztott forrsok elemzs-
nek s a kritikai gondolkods sszefggsnek lehetsges empirikus
vizsglati lehetsgei fontos kutatsi tmt jelentenek. A trtnelem tan-
trgyban a trtnelmi kritikai gondolkods kpessgnek a fejlettsge
rendkvl fontos, s e kpessg alkalmazsnak nagy szerepe van a sike-
res teljestsben.
Clom sajt kszts, elektronikus tanulsi krnyezetben alkalmaz-
hat mreszkzk (adatlap, trtnelmi ismeret s trtnelmi kritikai k-
pessg) ltrehozsa, amelyek lehetv teszik a mrst s az sszeha-
sonlt vizsglatokat az sszelltott taxonmia alapjn. A feltrt ered-
mnyeket a tantsi gyakorlatban hasznostani szeretnm. A fenti clbl
kiindulva a kutats egyik hipotzise az elektronikus tanulsi krnyezet-
ben vizsglt trtnelmi kritikai gondolkodssal kapcsolatban: Az elektro-
nikus tanulsi krnyezet pozitvan befolysolja az elvrt tanuli teljest-
mnyeket.
Ennek bizonytsa vagy cfolsa tovbbi kutatsokat ignyel. Fel-
hasznlhat lesz a tovbbi kutatsban a Brdossy (2009) ltal vizsglt

150
RWCT (Reading and Writing for Critical Thinking) tmakre. Angolul
szakirodalmi ttekintst Lai (2011) ksztett a kritikai gondolkodssal
kapcsolatban, az angolszsz eredmnyek ttekintse elengedhetetlen a
tma mlyebb megrtse rdekben.

Felhasznlt irodalom

Brdossy Ildik (2009): A tanulk kztti klnbsgek s a tanuls fej-

lesztse. (http://www.ofi.hu/tudastar/tanulas-fejlesztese/tanulok-
kozotti-090617; 2014.06.15.)
Bang Jen (2011): Rendszerelmlet s pedaggia Niklas Luhmannl.
Kutats kzben, 2011. 1. sz. pp. 110-116.
http://epa.oszk.hu/01500/01551/00055/pdf/educatio_EPA01551_20
11-01-Kutkozben2.pdf (2014.06.04.)
Bthory Zoltn (1997): Tanulk, iskolkklnbsgek. Tanknyvki-
ad, Budapest.
Fisher, Robert (2002): Hogyan tantsuk meg gyermekeinket tanulni? M-
szaki Knyvkiad, Budapest.
Forg Sndor (2009): Az j mdia s az elektronikus tanuls. j Peda-
ggiai Szemle, 8-9. sz. pp. 91-96.
http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00035/00135/pdf/EPA00035_upsz_20090
8-09_091-096.pdf (2014.06.04.)
Flp Hajnalka (2014): Hol tart ma az online oktats Magyarorszgon?
Modern Iskola, 2014. 2. szm http://moderniskola.hu/cikk/hol-tart-
ma-online-oktatas-magyarorszagon (2014.05.25.)
Kdrn Flp Judit (1979): Az rtkelsi taxonmia-ltalnos pedag-
giai perspektvbl. Pedaggiai Szemle, 21. 4. sz. pp. 314-325.
Krpt Jzsef (2014): EDU2.0 tananyagtartalom szervez rendszer al-
kalmazsa a kzpiskolban. http://goo.gl/n3AjWi (2014.05.24.)
Knausz Imre (2001): Az vszmokon innen s tl Mszaki Knyvkiad,
Budapest.
Komenczi Bertalan (2009): Elektronikus tanulsi krnyezetek.
Gondolat Kiad, Budapest.
Lai, Emily R. (2011): Critical Thinking and Pedagogy: Critical Thinking in
Literary Studies.
(http://www.pearsonassessments.com/hai/images/tmrs/CriticalThin
kingReviewFINAL.pdf; 2014.06.04.)
Lengyeln dr. Molnr Tnde (2013): Online mrs-rtkels. EKF, Eger.
p 8.

151
Lynch, Julianne: What can we learn from McLuhan? Electronic
communication technologies and the future of schooling.
https://deakin.academia.edu/JulianneLynch (2014.05.23.)
Molnr Lszl (2002): A kritikai gondolkods. In: Csap Ben (szerk.): Az
iskolai mveltsg, Osiris Kiad, Budapest. pp. 217-237.
Nagy Jzsef (2000): A XXI. szzad s nevels. Osiris Kiad, Bu-
dapest.
Papp-Danka Adrienn (2013): Az online tanulsi krnyezet fogalmnak
rtelmezsi lehetsgei. Oktats-Informatika, Budapest. 1-2. szm
http://www.oktatas-informatika.hu/2011/12/papp-danka-adrienn-az-
online-tanulasi-kornyezet-fogalmanak-ertelmezesi-lehetosegei/
Simon Gbor (2014): Edu 2.0 adminisztrci.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sl4tCB5OKwM (2014.05.25.)
Simon Gbor (2014): Edu 2.0 feladatlap kszts.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LL3YsDuba2g (2014.05.25.)
Simon Gbor (2014): Edu 2.0 foglalkozsok ltrehozsa.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u4dXgj3ZOx0 (2014.05.25.)
Simon Gbor (2014): Regisztrci, tankrk ltrehozsa, tanulk hozz-
adsa.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pvsHTcBuXs4 (2014.05.25.)
Z. Karvalics Lszl (szerk.) (2009): Web 2.0 az oktatsban.
INFONIA Alaptvny, Budapest. pp. 43-44.
http://www.infonia.hu/webketto_az_oktatasban.pdf (2014.05.07.)

***

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 SPICZN BUKOVSZKI EDIT

INNOVATV MDSZEREK A (NYELV)TANTS

HATKONY TANULSS ALAKTSRA

Abstract

Research focusing on ways of enhancing learners per-

formance is of primary importance in current pedagogical
investigations. There are several approaches to discovering
the key factors that contribute to the success of learning. This
article introduces the findings of a research project carried
out in this field.
Firstly, the reasons for the necessity of revising our
teaching practices are listed. This issue is examined from
several viewpoints: socio-economic, scientific and institutional
contexts and also on the levels of the learning environment
and that of the teachers and students. Then, a new
constructivist approach on how to transform teaching into
learning, how to make learning processes engaging and
effective is introduced. The notions and concepts of
constructivism are briefly outlined providing the theoretical
framework for the study. Further on, the key ideas of some
practical implementations are described in the higher
education context. The useful experience gained from ESP
language lessons is presented and their possible wider
implementations are argued. The closing paragraph of the
article summarises the featured benefits of new teaching
strategies and also some issues for further research are
outlined.

Bevezets

A tanuli teljestmnyek fejlesztsnek mikntje a pedaggiai kutat-

sok egyik kiemelt jelentsg terlete. Szmos szakterlet s tudomny-
g (pszicholgia, szociolgia, kognitv tudomnyok, alkalmazott nyelv-

153
szet) lltja vizsglatnak kzppontjba azokat a tnyezket, amelyek
hozzjrulnak a tanuls sikeressghez.
Ez a tanulmny azokat az innovatv, nyelvpedaggiban hasznlatos
mdszereket s pedaggiai megkzeltseket mutatja be, amelyek a
tantsi folyamatot egy aktv tanuli rszvtelen alapul, nszablyozott
tanulsi folyamatt alakthatjk t. Meggyzdsnk, hogy az idegen
nyelvek tantsnak elvei s gyakorlata sok ponton rintkeznek a fels-
oktats-pedaggia szakterletvel, amennyiben mindkt kontextus a
tanuls-tants hatkonyabb ttelnek lehetsgeit s a 21. szzadi
oktats kihvsaira adand innovatv vlaszokat keresi.
Elsknt felvzoljuk azokat a tnyezket, amelyek indokoljk a ha-
gyomnyos tantsi gyakorlat jragondolsnak szksgessgt, ttekin-
tst nyjtva a tmval foglalkoz hazai s klfldi szakirodalomrl. Tesz-
szk mindezt az albbi hat szempontot vizsglva: (1) trsadalmi-
gazdasgi-munkaerpiaci helyzet (2) tudomnyos szakmai httr (3)
intzmnyi szint (4) tanulsi krnyezet (5) a tanr/oktat (6) a tanu-
l/hallgat1.
A dolgozat kvetkez fejezete a pedaggiai paradigmavlts krds-
krt elemzi. Nzetnk szerint a konstruktivista pedaggia knl megfele-
l vlaszokat azokra a kihvsokra, amelyekkel az oktats minden sznte-
rn szembeslnk napjainkban. A konstruktivista alapelvek bemutatsa
utn a gyakorlati megvalsts pldi kvetkeznek a szerz szkebb
szakterletrl a felsoktatsban zajl nyelvoktatsbl. Ismertetjk egy
680 felsoktatsi hallgat megkrdezsvel zajl kutats egyik rsz-
eredmnyt, amely igazolja a tanri mdszerek rendkvli fontossgt a
tanuls-tants sszefggsrendszerben. A bemutatott pldk s j
gyakorlatok tapasztalatai s eredmnyei alkalmazhatk az oktats ms
kontextusaiban is s hozzjrulhatnak a (nyelv)oktats minsgnek
fejlesztshez s eredmnyessgnek javtshoz.

1. A tantsi gyakorlat fellvizsglatnak szksgessge

Trsadalmi-gazdasgi krnyezet

A pedaggiai paradigmavltst elmozdt tnyezk kztt tartjuk

szmon a megvltozott gazdasgi-trsadalmi krnyezet oktatssal
szemben megfogalmazott ignyeit is. Olyan transzferlhat kszsgek
s kompetencik kialaktst vrjk el az oktatsi rendszer minden szint-
jn, amelyek kpess teszik az j genercit arra, hogy a folyton vltoz

1
Felsoktatsi sszefggsben az oktat/hallgat kifejezseket, ltalnos rtelemben a
tanr/tanul fogalomprt hasznlom

154
munka- s letkrlmnyek kzepette is meglljk a helyket, kpesek
legyenek az lland fejldsre az lethosszig tart tanulsra.
A kvetkez tblzatban, mely az Eurpai Uni ajnlsait sszefog-
lalva kszlt, sszegyjtttk az imnt felsorolt kulcskompetencikat, de
szerepel benne a kompetencik elsajttsnak sznhelyt biztost okta-
tsi intzmnyi httr s a kompetencik alkalmazsnak szntere, a
gazdasg s trsadalom is, rzkeltetve a krdskr /sszetettsgt. (1.
bra)

1. bra: A tudskzvetts s kompetenciafejleszts komplexitsa

Tudomnyos httr

A pedaggia kutatsok fkuszban ll a tants-tanuls komplex fo-

lyamatainak vizsglata, klns tekintettel a kvetkez krdsekre: mi a
tuds s hogyan tanthat? Magnak a tuds fogalmnak rtelmezsre
is szmos tudomnyosan megalapozott s rvnyes elmlet ltezik
(Nagy, 2000; Nahalka, 2002, Korom, 2005; Cskos, 2007; Csap, 2001,
2008). A legismertebb s napjainkban legtbbszr idzett felfogsokat
mutatjuk be rviden, mert ezek szolgltatjk az elmleti keretet ahhoz a
pedaggiai kontextushoz, amelyet vizsglni fogunk.

155
 Csap Ben szerint a tudsfajtk hromfle szervezdsi elv szerint
alakulnak ki s ezek alapjn megklnbztetnk szakrtelem, mveltsg
s kompetencia jelleg tudst. Egy msik felfogs szerint jellegt s m-
kdst tekintve alapveten a tuds kt vltozatrl beszlhetnk: az
ismeretjelleg s a kpessgjelleg tudsrl (Korom, 2005). Korom Er-
zsbet ttekinti ms tudomnyterletek tudskoncepciit is, s arra a
kvetkeztetsre jut, hogy ms terminusokkal ugyan, de ezt a kt tuds-
fajtt klnbztetik meg a kvetkez szakterleteken is. Kibernetika: le-
kpez tuds s operatv tuds; informatika: informci s program; ok-
tatselmlet: trgyi tuds s kszsg; pszicholgia: deklaratv s proce-
durlis tuds. Ide kvnkozik azonban egy harmadik tudskategria is: a
metakognci, azaz a tudsrl val tuds. A nevelstudomnyi s okta-
tsfejlesztsi kutatsok kiemelt terlete a metakognci vizsglata, mert
kulcsfontossg szerepe van a gondolkods fejlesztsben, a tanuls
hatkonyabb ttelben s az nll tanulv vls folyamatban egya-
rnt. (Cskos, 2007)
Az, hogy milyen tartalm diszciplinris tudsra lesz szksge a mun-
kaerpiacra most kilp genercinak, nem lehet megjsolni. Ezrt az
oktats elsdleges feladatnak a kszsgek s kompetencik fejleszt-
st tzi ki clul (Nagy, 2000), ezt igyekszik mrni a nemzetkzi sszeha-
sonltsokat is lehetv tev PISA teszt is. Az eredmnyek rtkelsnl
pedig az iskolarendszer tlzott ismeretkzpontsgt nevezik meg a si-
kertelensg egyik f okaknt. Van azonban egy msik, tudomnyosan
szintn megalapozott felfogs, amely a kpessgeket a tudsrendszerrel
egytt tartja mkdnek s fejlesztendnek (Nahalka, 1997). Ez a peda-
ggiai paradigma a konstruktivizmus, amelyrl a ksbbiekben mg
rszletesen lesz sz.
Nemcsak a tudsfelfogsok rtelmezse terletn, de a tanulsrl va-
l gondolkodsban is szmos elmlet ltezik amelyek kimondva vagy
kimondatlanul nagy hatst gyakorolnak a mindennapi pedaggiai tev-
kenysgekre. A tanulsrl val gondolkodsban megklnbztetnk for-
mlis, non-formlis s informlis keretek kztt zajl tanulst. (Csap,
2006). Egyre elfogadottabb vlik az a felismers, hogy az iskolarend-
szeren kvl szerzett tudst is el kell ismerni, be kell szmtani a tanul-
mnyok teljestsbe. Ennek a folyamatnak a rszletes kidolgozsa a
felsoktats egyik srget feladata. (Dernyi, 2008)
A tanulst ma mr nem gy kpzeljk el, mint egy magnyosan vg-
zett mentlis tevkenysget, amely a knyvtrak csendjben knyvek
fl hajl fejekben zajlik s a memorizlsi folyamat eredmnyeknt rep-
roduklhat tnyszer tudst eredmnyez. A tanulsi folyamat kzssgi
tevkenysgknt, gykeresen megvltozott tanulsi krnyezetben, az
osztlytermek falain kvl (is) zajlik s irnytsa nem kizrlag a tanr

156
kezben van. St, kutatsok bizonytjk, hogy az igazn eredmnyes s
maradand, alkalmazhat tudst eredmnyez tanuls sikere a tanul
motivcijtl s nszablyozott mdon, nllan vgzett tanulsi tev-
kenysgeinek minsgtl is nagyban fgg (Rthy, 2002, 2003;
Zimmerman, 2001).
A tanulsi folyamatrl val jszer gondolkods s kutats lenjri
az angolszsz s szak-eurpai orszgok. Oktatsi rendszereik eredm-
nyessgnek kulcst abban a tanuls-centrikus oktatspolitikban lehet
megtallni, amelynek alapja a hagyomnyos iskolai tanulssal szakt j
paradigma, a tanulskutats eredmnyeinek hasznostsa a gyakorlat-
ban. Ezeket az eredmnyeket s fontos felismerseket ismertetjk az
albbiakban Halsz Gbor cikke (2009:11) alapjn:
az elzetes tuds meghatroz jelentsg a tanulsi folyamat-
ban
a tanuls ptkez jelleg (vs. lineris)
az rzelmek s a motivci alapveten befolysoljk a tanulsi
folyamatot
a tanuls trsas jelleg tevkenysg
a tanuls folyamata rendkvl sszetett

A tanuls s tudskoncepcikat rviden bemutat bekezds vgn ar-

ra szeretnnk felhvni a figyelmet, hogy a tantsi folyamat tervezsnl
veszlyes lehet, ha a kompetenciafejleszts jegyben felldozzuk azokat
az akadmikus tartalmakat s kognitv kpessgeket ignyl tanulsi
formkat, amelyek eddig a hagyomnyos egyetemi kpzs rszt alkot-
tk. A helyes egyensly s sszhang megtallsa ismeretek s kszs-
gek kztt, valamint a tanulsi folyamatok tudomnyos igny ismerete
s alkalmazsa a tantsi folyamatokban ezek a tnyezk knlnak
megoldst a dilemma feloldsra.

Intzmnyi szint

A tants-tanuls sznvonalnak krdse intzmnyi szinten is meg-

ragadhat. Halsz Gbor a felsoktatsban vgzett tanuls minsgt
vizsgl cikkben arra a megllaptsra jut, hogy a minsgbiztostssal
foglalkoz modellek s mutatk inkbb a jl dokumentlhat adatok
kvetelmnyrendszer, oktatk vgzettsge s oktatsszervezsi formk
alapjn alkotnak kpet a tantsrl. Ahhoz, hogy ez megvltozzon s a
tantsra koncentrl tudomnyossg (Halsz, 2010:8) slynak meg-
felel mrtkben jelen legyen a tantsi folyamat megtervezsben, tb-
bek kztt szksg van tmogat s ksrletez intzmnyi httrre, a
sokflesg irnti nyitottsgra s a megjuls szksgessgnek felisme-

157
rsre. A legeredetibb mdszertani tlet is kudarcra van tlve hossz
tvon, ha nem ll mgtte egy tmogat szervezeti krnyezet.

A tanulsi krnyezet

A kommunikcis technolgia s a vilghl sosem ltott mret fej-

ldst gerjeszt az let minden terletn. Ennek egyik eredmnye az a
korszer web2.0.-technolgin alapul tanulsi krnyezet, amely a fels-
oktatsban tanulk rendelkezsre ll, s lehetv teszi a spontn s az
irnytott tudscsert egyarnt (Bessenyei, 2007). A tants s a tanuls
minsgnek krdsei nehezen mrhetk ebben az sszefggsben. Az
idelis tanulsi krnyezettel szembeni elvrsok kzl a kvetkezket
emeljk ki: feleljen meg a dikok ignyeinek (azaz legyen idtl s fld-
rajzi helyzettl fggetlen), jelljn ki vilgos s relis tanulsi clokat,
valamint biztostson segtsget a diknak. Ezeket a kritriumokat a vir-
tulis tanulsi krnyezet maximlisan ki tudja elgteni. Termszetesen a
tanuls eredmnyessghez szksges szemlyes kapcsolatot nem
tudja helyettesteni, de az arnyokat nagymrtkben mdostja (Nyri,
2009).

A tanr

A felsoktatsban olyan mlyrehat tartalmi s szerkezeti vltozsok

zajlanak, amelyek nem hagyhatjk rintetlenl az oktatk pedaggiai
tevkenysgt sem. A tants milyensgnek megtlsben j kategri-
k jelentek meg a hagyomnyos kritriumrendszerek (korszer tudstar-
talmak s kszsgek elsajttsnak elsegtse) mellett: nll tanulv
nevels, a tanuli aktivits s rszvtel nvelse, korszer tanulssegt
alkalmazsok hasznlata. A tanr szerepe a klasszikus ismeretkzl s
rtkel funkcik mellett egyre inkbb elmozdul egy j, sokrt szerepkr
fel. A tanr feladata a tanuls megszervezse, fontos, a tanulsi folya-
mat tartalmt s formjt rint krdsekben kell dntseket hoznia, pl.
az egytt dolgoz csoportok sszettelrl, a felhasznland segdesz-
kzkrl, forrsokrl, a clokrl. A tanulsi folyamat sorn figyelemmel
kell ksrnie az esemnyeket s szksg szerint be kell avatkoznia. Ki
kell dolgoznia a tanulsi formknak megfelel rtkelsi rendszereket is.
A tananyagtartalmakat pedig a relevancia, alkalmazhatsg s hozzfr-
hetsg szempontjai alapjn rtkelik a hallgatk, ezt az ignyt kell
sszhangba hoznia a kognitv kszsgek fejlesztsnek s az adott
szakterlet akadmikus tartalmnak megismertetsre irnyul sznd-
kval (Oll, 2010).

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 A tanul

Ugyanakkor a tanulk motivcija, httrismeretei, tanulmnyi telje-

stmnye, interperszonlis s szocilis kszsgei jelentsen klnbznek
a korbban megismert s a tants tervezsnl eddig figyelembe vett
jellemzktl. A felsoktatsba belp hallgatk szmnak ugrsszer
megnvekedse felerstette azokat a flelmeket, hogy az oktats szn-
vonala cskkenni fog. Megltsunk szerint azonban a problma nem
statisztikai jelleg. A nagyobb ltszm s intellektulisan rnyaltabb
sszettelt mutat hallgatsgot, az Y s Z genercit, a web 2.0 alkal-
mazsokon nevelkedett digitalis bennszltteket nem lehet tbb ered-
mnyesen tantani a rgen bevlt hagyomnyos mdszerek megjtsa,
jraadaptlsa nlkl. Ez a generci magabiztosan s szvesen hasz-
nlja az info-kommunikcis s mobil eszkzket, on-line kzssgekkel
oszt meg tartalmakat, konnektivista mdon tanul (Bessenyei, 2010; ger,
2011; Magyari, 2010). Amennyiben eredmnyesen akarjuk tantani ezt a
genercit, srgeten szksges, hogy ismerjk az oktats s a tanuls
tudomnyos vizsglatval foglalkoz szakterletek (kognitv tudomnyok,
pszicholgia, nevelstudomnyok) kutatsi eredmnyeit. Ellenkez eset-
ben a magyar felsoktats amelynek tudomnyos eredmnyeire s
sznvonalra eddig joggal lehettnk bszkk elmarad a nemzetkzi
lvonaltl. A klfldi egyetemek mr gy is nagy kihvst jelentenek a
hallgatk toborzsa szempontjbl. Ehhez a tendencihoz trsul mg a
nyitott egyetemek vilgmret terjedse s a felsoktats
nemzetkziesedse ltal jelentkez kihvsok (Oll, 2010; Bercs, 2009).
Jelen dolgozat a felsoktats egy kiemelt fontossg terletn, az
idegen nyelvek oktatsban foly gyakorlat pldjn keresztl igyekszik
bemutatni azokat a lehetsgeket, amelyek hozzjrulhatnak oktatsi
gyakorlatunk eredmnyesebb, lvezetesebb s nemzetkzileg ver-
senykpesebb ttelhez. A paradigmavlts elmleti megalapozst a
konstruktivista pedaggia szolgltatja. Ezeknek az elveknek a rvid is-
mertetse kvetkezik az albbiakban.

II. Konstruktivizmus

A konstruktivizmus egy posztmodern tudomnyos elmlet, melynek

megszletst az a radiklis tudomnyfilozfiai fordulat tette lehetv,
amely a 20. szzad msodik felben zajlott le tbbek kztt Karl Popper,
Lakatos Imre, Alan Musgrave s Thomas Kuhn munkssga nyomn. Az
j tudomnyelmlet megkrdjelezte az addig ltalnosan elfogadott
induktv-empirikus szemlletet s lehetsget teremtett alternatv tudo-
mnyfejldsi modellek kialakulsra. (Nahalka, 2002:54). A kognitv

159
tudomnyok 1950-es vekbeli megjelense s eredmnyeik tovbb er-
stettk azt a tudomnyos lgkrt, amely vgl is paradigmavltshoz
vezetett a megismersi folyamatokrl val tudomnyos gondolkods
tern (Plh, 1998; Plh, 2001).
A konstruktivizmus egy gyjtfogalom, amelyet hasznlhatunk filoz-
fiai rtelemben, fellehet benne J. Piaget pszicholgija, Vigotszkij tr-
sas(szocilis) konstruktivizmus fogalma. Vannak radiklis konstruktivis-
tk, mint von Glasersfeld, a biolgia szempontjait kpvisel konstruktivis-
tk, mint H. Maturana. Bennnket most elssorban a pedaggiai konst-
ruktivizmus rdekel, mint j oktatsi paradigma, hiszen amit a tudom-
nyos kutatsok feltrnak az emberi szemlyisgrl, a szemlyisg lehet-
sges fejlesztsrl (Piaget, 1970; Nagy, 2000), az informcifeldolgo-
zsrl s a tanulsrl, az trvnyszeren megjelenik az oktats-nevels-
iskolztats sznterein is. (Termszetesen a tudomnyos tartalmak gya-
korlati alkalmazsnak mrtke, elterjedsk az oktatsban, idbeli
megvalsulsuk koronknt s kultrnknt vltoz).
A konstruktivista paradigma legfbb rdeme, hogy a figyelmet a tu-
dsrl, mint eredmnyrl a tuds megszerzsnnek folyamatra irny-
totta, felismerte s kiemelte a tanul szemlyisgnek s elzetes tud-
snak szerept a tuds kialaktsban. Az albbiakban a konstruktivista
pedaggia alaptteleit vesszk sorra s kapcsoldsi pontokat keresnk
ezen elvek alkalmazsa s az idegen nyelvek oktatsnak pedaggija
kztt. A konstruktivista didaktika felsoktatsban trtn alkalmazs-
nak sikereirl tbb kutats is beszmolt (Symonds, 2008; Xamani, 2013;
Wang, 2011).
A konstruktivista pedaggia felfogsa szerint a tuds nem ismerett-
ads rvn keletkezik, hanem egyni konstrukci, amely a fejnkben
lev elzetes tuds segtsgvel alakul ki. A konstruktivizmus tbbfle
tanulstpust klnbztet meg, amelyek kzl leginkbb kvnatosnak a
konceptulis vlts bekvetkezst tartja. A nyelvtanul mr elsajttott
egy komplex nyelvi rendszert, az anyanyelvt. Ennek ismeretre, mint
elzetes tudsra szksges s rdemes tmaszkodni a nyelvoktats
sorn. Knnyen belthat az anyanyelvi tuds segt szerepe pldul a
pragmatikai, szociolingvisztikai funkcik, beszdstratgik tantsa so-
rn. A krdsrl bvebben olvashatunk Budai Lszl professzor knyv-
ben (Budai, 2010).
A tuds konstrulsa egy deduktv (elmlet-vezrelt) folyamat. Ebben
a folyamatban analgik s modellek segtsgvel trtnik a tanuls. Az
l idegen nyelvek tanulsa sorn rendkvl nagy segtsget nyjthat a
telekommunikcis eszkzk s az Internet ltal biztostott kzvetlen s
gyors hozzfrs az autentikus forrsokhoz. Ezeknek az eszkzknek a
tanrai felhasznlsa egyelre mg nagyon esetleges, s fknt a tanr

160
egyni ksrletez kedvn s a technikai felszereltsgen mlik, hogy ez a
potencilis lehetsg hasznosul-e.
A konstruktivizmus kiemelt fontossgot tulajdont az ismereteknek, az
agyunkban mr ltez smknak, az elzetes tudsnak. Azt felttelezi,
hogy a kpessgek nem nmagukban, hanem az ismeretek ltal biztos-
tott kontextusban lteznek, azaz az adott kpessg csak akkor tud m-
kdni, ha a kognitv struktrban lteznek a szmra szksges ismere-
tek. Ennek bizonytsra elegend idzni azt a minden nyelvet tanul s
tant szmra ismers helyzetet, amikor a kommunikcit nem (csak) a
nyelvtudsbeli hitusok akadlyozzk, hanem a vilgrl val ltalnos
ismeretek hinyai is.
Az rtkels a konstruktv pedaggiban formatv s diagnosztikus,
clja a visszacsatols, a tanul s fknt a tanr tjkoztatsa az eddig
elrt eredmnyekrl s az esetleges megakadsokrl. A szemeszteren-
knti egy-kt alkalommal trtn szmonkrs nyilvnvalan nem tudja
betlteni ezt a funkcit. A vizsgztats jszer mdjrl s mdszereirl
is zajlik a szakmai diskurzus, a j gyakorlatokkal rdemes volna minden
rdekeltet megismertetni.(Bbosik, 2012; Kiszely, 2012).
A konstruktv pedaggia a tanulst dinamikus folyamatnak kpzeli el,
amelyben tbb stratgia alkalmazsa zajlik egyidejleg. Clkpzete az
adaptv tuds kialaktsa. A pedaggus szerepe a konstruktv pedaggi-
ban alapveten eltr a hagyomnyos vezrl s/vagy szablyoz sze-
reptl. A pedaggus szakrtje, tervezje s facilittora a tanulsi folya-
matnak.
A konstruktivizmus nagy teret ad a tanuli autonminak s az
nreflexivitsnak s fejleszteni igyekszik ezeket. A klnbz tanulsi
stlusok s stratgik szerept egyre inkbb felismeri s elismeri a
szakmai kzvlemny is. (Mr a felsoktatsi tantervek is knlnak
tanulsmdszertani kurzusokat.)
A konstruktivizmus mdszertani-didaktikai jellemzi kzl a kvetke-
zket tartjuk fontosnak kiemelni:
aktv tanuli rszvtel az oktatsi folyamatban
tanuli autonmia
reflektv kpessgek kialaktsa, melyek segtsgvel a tanulk
kpesek rtkelni sajt tanulsi tevkenysgket s eredmnyei-
ket
a tanr szerepe az egyni tudskonstruls elsegtse, az el-
zetes tuds aktivizlsa rvn s a tudatos tanuli erfesztsek
sztnzse

161
 Mindezek a jellemzk alkalmass teszik ezt az j paradigmt arra,
hogy mind a nyelvpedaggiai mind a felsoktats-pedaggiai innovcik
elmleti kerett biztostsa.

III. Felsoktats pedaggia nyelvpedaggia

A termszettudomnyos oktats vlsga s kudarcai ers impulzust

szolgltattak a hagyomnyos pedaggiai megkzeltsek fellvizsglat-
hoz. Az idegen nyelvek oktatsban is tallhatk szp szmmal olyan
kudarcok s eredmnytelensgek, amelyek vltozsokat induklhatn-
nak. A nyelvtanulssal tlttt hossz vek dacra a nemzetkzi statiszti-
kk tkrben mg mindig elmarad az eurpai tlagtl azoknak a magya-
roknak szma, akik beszlnek valamilyen idegen nyelven (Imre, 2007;
Fazekas, 2006; Vg, 2007; Nikolov, 2007).
A nyelvtanrok kzssge s szakmai frumai (IAEFL, MANYE,
SZOKOE) tudatban vannak a nyelvtanuls-tants gondjainak s folya-
matosan keresik a megoldsokat illetve a problmk gykereit. Ezen
kutatsok sorba illeszkedik TMOP 4.1.2.D-12/1/KONV-2012-0002.
project, amelynek keretben a nyelvtanulsi sikerek s kudarcok pszic-
holgiai s tanulsmdszertani sszetevit vizsgltuk. A kvetkezkben
ismertetem a kutats rszeredmnyt, amely altmasztja azt a megl-
laptst, hogy szksg van a tanri mdszertan fellvizsglatra a fels-
oktatsban. A kutats egy rszeknt krdves felmrst vgeztnk az
szak-magyarorszgi rgi kt meghatroz felsoktatsi intzmny-
ben. Tbbek kztt arra kerestk a vlaszt, hogy milyen tnyezket tar-
tanak a hallgatk fontosnak a nyelvtanuls sikeressgben, mennyire
tartjk ezeket a tnyezket megvltoztathatknak s milyen terleteken
vrnak kls segtsget a nyelvtanulsuk eredmnyesebb ttelben. A
krdves felmrs vlaszadi (N=680) alapkpzsben rsztvev 19-23
ves hallgatk, akiket arra krtnk, hogy egy ngyfokozat Likert skln
jelljk meg vlaszaikat az idegen nyelvek tanulsa sorn szerzett ta-
pasztalataikrl s vlemnykrl.
A cikk tmja szempontjbl legfontosabb eredmnyeket az albbi
tblzat tartalmazza. (2. bra)

162
 1. A nyelv-
tanuls
2. Milyen mrtkben
sikerben 3. Terletek, amelyeken
tartja megvltoztat-
szerepet kls segtsgre van szk-
hatnak ezeket a
jtsz t- sge
tnyezket?
nyezk
fontossga
Szbeli ks-
Tanuli
2.87 3.12 2.89 3.26 zsgek fejlesz-
erfeszts
tse
Halls utni
rdeklds 2.84 2.65 2.51 3.21 rts fejleszt-
se
rskszsg
Motivci 3.11 3.09 3.10 3.00
fejlesztse
Tanri Tanulsi clok
3.19 2.92 - 2.95
mdszerek kitzse
Tanulsi se-
Tanulsi
2.71 3.02 2.84 2.94 gdletek meg-
stratgik
vlasztsa

2. bra Nyelvtanulsi kudarcok okait vizsgl krdv rszeredmnyei

A tblzat els oszlopnak eredmnyei azt mutatjk, hogy a vlasz-

adk a sikeres nyelvtanuls kulcsfontossg tnyezjnek tartjk a tan-
rok mdszereit (az sszes vlaszadk tlaga 3.19/4) s a motivcit
(3.06/4). A msodik oszlop adatai kzl kiemelnm azt, hogy a vlasz-
adk a szemlyes erfesztsnek s a stratgik alkalmazsnak is fon-
tos szerepet tulajdontanak. Megllapthatjuk, hogy a vlaszadk elvben
tisztban vannak azzal, hogy mit kellene tennik a siker rdekben, m-
gis ignylik a kls/tanri segtsget mind a kszsgek fejlesztsben,
mind a megfelel tananyag kivlasztsban. gy tnik, hogy az Internet
s a web 2.0 technolgiai alkalmazsok vilgban az autentikus nyelvi
anyaghoz val hozzfrs a bsg zavart idzi el a nyelvtanulkban,
irnymutatst vrnak a mit, honnan, hogyan, tanuljunk krdseire.
Az idegen nyelveket tant nyelvtanrok kzl sokan rszben a tan-
trgy jellegbl, rszben a klfldi szakirodalomhoz val knnyebb hoz-
zfrsk rvn mindig is rdekld s lelkes hvei voltak a pedaggiai
jtsok kiprblsnak, a nyelvrai mdszertani ksrletezsnek. A ta-
nri trsadalom azon rteghez tartoznak, amely els kzbl szerezhe-
tett tapasztalatokat a ms orszgokban foly j gyakorlatokrl az iskolk
kztti egyttmkdsek, cserekapcsolatok s utazsok rvn. Ezek
kzl a bevlt s tudomnyosan megalapozott mdszertani eljrsok

163
kzl szeretnk emlteni olyanokat, amelyek diszciplntl fggetlenl
alkalmazhatk az oktats minden szintjn s a felsoktats-
pedaggiban is. Ezek a mdszerek szaktanak a hagyomnyos bemuta-
ts-gyakorls-nllan elads (presentation-practice-performance) s-
mval s arra helyezik a hangslyt, hogy a tanul nllan szerezzen s
dolgozzon fel informcikat s ismereteket s ptse be azokat a sajt
kognitv smiba. A tanuls autonm, nszablyozott, rdekldsbl s
bels motivcibl tpllkoz formi s mdjai ezek, amelyekhez a
konstruktivista pedaggia elvei szolgltatjk az elmleti htteret.
kooperatv tanuls (Lencse, 2010)
projektmdszer (Torgyik, 2012)
kutatsalap tanuls (inquiry based learning) (Nagyn, 2010)
tartalom alap nyelvoktats (content-based language-teaching)
(Bodnr, 2009)
Just-in-Time Teaching (Spiczn, 2013)

Ezekben a tanulsi folyamatokban az a kzs, hogy a tanulk sajt

maguk hozzk ltre az alkalmazhat s adaptlhat jelentseket s r-
telmezseket, megrtik, alkalmazzk s kommuniklni is tudjk ezt a
sajt maguk ltal megszerzett tudst. Ezek a tuds megszerzsre ir-
nyul tanuli tevkenysgek fejlesztik a kreativitst, nllsgot, probl-
mamegold kszsget, s jobb eredmnyek elrshez vezetnek. A ta-
nuli tevkenysgek a szaktrgy tartalmtl fggen lehetnek: terep-
munka, laboratriumi mrsek, esettanulmnyok, interjk, egyni s
csoportos projektfeladatok, hospitls, szakirodalmi kutats. Tovbbi
kzs jellemzi az innovatv mdszereknek, hogy aktv hallgati rszv-
telen alapulnak. A tuds amelyet kialaktanak relevns s adaptlhat
tuds, amely egy kihvst jelent, motivlan rdekes s hasznos kon-
textusba gyazva szerezhet meg. Az egyttmkds dik-dik ill. dik
s oktat kztt felttele a sikeres munknak.Ezek a mdszerek tanulsi
stratgik hasznlatt ignylik, egyttal tantjk s gyakoroltatjk is azo-
kat. Lehetv teszik a differencilst. Aktvljk a vilgrl, a szaktrgyrl
s az idegen nyelvrl meglev elzetes tudst. A szaktrgyi tartalom s
a nyelv integrlsa mlyebb megrtst s tartsabb beplst eredm-
nyez. Trsas- s trsas tanulsi kszsgeket egyarnt fejlesztenek. Mind
a tanulsi folyamat vgeredmnye, mind a tuds megszerzsnek fo-
lyamata egyarnt fontos s mindkettt rtkelik. A tanr szerepe: szakr-
t tancsad s facilittor.
Az idegen nyelven oktatott kurzusok szmnak nvekedse tovbb
kzelti egymshoz a szakmai tartalmat kpvisel diszciplnt s a szak-
nyelv elsajttsra s helyes hasznlatra tant szaknyelvoktatst.
Szmos didaktikai kapcsoldsi pontot s tapasztalatot knl a tartalom-

164
alap nyelvoktats (content-based teaching, CBT) s a tartalom s nyelv
integrlsval megvalsul tanuls (content and language integrated
learning, CLIL), amely tbbek kztt a kzoktats kt tantsi nyelv
programjaiban valsul meg. A felsoktats nemzetkziesedsnek k-
vetkezmnyeknt egyre tbb klfldi fiatal rkezik a hazai felsoktatsi
intzmnyekbe s a magyar fiatalok kzl is egyre tbben vlasztanak
idegen nyelv kurzusokat hazai vagy klfldi egyetemeken. Az oktatk-
nak fel kell kszlnik a ms pedaggiai kultrbl rkez, eltr nyelvi
s httrismeretekkel rendelkez dikok oktatsra is.

sszegzs

A dolgozatban bemutattuk azokat a gazdasgi-trsadalmi folyamato-

kat s tudomnyos eredmnyeket, amelyek a jelenlegi pedaggai gya-
korlat fellvizsglatnak szksgessgt indokoljk. A kvnatos vlto-
zsok mind trsadalmi, oktatsirnytsi, intzmnyi szinteken, mind
pedig az oktati kzssg szintjn s a tanuli kzssg szintjn is be
kell, hogy kvetkezzenek. Tapasztalatok s kutatsi eredmnyek bizo-
nytjk, hogy a felsoktatsi nyelvoktats len jr az innovatv mdszerek
alkalmazsban, s a megszerzett tapasztalatok adaptlhatk a felsok-
tats-pedaggia brmely terletn.
Az oktatsban bekvetkez paradigmavlts elmleti httert a konst-
ruktivista pedaggiai felfogsban talljuk meg, ezrt ennek az elmletnek
az ismerete elengedhetetlen. Bemutattuk a konstruktivista pedaggiai
elvek gyakorlati implementciit is a (felsoktatsi) nyelvoktats terlet-
rl.
Megllapthatjuk, hogy amennyiben meg kvnunk felelni a 21. szza-
di kihvsoknak az oktatsban, akkor tanri mdszereink s tantsi gya-
korlatunk fellvizsglatra is szksg van. A nyelvoktats s szaknyelv-
tants megjtsnak tovbbi tjait pedig a szakmt s a nyelvet oktat
tanrok egyttmkdsben, innovatv tantsi formk alkalmazsban
(team-teaching, co-teaching, peer-tutoring) ltjuk.
A konstruktivizmus nagy ernye, hogy alternatvt knl a hagyom-
nyosan alkalmazott ismeretkzl vagy kompetenciafejleszt oktatsi pa-
radigmkkal szemben. A vlaszts szabadsga pedig elfelttele a
kongruens tanri magatartsnak. Msik nagy ernye, hogy a figyelmet
nem a tudsra, mint produktumra, hanem magra a tuds megszerzs-
nek folyamatra irnytotta (Jones- B. Araje, 2002). A tudskonstruls
folyamatnak ismeretben tbb lehetsg addik a vltoztatsra, a kor-
rekcira. A jv oktatsa egy megvltozott tanulsi krnyezetben, inno-
vatv, koopercira s nllan szablyozott tanulsi tevkenysgekre

165
alapozva fog mkdni, amelyben a tanr szerepe az lesz, hogy a tantst
eredmnyes tanulss transzformlja.

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***

168
 JASKN DR. GCSI MRIA

HAGYOMNYOK SOKSZNSGE, NEMZETI

IDENTITS, DRMAPEDAGGIA

Abstract

To develop our self-knowledge and personality, to

consider others, to understand and to listen to others are all
achievable with drama pedagogy. Its methods and tools are
suitable for creating empathy in children that can go towards
making up the core element of their psychological culture.
Drama pedagogy in todays competitive schools is a means
to making teaching a learner-centred process.
The cooperative techniques together with the use of
personal experience are one of the innovations of the
learning process.
The active participation and cooperation always result in a
product or in the creation of a product.

A 21. szzad trsadalma, a felgyorsult, globalizld vilg vltozsai

prbra teszik az emberek viselkedst, alkalmazkodkpessgt. A
jvre orientl, globlis dimenzik legitimcija meghatrozza a peda-
ggusok magatartst s a neveltekhez val viszonyt. A tnyek ismere-
tben elmondhatjuk, hogy komoly kihvsok eltt llnak a gyakorl s
leend pedaggusok, illetve a pedaggusokat kpz intzmnyek eg-
sze.
Melyek azok a kihvsok, amelyeknek meg kell feleljen a harmadik
vezred kszbn ll pedaggustrsadalom? Mit tehetnk annak rde-
kben, hogy az emberek rtkknt kezeljk a multikulturlis sokszns-
get, tovbb kialakuljon bennnk az interkulturlis kpessg ignye; a
kultrk egyenlsgnek rtelmezse? Mindezen kompetencik a peda-
ggiai gyakorlatban nem csupn a kisebbsg problmira val koncent-
rlst jelentik; hanem a tbbsgi trsadalomban egytt ltez tbbnyel,
sokkultrj, eltr valls emberek ignyeit is magban hordozza. A
klnbz kulturlis kontextusok meghatrozzk az emberek lett, ne-

169
veldst. (Torgyik, 2005.) Egyre inkbb fontoss vlik a nyelvi sokfle-
sg megrzse, s ezt az oktatsnak is segtenie kell. A nevels-oktats
rendszerben kiemelten fontos helyet kell, hogy kapjon a csoportok k-
ztti megrts erstse, a msik elfogadsa s tolerlsa. Ehhez pedig
az szksges, hogy a pedaggusok is rendelkezzenek a tolerancia k-
pessgvel (Palnkai, 2007.).
Napjainkban a technika gyors s igen ltvnyos fejldsvel a tuds
trsadalma talakulban van, elavultt vlik a hagyomnyos oktatsi
rendszer. Fiatalok, akik szmtgpekkel krlvve nnek fl, s az inter-
net csodival mr korn megismerkednek, a hagyomnyos iskolai kr-
nyezetet egyszeren termszetellenesknt lik meg. Hozzszoknak ah-
hoz, hogy krdseikkel ne a felnttekhez (szleikhez, tanraikhoz,
knyvtroshoz), hanem a hlzathoz forduljanak (Nyri, 2001, 120.). A
Nemzeti alaptanterv is kiemelten foglalkozik az IKT1 alkalmazsnak
lehetsgeivel az iskola falain bell:
A digitlis kompetencia a termszetnek, az IST2 szerepnek
s lehetsgeinek rtst, alapos ismerett jelenti a szemlyes
s trsadalmi letben, valamint a munkban. Magban foglalja a
fbb szmtgpes alkalmazsokat szvegszerkeszts, adat-
tblzatok, adatbzisok, informcitrols-kezels, az internet
ltal knlt lehetsgek s az elektronikus mdia tjn trtn
kommunikci (e-mail, hlzati eszkzk) a szabadid, az in-
formci megosztsa, az egyttmkd hlzatpts, a tanuls
s a kutats tern. Az egynnek rtenie kell, miknt segti az
IST a kreativitst s az innovcit, ismernie kell az elrhet in-
formci hitelessge s megbzhatsga krli problmkat, va-
lamint az IST interaktv hasznlathoz kapcsold etikai elveket.
(243/2003. (XII. 17.) Korm. rendelet).
Egyrtelm teht a parancs; olyan fiatalokat kell tnak indtani, akik
sikeres tanulsi stratgikkal a hlzatalap tanuls lehetsgeivel gy
tudnak lni, hogy megalapozzk a konstruktv letvezetst, az lethosz-
szig tart tanuls pedig termszetes letformjukk vlik. Az osztlytermi
interakcik vltozsai nem indokoljk, hogy a virtulis tanuls oly mr-
tkben trhdt legyen, melynek sorn a szocilis berendezkedsnk s
alapvet letvitelnk megvltozzon. (Falus, 2001.) Azok a pedaggusok,
akik lpst szeretnnek tartani dikjaikkal, akik szeretnk megrteni
ket, akik hatkony vlaszt akarnak adni a 21. szzad egyre komplexebb

1
Informcis s Kommunikcis Technolgik
2
Information Society Technology (az informcis trsadalom technolgii)

170
kihvsaira, nem hagyhatjk figyelmen kvl a korszer mdszertani
technikk alkalmazsi lehetsgeit (Kagan, 2004.).
Tudjuk azt is, hogy a pedaggus hivats gyakorlshoz klnfle
szemlyisgvonsok megltre s szakmai felkszltsgre van szksg.
Ahhoz, hogy tanraink megfeleljenek a korszer pedaggiai elvrsok-
nak, a kpzsk sorn kompetenss kell tenni ket abban, hogy a hiva-
ts gyakorlshoz nlklzhetetlen kszsgek birodalmban kpesek
legyenek gazdagtani mdszertani repertorjukat. Mihly Ildik sszell-
tsban olvashatjuk, hogy a pedaggus plya kulcsfontossg elemei
kztt szerepel tbbek kztt az nismeret, a kapcsolatpt kpessg, a
szaktrgyi tuds, a team munkra val alkalmassg. (Mihly, 2002.) Te-
ht a magasan kvalifiklt pedaggus kpes megbirkzni az egyre nvek-
v iskolai autonmia ltal tmasztott kvetelmnyekkel, tovbb megfelel
a multikulturlis nevels ignyeinek, ami komoly paradigmavltst hozott
a nevels terletn. Magval hozza a klnbz gondolkodsmdok
rtkknt val elfogadst, s amely egyszeren termszetesnek veszi a
mssgot. A multikulturlis oktats jellemzje az inkluzivits, magyarul a
befogads; befogad minden csoporttal szemben, amelybl senki sem
rekedhet ki, s amely mindenki szmra hasznos lehet (Torgyik, 2005,
33.). Drmapedaggusknt vallom, hogy a drma eszkzei, a sznhzi
konvencik alkalmazsa hozzsegti a kicsiket s nagyokat egyarnt a
bks egyttls megtapasztalshoz, az eltletes attitd cskken-
shez. Lesznyk-Czachesz kifejti, ha cskken az eltlet, akkor javul a
kapcsolat a csoportok kztt, melyet a kooperatv technikk alkalmaz-
snak ksznhetnk. Az jszer mdszerek hasznlatval a pedaggu-
sok olyan mankt adnak a neveltek kezbe, amellyel hossz tvon
konstruktvabban vezethetik az letket (Lesznyk-Czachesz, 1998.).

Drmapedaggia az rzelmi intelligencia szolglatban

Napjainkban a trsadalom s benne az emberek pszicholgiai kultu-

rltsga kvnnivalt hagy maga utn. Nagymrtk a feszltsg, a konf-
liktusok megoldsa nem megfelel. Hinyos a pszicholgiai kultra, ami
a kzssgeket megmerevti, az egyttls szablyai nem ismernek al-
ternatvkat, bntetnek minden elhajlst, esetleg mssgot.
A pszicholgiai kulturltsg egyik jele, ha az emberek tudatosan bele-
lik magukat a msik helyzetbe, gy az emberi klnbsgek thidalha-
tk. Tbb kutatsi eredmny rvilgt de htkznapi szhasznlatban
is megfogalmazdik , hogy vilgunkban az emptia mrtke csekly, s
kros kvetkezmnyei rezhetk az interperszonlis kapcsolatokban. Az
emberek eltvolodtak egymstl, alacsony az emptiaszintjk. Nem lik
t kapcsolataikat kell egyttrzssel, s ez a tny megmutatkozik az

171
emberek magnleti viszonyrendszerben, munkahelyeken s a trsada-
lom egyb kzssgeiben. A ma emberre rfrne, hogy emptis k-
pessgeit fejlesszk (Benedek, 1992.). El kell fogadni a szlknek, pe-
daggusoknak a gyerek egynisgt, gy megalapozdhat egy olyan
nemzedk, amely mr nagyfok emptival rendelkezik. Az emptis
kpessg mr felttelez egy olyan interperszonlis kapcsolati kpess-
get, ami minden korosztlyban kimutathat.
Milyen eszkzk llnak a pedaggusok rendelkezsre, hogy a pszic-
holgiai kulturltsg magvt kpez emptit kifejlesszk a gyermekek-
ben?
nismeretnk fejldse, a msikra val odafigyels, a trs meghallga-
tsa, megrtse a szemlyisg fejlesztse a drmapedaggia mdszere-
ivel elrhet. Eszkzrendszere alkalmas arra, hogy a pszicholgiai kultu-
rltsg magvt kpez emptit kifejlesszk a gyermekekben. A drma-
pedaggia fontos, kzponti eleme a jtkossg. A jtk a gyermeket leg-
inkbb fejleszt tevkenysg. Mindent, amit a vilgrl megtud, mindent,
amit a vilgnak feltr nmagbl, azt a jtkon keresztl teszi. A jtk
nkntesen vlasztott, pozitv rzelmekkel ksrt tevkenysg, mely n-
magban hordja cljt, s sokoldalan alaktja a szemlyisget, tovbb
az lmnyszerzs, a tapasztalatszerzs, az ismereteknek, klnbz
tudselemeknek az elsajttsa mind a jtkon, a cselekvsen keresztl
trtnik. Ez a megismers, a fejlds tja.
Ha a jtk rtelmezsben visszatekintnk, lthatjuk, hogy a XIX.
szzadban megjelen jtkelmletek milyen eltr mdon fogalmaztk
meg a jtk lnyegt. Vizsgltk a jtkot eszttikai szempontok szerint
s biolgiai megkzeltsben. Mivel a jtknak sok meghatroz s spe-
cilis lelki sszetevje van, termszetesnek mondhat, hogy helyet kap
szmos pszicholgiai elmletben, s minthogy a gyermek letben a
jtknak jval nagyobb, mondhatni dnt jelentsge van, a legtbb
pszicholgiai elkpzels a jtkrl a fejldsllektan terletn szletett.
Ezek kzl is kiemelkedik Piaget koncepcija, melyben a jtk s az r-
telmi fejlds sszefggst trgyalja. Ebben kifejti, hogy a gyermek a
kezdeti idszakban egy vgyvezrelt, autisztikus belltds vilgban l.
Ebbl a helyzetbl alakul ki a kls krlmnyek hatsra az a kt vilg,
amelyek egyike, a jtk s fantzia vilga az rmelv uralma alatt ll,
mg a msik, amely idvel egyre inkbb eltrbe kerl, a felnttek relis
vilga, mely a valsgelvnek megfelelen mkdik. Piaget elkpzelst
ezrt a "kt vilg elmletnek" is nevezik. A pszichoanalzis eredmnyei
a jtk jelensgnek egy msik aspektust trjk fel: a jtk s az r-
zelmek viszonyt. Amint azt mr a jtk lnyegi sajtossgainak trgya-
lsnl rintettem, a jtk feszltsgcskkent funkcijval legelszr
Freud foglalkozott. maga ugyan nem alkotott kln jtkelmletet, de

172
esettanulmnyaival elindtotta a jtk tovbbi analitikus orientcij vizs-
glatt. A jtkot gy tekintette, mint az rmelv s a realitselv tkz-
sbl szrmaz feszltsg kreatv feldolgozst. (Ez az elkpzelse ro-
konsgot mutat a piaget-i kt vilg-terival.) A jtk ezen elaborcis
funkcijra alapoznak az analitikus jtkterpik is. Mrei V. Bint,
1983.)
Erik Erikson szemlletben a jtk a tapasztalatszerzs gyermeki
formja, amely nagy teret, szabadsgot s a kvetkezmnyektl val
relatv mentessget biztost a jtsz szemlynek ahhoz, hogy szmos
helyzetben kiprblhassa magt, s ktetlenl azonosulhasson klnb-
z trgyakkal s emberekkel. Mivel a jtkban nagymrtkben fggetle-
nthetjk magunkat a realitstl, az mdot nyjt arra, hogy ideiglenesen
flbe kerekedjnk a trnek, idnek, oksgnak s trsadalmi szksg-
szersgnek (Benedek, 1992.).
Ahogy fentebb emltettem, a jtk filozfiai jelentsgv vlt. Mr
nemcsak a gyermeki tevkenysgformk egyike, hanem elfogadjuk ki-
emelt szerept a gyermek fejldsben s fejlesztsnek lehetsgei
kztt is. A legfontosabb, hogy a jtk teszi lthatv az rzelmi ktd-
seket, a viselkeds s az rtelmi kpessgek egysgt, pl. a viselkeds-
kontroll terletn a ksleltets kpessgt, vagy a problmamegolds
terletn a helyzetfelismerst. Ezek a funkcik a trsakkal val jtkban
vlnak meghatrozv, ott emelik ki legjobban a kompetencia hinyokat.
A felnttel val pros jtkban ez sokszor rejtve marad. A jtk a legjobb
diagnosztikai eszkz mind pedaggiai, mind pszicholgiai rtelemben.
Jelzi a mindenkori rettsg szintjt is, s itt elssorban az iskolra val
rettsgre kell gondolnunk, az rsi folyamat brmely terletre, pl. a
mozgsra, a beszdre, a finommotoros koordincira, a tri tjkozds-
ra, a viselkedsszervezsre s az rzelmi-akarati jellemzkre. Nyugodt
szvvel kijelenthetjk, hogy kzs funkcii vannak minden fejldsi terlet
vonatkozsban. (Bettelheim, 2003.)
A jtk els pillantsra gy fest, mint valami intermezzja a
mindennapi letnek, szabadid-tevkenysg, dls. De mivel
szablyosan visszatr vltozatossg ksrje, st kiegsztje,
rsze lesz az letnek. Dszti azt, kiegszti, nlklzhetetlen az
egyn szmra, mint biolgiai funkci. Nlklzhetetlen a k-
zssg szmra bels tartalma, rtelme, jelentsge s kifejez
rtke, tovbb azok miatt a szellemi s trsadalmi kapcsolatok
miatt, amelyeket ltrehoz. A kifejezs s egyttls lmnyeit
valstja meg. Rendet teremt, st maga a rend. A tkletlen vi-
lgba s zavaros letbe idleges s elhatrolt tkletessget
visz be. (Nagy Ranschburg Szakcs Trnokin, 2005, 55.)

173
 Ezek a sorok nem mai keletek, magyar nyelven elszr 1944-ben je-
lentek meg. ,,Huizingaszavai, aki elsnek lpett tl azon a vlemnyen,
hogy a jtkot rszjelensgnek tekintse, s csak szk magyarzatt ad-
ja. Nevhez fzdik a ,,homo ludens, a jtsz ember fogalma. mondta
ki elsnek, hogy a jtk biolgiai funkci, ugyanakkor az is kitnik az
rsbl, hogy trsas funkciknt s kulturlis funkciknt egyarnt sz-
mon tartja. (Benedek, 1992.) Ami ebbl a laikus szmra rthet lehet,
az a fontos felismers, hogy a jtk rmszerz, tagol funkcija kiemel-
kedik a tbbi kzl. Ezt az intenzv rmszerzst a felntt is rezheti sa-
jt hobbijaiban, felntt jtkaiban, a malom-, a domin-, a rmi-, s a
bridzs jtszmk sorn, s termszetesen akkor is, ha brmely kor
gyermeke mell lel s beleli magt a jtsz kisgyermek rzelemvil-
gba, azonosul a kpzetramls rzelmi-gondolati egysgvel
(Bettelheim, 2003.).

Kulturlis rtkegyenlsg, hagyomnyrzs, projektmdszer

Albert Einstein szerint a tuds tapasztals, minden ms csak infor-

mci. Az elmleti rkon szerzett ismeretek gyakorlati alkalmazsa,
tapasztals nlkl csak informcit jelentenek az ember szmra. Eb-
bl kiindulva, a pedaggusoknak a hagyomnyos mdszerek alkalmaz-
sa mellett kiemelten fontos figyelmet kell szentelnie a kooperatv techni-
kk alkalmazsi lehetsgeire. Ezek a mdszerek vilgszerte ismerete-
sek a pedaggusok krben, hiszen alkalmazsukkal jelentsen nvel-
het a tanulk iskolai teljestmnye; a szocilis kompetencik fejlesztse
tern rendkvl hatkonynak bizonyulnak. A tanulsszervezs jtsai
kztt elkel helyet foglalnak el a kooperatv technikk. Alkalmazsuk a
tanulk szemlyes tapasztalatainak felhasznlsval egytt trtnik. Az
aktv rszvtel s a kzs egyttmkds eredmnye mindig egy pro-
duktum, vagy valamilyen termk ltrehozsa. Kvethetv vlik a gyer-
mek szmra, hogy a megszerzett tudst mire tudja hasznlni, vagyis
hozzjrul az nismerethez, a relis nkpnek a kialaktshoz. Itt
emltem meg, hogy a projektmdszer komplex s interdiszciplinris jelle-
gnl fogva kpes a tanulkat a feladatok megoldsa sorn a kzss-
grt felelssget rz egynn formlni; ahogy azt W. Kilpatrik 1919-
ben, J. Dewey elvei alapjn megfogalmazta. (M. Ndasi, 2003.)
Ezzel a mdszerrel vodapedaggus hallgatk szmra szervezett
mvszi projekt bemutatst szeretnm ismertetni. Tmja a hagyo-
mnyrzs volt, melyet a drmapedaggia eszkzeivel kvntam megva-
lstani.
Nemcsak gazdag folklrismeretre tesznek szert a hallgatk, hanem
tevkenysg kzben tapasztalhatjk meg a kooperatv technikkat. A

174
kzs dramatizls olyan lmnnyel ajndkozza meg a rsztvevket,
mely sorn megtapasztaljk milyen az pt egymsrautaltsg.
(Gabnai, 1993.) A projekt kerettmja a hagyomnyaink ismerete, np-
szoksaink feleleventse mellett, a kzs dramatizls fzisainak meg-
ismertetse, a kivlasztott nnepkr cselekmnyvz elemeinek elksz-
tse is szerepelt. Az elkszts sorn a tudatosan tgondolt rsosan
dokumentlt forgatknyv a megfelel szereposztssal, valamint a ha-
gyomnyismereti naptr elksztsvel a projekt sszetett alkotss vlt.
A megfelel szakirodalmak felhasznlsa a magyar np hiedelemvilg-
nak megismersre, npi gyermekjtkok gyjtsre, npszoksok ta-
nulmnyozsra, a npviselet s a kellkek felkutatsra motivlta a
hallgatkat. (1. bra)
Az elkszletek sorn, valamint a gyakorlati foglalkozsok alkalm-
val a hagyomnyoknak megfelel dszletek megtervezse, kivitelezse
rendkvl krltekinten s szervezetten zajlott. A hasznlati trgyak, az
telek, a viselet, a zenei anyag sszelltsa, illetve az egyes szoksok-
hoz tartoz tncok s mozgsok begyakorlsa, ellltsa nagyon gon-
dos s sszehangolt kooperatv munkt ignyelt a csoportoktl s tagjai-
tl egyarnt. (2. bra)
A sikeres megvalsts rdekben a pontos tervezs elengedhetetlen.
Ennek lnyeges elemei a vlasztott nnepkrhz kapcsold sznjtk
szvegknyvnek sszelltsa, valamint a helyszn kialaktsa, dszle-
tek kivitelezse. Magtl rtetdik, hogy ennek a projektnek a kzponti
elemei a beszd s mozgs, illetve a tnc. A hallgatk arra rendezkedtek
be, hogy sajt s nmaguk beszde, mozgsa tkrzze az adott nnep-
kr s hagyomny hangulatvilgt. (3., 4. brk)

175
 1. bra: Betlehemezs

2. bra: Hsvti tojsok festse

176
3. bra: Szreti mulatsg

4. bra: Pnksdls

177
 A klcsns tiszteletre alapozott egyttmkds a szocilis kompe-
tencik fejlesztse tern az ismeretek elsajttsa konstruktv, alkot
mdon valsulhatott meg; hiszen a csoport sikere az egyni munka
eredmnyeknt jhetett ltre. Egy ilyen hossz tv, sikeresen kivitele-
zett projekt sorn a proszocilis viselkeds kompetencii hozhatk hely-
zetbe. Hangslyozom a segtsgnyjtst, msok vlemnynek, gondo-
latmenetnek elfogadst, az emptia, a klcsns tisztelet gyakorlst,
a szervezsirnyts s az rtkels formit. A tants helyett a tapaszta-
lati tanuls aktivizldott, s a tanr tmogat, koordinl, tanulst seg-
t, a dikokkal kzsen kutat szerepbe lpett.

sszegzs

A mai ember letben nehz meghatrozni a hagyomnyok helyt,

szerept, fontossgt. Egy trsadalom identitsa sszefgg azzal, hogy
milyen mrtk a hagyomny polsa, a kulturlis rksg vdelme. A
folklr megrzsvel s kzvettsvel kzelthetjk az egyes npcso-
portokat egymshoz; polsval konstruktvabban viszonyulhatunk ms
npek kulturlis rtkeihez (Voigt, 2005.).
A projekt zrsaknt megfogalmazott hallgati vlemnyeket sum-
mzva elmondhatom, hogy tettnk egy lpst a magyar kulturlis rk-
sg vdelme rdekben a nphagyomnyok feleleventsvel s kzl-
svel. gy vlem, ez olyan rtket kpvisel hazai s hatron tli hallga-
tk, leend pedaggusok krben, mellyel a magyar kulturlis sokszn-
sg megismerhetv vlik. Meggyzdsem, hogy az rsomban bemu-
tatott projekt hatkonyan tmogatja a hatrainkon tvel kulturlis kom-
munikcit.
A drmapedaggia s eszkzrendszere kpes kipteni az emberek-
ben az interkulturlis kpessg ignyt nemzetek s klnbz kultrk
kztt. Ugyanakkor nagyon fontos, hogy a drmapedaggus ismerje el;
csak a demokratikus vezetsi mdok rvnyesek. Ugyancsak fontos,
hogy a drmapedaggusnak mindig legyen ignye sznjtkos dramatur-
giai tanulmnyokat folytatni s szeressen, tudjon jtszani.

Felhasznlt irodalom

Benedek Lszl (1992): Jtk s pszichoterpia. Magyar Pszichitriai

Trsasg, Bp., 1992. Mi a jtk s mi nem? 15-29., 38-40. ISBN
963 8666 900
Bruno Bettelheim (2003): A jtk: hd a valsghoz. In: Az elg j szl.
Cartaphilus Kiad Bp., 2003. 224-234. ISBN 963 9303 76 3

178
Falus Ivn (2001): A gyakorlat pedaggija. In: Golnhofer Erzsbet s
Nahalka Istvn (szerk.): A pedaggusok pedaggija. Nemzeti
Tanknyvkiad, Bp., 2001, 65-83. p. ISBN 963 970 464
Gabnai Katalin (1993): Drmajtkok. Magyar Drmapedaggiai Trsa-
sg Bp., 1993. ISBN 963-8457-01-5
Jonothan Neelands (1994): Drma a tanuls szolglatban Magyar Dr-
mapedaggiai Trsasg Bp., 1994. ISBN-963-8457-05-8
Lesznyk Mrta, Czachesz Erzsbet (1998): Multukulturlis oktatspoliti-
kai koncepcik. Mozaik Oktatsi Stdi, Szeged, 1998, 13p. ISBN
963-05-7992-8.
M. Ndasi Mria (2003): Projektoktats. Gondolat Kiadi Kr, Bp., 2003.
ISBN 9639500631.
Mrei Ferenc V. Bint gnes (1983): Gyermekllektan. Gondolat, Bp.,
1983, 122-134. p. ISBN 9632809734
Mihly Ildik (szerk.): A pedagguskpzs s a pedaggus letplya az
lethosszig tart tanuls korban. j Pedaggiai Szemle, 4. 2002.
Nagy Jenn - Ranschburg Jen - Szakcs Mihlyn - Trnokin Jo
Ildik (2005): vnk Kincsestra. RAABE, 2005.
Nyri Kristf (2001): Az rsbelisgrl s nhny mdiumrl. In: Bres
Istvn Hornyi zsb (szerk.): Trsadalmi kommunikci. Osiris,
Bp., 2001, 117-128.
Palnkai Tibor (2007): A globlis talakuls kihvsai- elkerlhetk-e a
kataklizmk? Magyar Tudomny, 2. sz. 2007, 204-225.
Spencer Kagan (2004): Kooperatv tanuls. konet Kiad, Bp., 2004.
ISBN 9632166598;
Torgyik Judit (2005): Fejezetek a mulikulturlis nevelsrl. Etvs Jzsef
Kiad Bp., 2005, 33. p. ISBN 963 7338 26 8
Voigt Vilmos (2005): Magyar folklr szveggyjtemny. Osiris, Bp., 2005.
ISBN 978 963 87785 1 2
http://www.nefmi.gov.hu/letolt/kozokt/nat_070926.pdf Letltve: 2014.
jnius 22. 8:21

***

179
 TTH VA VINCZE MRIA

SIKEREK S KUDARCOK: EGY ANYANYELVI

HALLSRTSI VIZSGLAT TANULSGAI

Abstract

At present the Tmop 4.1.2.D-12/1/KONV 2012-0002' pro-

ject is underway at Eszterhazy Kroly College. The main ob-
jective of the project is to develop the students' foreign lan-
guage skills such as listening, speaking, reading and writing.
As a part of the Tmop 4.1.2.D-12/1/KONV' project a subpro-
ject is also ongoing entitled 'Success and Failure'. As a part of
the 'Success and Failure' subproject, research was carried out
on the listening skills of the students. The goal of the research
is to obtain information on students' problems, difficulties,
strengths and weaknesses concerning listening comprehen-
sion. The students were asked to do a listening test in their na-
tive language, that is in Hungarian. In the paper the authors
provide some theoretical background to teaching and studying
listening skills, and present and analyse the results of the re-
search. Some of the students' opinons on listening compre-
hension can also be read in the paper.

Bevezets

A hallsrtsi feladatok fontosak szmomra, megmutatja, hogy

mennyire j a memrim.
(EKF zleti szaknyelvet tanul hallgat)

A hallsrtsi feladat nem tartozik a kedvencem kz

(EKF idegenforgalmi szaknyelvet tanul hallgat)

A fenti kt hallgati vlemny sommsan sszefoglalja az idegen

nyelv hallsrtsi feladattal kapcsolatos nyelvtanuli vlemnyeket, n-

180
zeteket. Hogyan tovbb? Kell ezzel foglalkoznunk, vagy szksgtelen?
krdezhetnnk.
Mai vilgunkban, amikor lpten-nyomon azzal tallkozunk, hogy nem
elg az anyanyelv ismerete, hanem kt-hrom idegen nyelv elsajttsa
szksges, esetenknt elengedhetetlen ahhoz, hogy a
nemzetkzieseds korszakban megtalljuk a helynket az letben, s
jl tudjunk boldogulni a vilgban. Mindez kihvs s feladat a felsoktat-
si intzmnyek hallgati szmra is.
A nemzetkzieseds elterjedse, a klfldi tanulsi lehetsgek mind
mind megkvetelik a hasznlhat idegen nyelvtudst, melynek egyik
alapvet eleme, hogy megrtsk, amit mondanak, amit hallunk vagy ol-
vasunk. A beszdrts s hallsrts is egy olyan nyelvi kompetencia,
amelyet fejlesztennk kell ahhoz, hogy nyelvtudsunk hasznlhat le-
gyen. Mindez termszetes, ha idegen nyelv tanulsrl van sz, de az
anyanyelvnk esetben alig van r plda.
Az Eszterhzy Kroly Fiskoln a Tmop 4.1.2. D-12/1/KONV 2012-
0002 plyzat keretben lehetsg nylott arra, hogy megvizsgljuk hall-
gatinknl a magyar anyanyelvi hallsrtsi kompetencit. Anyanyelvi
hallsrtsre viszonylag ritkn kerl sor, klnsen idegen nyelv tant-
sa/tanulsa kapcsn, ezrt hallgatink kzl sokan meglepnek talltk
a feladatot. Voltak olyan hallgati vlemnyek is, amelyek jl megfogal-
maztk e-feladatnak a fontossgt, jelentsgt.
Utoljra az ltalnos iskolban csinltunk magyar halls
utni szvegrtst. Vlemnyem szerint fontos a halls utni
kompetencia-mrs. A kommunikci alapja a msikra val
odafigyels. Sokan nem kpesek erre vagy csak felletesen fi-
gyelnek vagy nem rtik meg a msikat. (ltalnos angol nyelvet
tanul hallgat)
A magyar hallsrtsi feladat nagyon tetszett, gy gondo-
lom, elszr mindenkinek a sajt anyanyelvn kellene ilyet kitl-
teni, s csak ezutn elkezdeni a felkszlst az idegen nyelv
hallsrtsre. Az anyanyelvi hallsrtsi feladat stresszold, hi-
szen rtjk a szveget, csupn tudni kell szelektlni, kiemelni a
lnyeget. Knnyebb, mint idegen nyelvbl, ezrt sokat segthet
abban is, hogy idegen nyelven is jl teljestsk ezt a feladatot.
(zleti angolt tanul hallgat)
Jelen tanulmnyunkban a hallsrtsi kszsg/kompetencia elmleti
httert s a magyar anyanyelvi hallsrts vizsglat eredmnyeit kvn-
juk bemutatni.

181
 A hallsrts kszsg elmleti httere (Vincze Mria)

E tanulmnyban nem feladatunk a hallsrts kszsgre vonatkoz

elmleti ismeretek teljeskr lersa, de azt fontosnak tartjuk, hogy a
hallsrts vizsglat elmleti httert rviden bemutassuk. Az elmleti
httr ismeretek sszelltsakor az a gyakorlati elv vezrelt bennnket,
hogy a kell fantzival s elszntsggal rendelkez nyelvtanr koll-
gknak kzzel foghat tmpontokat adjunk, amennyiben a hallsrts
fejlesztsre vllalkoznak a tanrkon.
A nyelvi kszsgek felosztsa napjainkra mr megvltozott: az egykor
ismert aktv s passzv kszsgek elklntse a mgttk meghzd
bonyolult kognitv folyamatok miatt nem helytll. Megfelelnek tnik
helyette Brdos (2011:104) nyomn hrom integrlt kszsgrl rts,
kzls, kzvetts beszlni (ld. 1. bra).

1. bra: A hrom integrlt kszsg (A nyelvi kszsgek hrom f kategrija)

Az rts mint kszsg klnsen fontos legyen a szveg rott vagy

hallott , mivel tbbek kztt a tanulsi folyamat rszt kpezi. A hallott
s az rott szveg rtse bizonyos rtelemben egymssal prhuzamba is
llthat: ugyanannak a szvegnek a hallsrts az akusztikus, az olva-
sott szveg rtse a vizulis vltozatra pl. A prhuzamba llts azrt
jogos, mert a kt kszsg alapvet komponenseikben bizonyos hasonl-
sgot mutat: mindkt esetben szksges a fonolgiai tudatossg, a sz-
felismer s szelemz kpessg, a szkincs gazdagsga, az rtelme-
zs, azaz a tartalomnak s a kzlsi szndknak a megrtse, ugya-
nakkor az rott szveg rtse sorn megjelenik a pontos, gyors s kifeje-
z olvass is (Tindall, E.Nisbet, D., 2010), mg a hallsrtsnl a be-
szd szlelse, a beszdpercepci szerepel.

182
 A hallsrts lehet interaktv s nem interaktv attl fggen, hogy mi-
lyen mdon vesznk rszt a kommunikciban: hallgatknt s beszl-
knt egyarnt (pl. dialgus) vagy csak hallgatknt (pl. rdihallgats).
gy vlik rthetv, hogy mi a klnbsg a hallsrts s a beszdrts
kztt: ez utbbi csak a trsalgsban interaktvan rszvev beszl-
hallgat rtsi folyamataira utal, s gy leszkti a hallsrts fogalmt,
mg a hallsrts minden hallott szveg rtst magban foglalja. Mi a
hallsrts (halls utni szvegrts) terminust hasznljuk munknkban,
ezzel kvnunk foglalkozni.
A halls utni szvegrtsnek szmos modelljt ismeri a szakiroda-
lom (pl. motoros modell, aktv-passzv modell, kohort modell, Ellis s
Young szfeldolgozsi modellje stb. v. Sznt, 2013). Gsy Mria
(Gsy, 2005:147-9) hierarchikus felpts modellje (2. bra) bizonyos
rtelemben tjelzl szolglhat a hallsrts fejlesztst clz gyakor-
latok sszelltshoz. A beszdszlels szintjn a nyelv formlis oldal-
ra sszpontostunk, hogy a hasonl hangzs hangokat, fonmkat,
morfmkat, szavakat (a szavak hangzst) kpesek legynk megkln-
bztetni. A beszdmegrts szintje utal a szemantikai s szintaktikai
elemzsek oda-vissza irnyul kapcsolatra, majd az asszocicik megje-
lensvel jutunk el az rtelmezsig. A modell sugallja a fentebb emltett
sszetevk rszkszsgeit s kisebb elemeit, amelyek fejlesztse hozz-
jrulhat a hallsrts fejldshez: a helyes kiejts, a hangok felismerse,
elklntse, a hangsly, a ritmus, az intonci, a hangz formk vltoz-
sai/vltozatai, a sztvek s az agglutinatv magyar nyelv esetben a
toldalkok elklntse, a szrendi mintk ismerete anyanyelven (ameny-
nyiben idegen nyelvrl van sz, idegen nyelven is), a hallott szveg koh-
zis eszkzeinek azonostsa, a szkincsnk nagysga, a httrismere-
tnk a tmrl, amelyrl a szveg szl, stb. mind fontos eleme a hallsr-
tsnek.

183
 2. bra: A hallsrts hierarchikus felpts modellje (Gsy, 2005:148)

A nyelvpedaggiban jl ismert a Brdos-fle hromszint modell is

(3.bra), amely annyiban tr el az imnt vzolt modelltl, hogy a megr-
ts folyamatban szmol a kommunikcis helyzetre jellemz tnyezk-
kel is:

3. bra: Hallsrts: a hromszint modell (Brdos, 2011:113)

A halls utni szvegrtsnek a nem interaktv tpusra trnk ki b-

vebben, mivel az osztlytermi hallsrts fejlesztse sorn vlheten e
fajtk szerepelnek nagyobb gyakorisggal, legyen sz anyanyelvi vagy
akr idegen nyelvi kszsgfejlesztsrl br az anyanyelvi rk s/vagy
tananyagok az orszgos s nemzetkzi mrsek (pl. PISA stb.)1 ered-
mnye tkrben vlheten hagynak mg maguk utn kvnnivalt. (To-
vbbi informci a felmrsekrl: Orszgos kompetenciamrs Orsz-
gos jelents
https://www.kir.hu/okmfit/ , PISA mrsek eredmnye
http://www.oktatas.hu/kozneveles/meresek/pisa/pisa_2012_meres,
valamint clnyelvi mrsek
http://www.oktatas.hu/kozneveles/meresek/celnyelvi_meres/lebonyolitas)

A nem interaktv halls utni szvegrts tpusai:

intenzv hallsrts: a hallott szveg minden kis rszletre (han-
gok stb.) figyelnk,

1
Br e mrsek a nyelvi kszsgek kzl alapveten a szvegrtst veszik clba, azon-
ban hasonlsga a hallsrtssel lehetv teszi, hogy utaljunk a mrsek eredmny-
re.

184
 globlis (extenzv) hallsrts: a hallott szveg ltalnos megr-
tse a cl (pl. a trtnet elmeslse),
szelektv hallsrts: adott szempont rszlet rdekel bennnket
(pl. a szereplk jellemzse), idesorolhat a szvegrtsbl is mr
ismert 'skimming' (a legfbb tartalmi pontok krli tmrts) s a
'scanning' (az adott tartalmi rszlet tbbszri elfordulsnak k-
vetse),
informcitranszfer: tkp. a szvegrts mlysgnek ellenrzse
(pl. rajz ksztse a hallott szveg alapjn).

Milyen nehzsgekkel szembeslhet a nyelvet tanul egy szituci-

ban, amelyben a hallsrts jtssza a f szerepet? E krdst rszben
mr megvlaszoltuk fentebb, amikor a vizsglt kszsg komponenseirl
rtunk (beszdpercepci, fonolgiai tudatossg, szfelismer s sz-
elemz kpessg, gazdag szkincs, az rtelmezs, azaz a tartalomnak
s a kzlsi szndknak a megrtse).
Kiegsztskppen most az albbi pldval szemlltetjk a lerottakat:
Kpzeljk el, hogy az utcn valaki megkrdezi, hogyan jut el a Hsk
terre.

Hallsrtsnl nehzsget jelenthet:

maga a beszl (p. hadar; rossz, pontatlan a kiejtse),
a hallgat (nem tudja az tvonalat a Hsk terig; nem rti a kr-
dst),
a kommunikcis csatorna (pl. nagy a zaj az utcn)
s maga a szituci (pl. nincs/van trkp; a beszdszndk fel-
mrse).

Szmos pldt lehetne hozni ilyen s hasonl helyzetekre, kiemelve a

pragmatika jelentsgt is. A szituci megrtsben alkalmazhat egy
un. kompenzcis stratgia (jelen pldnkban ez a trkp meglte), ami
a szituciban thidalhatja akr a beszl, akr a vlaszad rszrl
felmerlt nehzsget, azaz a trkp segtsgvel helyettesthet a ver-
blis krds, st maga a hangz vlasz is.
Hasonl kompenzcis stratgikra szksg van nyelvi szinten is, s
lpten-nyomon folyamodunk is ilyen technikkhoz, amikor kptelenek
vagyunk a megfelel mdon rtelmezni a hallott szveget: igyeksznk a
nem (jl) hallott nyelvi egysgeket (hangokat, szavakat stb.) a szveg s
a szituci egysgbl kikvetkeztetni, pontostani, vagy httrtud-
sunkbl elhvni azokat a mr meglv trgyi ismereteket, amelyek a
tmhoz kapcsoldnak, s gy ptoljuk a nem hallott/nem rtett, szerte-

185
foszl szvegrszeket, hogy vgl megrtsk, rtelmezni tudjuk a sz-
veg tartalmt (ld. a 2. brt).
A szkincs a szavak, mint nyelvi elemek vgtelen halmaza. Azok al-
kotjk a mondatokat, amelyeket az rts sorn szemantikailag s szin-
taktikailag elemznk. Minl gazdagabb a szkincsnk, annl knnyebben
trtnik ez a feldolgozs, gyorsabban zajlik a sztvek s a toldalkok
elklntse (Peacock, 2001, idzi Bacsa, 2012:171), s vlheten a me-
mrinkbl is knnyebben elhvhatak a szavak (van minek eljnni,
mg egy szegnyes szkincs esetn kevsb), s nem utolssorban a
nagyobb szkincs tbbfle asszocicira ad lehetsget, azaz maga az
asszocici is knnyebb. A szkincset pedig sok-sok olvasssal fejleszt-
hetjk.
A bemutatsra kerl felmrs magyar anyanyelvi beszlkkel k-
szlt. A hallsrtst az anyanyelvi beszlkn tl azonban szemllhetjk
az idegen nyelvi hallsrts tekintetben is, ezrt rdekes megvizsglni
az anyanyelvi s az idegen nyelvi kszsgek egymsra hatst.
Egyes kutatk (Sparks, Patton, Ganschow, Humbach s Javorsky,
2008, valamint Sparks, Patton, Ganschow s Humbach, 2009) sajt
kvetkeztetseikre s szakirodalmi pldkra hivatkozva fogalmaztk
meg, hogy az idegen nyelv tanulsnak sikeressgben az anyanyelvi
kszsgek fejlettsge meghatroz jelentsggel br (idzi Somin,
2011). Longitudinlis vizsglataikban a vizsglati alanyok iskolba lp-
stl kezdden tz ven keresztl kvettk nyomon a tanulk nyelvi
fejldst, s hasonltottk ssze az anyanyelvi kszsgek fejlettsgt az
idegennyelv-tanuls kezdetekor (kilencedik vfolyam elejn) felvett
nyelvrzk-mrseknek, valamint az egy-kt vnyi idegennyelv-tanuls
utni L2-mrseknek az eredmnyeivel (v. Somin, 2011:59). Sparks
s Ganschow megllaptst, mely szerint az anyanyelv elsajttsa biz-
tostja az alapot az idegen nyelv(ek) megtanulshoz a ksbbiekben,
szmos kutat vizsglata igazolta. (Tnczos, 2006:5) Kutatsaik az n.
Nyelvi kdolsi klnbsg hipotzis (Lingustic Coding Differences
Hypothesis, LCDH, v. GanschowSparksJavorsky, 1998) megfogal-
mazshoz is elvezettek, amely tbbek kztt megllaptja, hogy a
nyelvet alkot sszetevk (pldul fonolgia, ortogrfia, szintaktika, de
nem a szemantika) brmelyikvel kapcsolatos nehzsg negatvan befo-
lysolja mind az anya-, mind az idegen nyelv tanulst (v. Tnczos,
2006:5). Ez azt jelenti a gyakorlatban, hogy a nyelvet alkot sszetevk
ismerett, kszsg szintjn trtn felismerst s hasznlatt fejleszt
feladattpusok klns tekintettel a fonolgiai, ortogrfiai s szintaktikai
jelensgekre nagyban hozzjrulhatnak mind az anyanyelvi, mind az
idegen nyelvi kszsgek, gy a hallsrts fejldshez is.

186
 Ez az sszefggs vlheten a nyelvrzkkel ll szoros kapcsolatban
(nem vletlenl mrtk azt is), hiszen a szakemberek rmutattak, hogy a
nyelvtanuls sikeressgnek leghatkonyabb elrejelzje tovbbra is
konzisztensen a nyelvrzk. (Skehan, 1989; Carroll, 1990; Parry s
Child, 1990; Ott, 2003) idzi Tnczos (2006:4). Ez a nyelvrzkkel
kapcsolatos llspont nem azt mutatja meg, hogy meg tudunk-e tanulni
valamely idegen nyelvet (gyakran ugyanis a htkznapokban helytelenl
ezt gondoljk nyelvrzknek), hanem azt vetti elre, hogy milyen gyor-
san haladunk a nyelvi kszsgeink fejlesztsben (anyanyelven is s az
idegennyelv-tanulsban is) a megfelelen megvlasztott felttelekkel
(tananyag, tanulsi stratgik stb.), a megfelel motivcival s kitarts-
sal.
A nyelvrzkkel foglalkoz kutatk llspontja egyntetnek tekinthe-
t a nyelvrzket alkot kpessgek meghatrozsban: a nyelvrzket
alkot tbb fggetlen kpessg hrom nagy csoportba oszthat: mem-
ria-, auditv s analitikai kpessgek. (Ott 1996, idzi Tnczos 2006:3).
A Harvard Egyetem kutati mr a 20. szzad 50-es veiben megllap-
tottk s ez az llspont mig szinte alig vltozott , hogy a nyelvelsaj-
tts ngy, egymstl fggetlen kpessgbl ll, ezek az albbiak:

a kdolsi kpessg (a hangok megklnbztetse s a ksbbi

felidzskhz szksges kdolsa),
a grammatikai rzkenysg (kpessg arra, hogy knnyen felis-
merjk a szavak mondatokban betlttt szerept, tkp. nyelvi
elemzst vgznk),
az induktv nyelvtanulsi kpessg (kpesek vagyunk fleg ide-
gen nyelv esetben az adott nyelv struktrjt meghatroz
szablyokat kikvetkeztetni),
s vgl kpessg az anyanyelv s a clnyelv szavai kztti kap-
csolatok megteremtsre (v. Tnczos 2006:4).

A nyelvrzkrl tett megllaptsok biztatak lehetnek, hiszen kpe-

sek vagyunk mind a memrinkat, mind az auditv, mind az analitikai
kpessgnket fejleszteni, klnsen, ha erre irnyul feladatokat, gya-
korlatokat vgznk.

187
 Magyar anyanyelvi hallsrtsi vizsglat (Tth va)

A vizsglat / kutats bemutatsa:

A Tmop 4.1.2.D -12/1 KONV 2012-0002 plyzat keretben a hallga-

ti kszsgek vizsglatnl sor kerlt egy magyar anyanyelvi hallsrtsi
vizsglat lebonyoltsra.
A hallsrtsi vizsglat szakmai anyagt Dr. Brdos Jen professzor
ksztette. A szakmai anyag az albbiakat tartalmazza:

A magyar anyanyelvi hallsrtsi feladat lersa

Krdsek a magyar anyanyelvi hallsrtsi feladathoz
Magyar anyanyelvi hallsrtsi feladat (szvegknyv)
Javtsi tmutat A magyar anyanyelvi hallsrtsi feladathoz

(A feladatlapot s a hallsrtsi feladat szvegknyvt lsd a cikk v-

gn.)

A krdveket az Idegen Nyelvi Kommunikcis Intzetben (IKI) tanu-

l hallgatk tltttk ki, vletlenszer kivlasztssal. A magyar anyanyel-
vi hallsrts vizsglatra a nyelvrkon kerlt sor, szaktanr jelenlt-
ben. A hallgatk ktszer hallgathattk meg a szveget, ezt kveten a
krdsek megvlaszolsra 10 perc llt rendelkezsre.
Azrt, hogy minl tfogbb, teljesebb kpet kapjunk a hallgatinkrl,
feltettnk nhny olyan krdst, ami nem a szveghez kapcsoldott, de
informcival szolglt a hallgat eddigi nyelvismeretrl, a mr megszer-
zett nyelvvizsgirl. Megkrdeztk a hallgatk vlemnyt a hallsrtsi
feladatokrl ltalban s konkrtan errl a magyar anyanyelvi hallsrt-
si feladatrl is.
A hallgatktl kapott vlaszok s informcik az albbiakban foglalha-
tk ssze.

A hallgatk nyelvismerete:

Jelenleg a fiskoln, a megkrdezett hallgatk ltalnos angol, nmet,

francia s orosz nyelvet tanulnak, valamint szakmai angolt, nmetet s
oroszt. A hallgatktl megkrdeztk, hogy milyen nyelveket tanultak ko-
rbban. A vizsglatban rsztvev hallgatk angol nyelvet szinte kivtel
nlkl tanultak eltr id intervallumban. Nem ritka a 8-10 ves angol
nyelvtanuls, a nagy tbbsg msodik nyelvet is tanult, ez jellemzen a
nmet nyelv. A tanult nyelvek kztt szerepel mg az olasz, francia, latin.
Megemltettk mg a spanyol, orosz, holland, lengyel s japn nyelvet is.

188
Hallgatink nyelvismerete sszessgben jnak mondhat, a tanult nyel-
vek kre is imponl.

Nyelvvizsga adatok:

A mr megszerzett nyelvvizsgk rnyaltabb kpet mutatnak. A vla-

szol hallgatk 40%-a 87 f rendelkezik mr valamilyen nyelvvizsg-
val ltalnos idegen nyelvbl. Elssorban a PILOT csoportokban tanul
hallgatknak s a szakmai nyelvet tanul hallgatknak van mr nyelv-
vizsgja. A nyelvvizsgk kztt szerepel alap-, kzp- s felsfok is.
Dominns az angol kzpfok nyelvvizsga (57 f). Nmetbl, francibl
s olasz nyelvbl vannak mg nyelvvizsgk, ez sszesen 30 f. A fels-
fok nyelvvizsga a kttantsi nyelv kzpiskolkban rettsgizett hall-
gatknl fordul el.

Hallgati vlemnyek a hallsrtsi feladatokrl ltalban:

A hallsrtsi feladat a nyelvtanulk esetben megoszt, van, akinek

knnyen megy s kedveli, msok szmra a legnehezebb feladatnak
szmt, nehezen boldogul a feladattal, nem kedveli s sok a sikertelen-
sg. A hallsrtsi feladatot a megkrdezett hallgatk tbbsge nehz-
nek tartja, nem szereti. Vannak olyanok is, akik szmra nem okoz gon-
dot ez a feladat s szvesen csinljk.
Nhny hallgati vlemny:

A halls utni szvegrtst nem sorolnm a legknnyebb nyelvi

feladatok kz. A szveg megrtse azrt nehz, mert ritkn
hallgatok anyanyelvi angol beszdet.
(ltalnos angol nyelvet tanul hallgat)

Nem igazn szeretem, a szvegek ltalban nehezen rthetek.

(ltalnos nmet nyelvet tanul hallgat)

Nem szeretem, sokszor flrehallom a dolgokat. Szmomra ne-

hz.
(ltalnos angol nyelvet tanul hallgat)

A halls utni feladat elg nehz szmomra, mert sok dologra

kell figyelni.
(zleti nmet nyelvet tanul hallgat)

189
 A hallsrtsi feladatot tartom a legnehezebb nyelvvizsga fela-
datnak, nem szeretem.
(zleti angol nyelvet tanul hallgat)

Pozitv s negatv lmnyeim is vannak ezzel kapcsolatban.

Sokkal jobban szeretem az letszer szitucikat hallgatni, mint
az interjkat. Gyakran elfordul sajnos, hogy a httrzaj hango-
sabb, mint maga a beszd. Nha a tmk is nagyon unalmasak,
az rdekes tmkat jobban szeretem.
(ltalnos francia nyelvet tanul hallgat)

Hasznos dolognak tartom mindenkppen a halls rtsi felada-

tokat, mert nem elg csak a szveget ltnunk, illetve fordtanunk,
hanem a hallsrtst is gyakorolni kell, mert ugyan a szvegben
teljesen egyszer htkznapi sz van s mgis sokszor ms szt
rtek helyette.
(ltalnos nmet nyelvet tanul hallgat)

Szeretem a halls utni szvegrtseket, mert gy prbra tu-

dom tenni a sajt koncentrcis kpessgemet.
(ltalnos angol nyelvet tanul hallgat)

Szeretem a halls rtsi feladatokat, ltalban ki is rtem a l-

nyeget.
(zleti angol nyelvet tanul hallgat)

A hallsrtsi feladtok fontosak szmomra, megmutatja, hogy

mennyire j a memrim.
(zleti nmet nyelvet tanul hallgat)

Magyar anyanyelvi hallsrtsi vizsglat a kutats ered-

mnyei

A hallgati minta bemutatsa

A magyar anyanyelvi hallsrtsi vizsglatban az Eszterhzy Kroly

Fiskola 214 nappali tagozatos hallgatja vett rszt. A vizsglatban
rsztvev hallgatk ltalnos idegen nyelvet s szakmai idegen nyelvet
tanulnak. Az adatok, eredmnyek feldolgozsnl e szerint osztottuk
meg a vlaszad hallgatkat kt csoportra.

190
 1. tblzat: Az ltalnos idegen nyelvet tanul hallgatk megoszlsa
nyelvek s csoportok szerint

LTALNOS Csoportok/kpzsi formk sszes hallga-

NYELVEK FOSZ alapkpzs BA t
PILOT A2 A1 B1 N= 143 f
angol 13 28 49 - - 90
nmet - 11 - - 9 20
francia 7 13 20
orosz 13 13
sszesen 13 46 49 13 22 143

2. tblzat: Az ltalnos idegen nyelvet tanul hallgatk eredmnyei (tovbbiak-

ban ltalnos H)

f/rdemjegyek /elrt pontszmok sszes

RDEMJE f 1 2 3 4 5 hallgat
GY 0- 5- 6 6,5 7 7,5 8 8,5 9 9,5 10 N= 143
4,5 5,5 f
elgtelen 5 5 5
(1)
elgsges 4 4 4
(2)
kzepes 15 7 8 15
(3)
j (4) 28 11 17 28
jeles (5) 91 19 15 22 23 12 91
sszesen 143 5 4 15 28 91 143

3. tblzat: A szakmai idegen nyelvet tanul hallgatk megoszlsa nyelvek s

vfolyamok szerint

VFOLYAM szakmai nyelvek sszes hall-

ZLETI IDEGENFORGALMI gat
ANGOL NMET OROSZ N= 71 f
I. vfolyam 33 16 49
II. vfolyam 12 12
III. vfolyam 10 10
sszesen 45 16 10 71

4. tblzat: A szakmai idegen nyelvet tanul hallgatk eredmnyei (tovbbiak-

ban Szakmai H)

RDEMJE f/rdemjegyek /elrt pontszmok sszes

GY f 1 2 3 4 5 hallgat

191
 0 5 6 6, 7 7, 8 8, 9 9,5 10 N= 71 f
5 5 5
- -
4, 5,
5 5
elgtelen 2 2 2
(1)
elgsges 6 6 6
(2)
kzepes (3) 7 4 3 7
j (4) 13 8 5 13
jeles (5) 43 1 1 8 9 2 43
1 3
sszesen 71 2 6 7 13 43 71

A krdsekre adott vlaszok eredmnyei

5. tblzat: Az 1. krdsre adott vlaszok megoszlsa

1.MILYEN VESZLYES KVETKEZMNYEKKEL JRHAT A MEGHLS

S AZ INFLUENZA?
Hallgatk Elrt pontszm/f sszes hallgat
0 0.5 1p sszesen elrt N = 214 f
p p pontszm %
ltalnos 16 79 48 87.5 61 % 143
nyelv
Szakmai 8 45 18 40.5 57 % 71
nyelv
sszesen 24 124 66 128 59 % 214

6. tblzat: A 2. krdsre adott vlaszok megoszlsa

2. MEDDIG TART A MEGHLS, ILLETVE A KHGS?

Hallgatk Elrt pontszm/f sszes hallgat
0 0.5 1 p sszesen elrt N = 214 f
p p pont- %
szm
ltalnos 6 27 110 123.5 86 % 143
nyelv
Szakmai 8 9 54 58.5 82 % 71
nyelv
sszesen 14 36 164 182 84% 214

192
 7. tblzat: A 3. krdsre adott vlaszok megoszlsa

3.MELYIK ORVOSSGCSOPORT HATSTALAN MINDKT BETEGSG

ESETN? MIRT?
Hallgatk Elrt pontszm/f sszes hallga-
0 0.5 1p sszesen elrt t
p p pontszm % N = 214 f
ltalnos 12 40 91 111 78 % 143
nyelv
Szakmai 8 26 37 49.6 70 % 71
nyelv
sszesen 20 66 128 160.5 74% 214
8. tblzat: A 4. krdsre adott vlaszok megoszlsa

4.NEVEZZE MEG A KT BETEGSG MINL TBB TNETT!

Hallgatk Elrt pontszm/f sszes hallgat
0 0.5 1 p sszesen elrt N = 214 f
p p pont- %
szm
ltalnos 19 88 36 80 56 % 143
nyelv
Szakmai 11 47 13 36.5 51 % 71
nyelv
sszesen 30 135 49 116.5 53.5% 214

9. tblzat: Az 5. krdsre adott vlaszok megoszlsa

5.SZEREPEL-E A TNETEK KZTT A KETTS LTS?

Hallgatk Elrt pontszm/f sszes hallga-
0 0.5 1p sszesen elrt t
p p pontszm % N = 214 f
ltalnos - - 143 143 100 % 143
nyelv
Szakmai 1 - 70 70 99 % 71
nyelv
sszesen 1 - 213 213 99.5% 214

10. tblzat: A 6. krdsre adott vlaszok megoszlsa

6.MELYIK BETEGSGRE JELLEMZ A SZRAZ KHGS?

193
 Hallgatk Elrt pontszm/f sszes hallgat
0 0.5 1p sszesen elrt N = 214 f
p p pontszm %
ltalnos 34 - 109 109 76 % 143
nyelv
Szakmai 20 - 51 51 72 % 71
nyelv
sszesen 54 - 160 160 74 % 214

194
 11. tblzat: A 7. krdsre adott vlaszok megoszlsa

7. MIT JELENT A TMPONT SZ?

Hallgatk Elrt pontszm/f sszes hallga-
0 0.5 1p sszesen elrt t
p p pontszm % N = 214 f
ltalnos 29 1 113 113.5 79 % 143
nyelv
Szakmai 16 3 52 53.5 75% 71
nyelv
sszesen 45 4 165 167 78 % 214

12. tblzat: A 8. krdsre adott vlaszok megoszlsa

8. MILYEN AZ, AKI ELESETT?

Hallgatk Elrt pontszm/f sszes hallgat
0 0.5 1p sszesen elrt N = 214 f
p p pontszm %
ltalnos 6 - 137 137 96 % 143
nyelv
Szakmai 3 - 68 68 96 % 71
nyelv
sszesen 9 - 205 205 96 % 214

13. tblzat: A 9. krdsre adott vlaszok megoszlsa

9.MIT JELENT AZ ELHANGZOTT SZVEGBEN A BORZONGS?

Hallgatk Elrt pontszm/f sszes hallgat
0 0.5 1p sszesen elrt N = 214 f
p p pontszm %
ltalnos 9 - 134 134 94 % 143
nyelv
Szakmai 4 1 66 66.5 94 % 71
nyelv
sszesen 13 1 200 200.5 94 % 214

195
 14. tblzat: A 10. krdsre adott vlaszok megoszlsa

10.MI A LEGLNYEGESEBB KLNBSG A MEGHLS S AZ

INFLUENZA KZTT?
Hallgatk Elrt pontszm/f sszes hallgat
0 0.5 1p sszesen elrt N = 214 f
p p pontszm %
ltalnos 25 5 113 115.5 81 % 143
nyelv
Szakmai 13 2 56 57 81 % 71
nyelv
sszesen 38 7 169 172.5 81 % 214

15. a) tblzat: sszests: az 1-10. krdsre adott vlaszok megoszlsa

sszests az 1-10. krdsre adott vlaszok megoszlsa

Hallgatk Elrt pontszm/f sszes hallgat
0p 0.5 1p sszes pontszm N = 214 f
p
ltalnos 156 240 1034 1430 143
nyelv
Szakmai 92 133 485 710 71
nyelv
sszesen 248 373 1519 2140 214

15. b) tblzat: sszests: az 1-10. krdsre adott vlaszok megoszlsa

sszests az 1-10. krdsre adott vlaszok megoszlsa

Hallgatk Elrt pontszm/% sszes hallgat
0p 0.5 p 1p sszes % N = 214 f

ltalnos 11 % 17 % 72 % 100 % 143

nyelv
Szakmai 13 % 19 % 68 % 100 % 71
nyelv
sszesen 12 % 18 % 70 % 100% 214

196
 sszegzs

A tanult nyelvek tekintetben mindkt csoportban, az ltalnos s a

szakmai idegen nyelvet tanulknl is szerepel az angol, nmet s az
orosz, a francia csak az ltalnos nyelvet tanulknl jelenik meg. Az an-
gol nyelv most is a dominns. Mindkt csoportban a hallgatk 63 %-a
angolt tanul. Az ltalnos nyelvnl ez 90 f, a szakmai idegen nyelvnl
ez a szm 45 f. Ezt kveti a nmet nyelv 14%-kal (20 f) az ltalnos
nyelvnl, 23%-kal (16 f) pedig a szakmai nyelvnl.
Az orosz nyelv 9 %-kal (13 f) jelenik meg az ltalnos nyelvnl, 14%-
kal (10 f) pedig a szakmai nyelv esetben. A francia is 14 %-ot (20 f)
kpvisel. Az ltalnos nyelvnl teht a nmet s a francia azonos szza-
lkkal van jelen, az orosz egy kicsit kevesebb ugyan, de rvendetes,
hogy ismt tanulhatnak a hallgatk orosz nyelvet intzmnynkben. Ez
igaz a szakmai nyelvre is, hiszen a hagyomnyos angol s nmet zleti
nyelv mellett, j lehetsgknt tanulhat az idegenforgalmi orosz is, mely
irnt fokozdik a hallgatk rdekldse.
A magyar anyanyelvi hallsrtsi feladat eredmnyeit vizsglva, az
eredmnyek kzel azonosak, 4.4 az tlag az ltalnos nyelvnl s 4.3
az tlag a szakmai idegen nyelvet tanulknl. Az egyes krdsek ered-
mnyeit vizsglva az egy tizedes klnbsg nyomon kvethet az ala-
csonyabb %-os teljestmnyekben. A szakmai nyelvet tanulknl ez az
tlageredmny viszonylagosan nagy szrdst mutat. Az zleti angolt
tanul I. vfolyamos hallgatk tlag eredmnye 4.6, a msod vesek
3.9, az zleti nmet esetben az tlag 3.6, az idegenforgalmi orosz ese-
tben a legjobb a hallgatk teljestmnye, tlaguk 4.7. Az zleti angol s
idegenforgalmi orosz csoport hallgati homognek, abbl a szempontbl,
hogy valamennyien alapkpzsben tanulnak, azaz BA szakosak. Az z-
leti nmet csoport hallgati viszont mind az FSZ, mind az alapkpzsben
rsztvevkbl tevdik ssze.
Az rdemjegyek tekintetben az albbi jegyeket szereztk a hallga-
tk:
Elgtelenre teljestett a hallgatk 3-3 %-a mindkt csoportnl, elgs-
gesre a hallgatk 3%-a az ltalnos nyelvnl s 8 %-a szakmai nyelvnl.
Kzepest rt el a hallgatk 10%-a mindkt csoportnl. A hallgatk 20%-a
j eredmnyt rt el az ltalnos nyelvet tanulk kzl, a szakmai nyelvet
tanulknl ez 18%. Jeles eredmny szletett a hallgatk 64- illetve 61%
nl. Az elbbi az ltalnos nyelvet tanulk, az utbbi a szakmai nyelvet
tanulk eredmnye.
sszessgben a j s jeles eredmny 84 % az ltalnos nyelvet ta-
nul hallgatk esetben s 79% a szakmai nyelvet tanulk estben. Ez

197
az eredmny rvendetes, mg akkor is, ha ez anyanyelvi hallsrtsi
feladat volt.

A krdsekre adott vlaszok eredmnye

A feladatlap 10 krdst tartalmaz, melyben 9 nyitott krds s 1 el-

dntend krds szerepel.
Kt krds a 7. s 8. nem a halls utni rts kszsgt mrik, a sz-
veghez kapcsold intellektulis ismereteket mr, vizsgl.
Az egyes krdsekre adott vlaszokat a teljes minta eredmnyei alap-
jn rtkeljk, miutn az eredmnyek nem mutattak szignifikns eltrst,
az ltalnos nyelvet s a szakmai nyelvet tanul hallgatk kztt. ltal-
nosan az eredmnyek alapjn elmondhat, hogy az ltalnos nyelvet
tanulk eredmnyei a jobbak egy-kt szzalkkal, ahol klnbsg van a
kt csoport eredmnye kztt.
A krdsek vizsglatnl a 10 krdsbl azt a 8-at vesszk tekintetbe,
amelyik a halls utni rtsre irnyul, a 7. s 8. krdseket kln vizsgl-
juk.
A 8 krdst alapul vve, egy esetben szletett 100%-os eredmny, ez
az 5. krds, amely eldntend volt. A legnehezebb/ legeredmnytele-
nebb a 4. krds 54%, majd az els krds 61%, s a 3. valamint 6. kr-
ds 74%.

4. NEVEZZE MEG A KT BETEGSG MINL TBB TNETT!

1pont tsszgs, khgs, torokfjs, orrfolys, orrduguls, bor-
zongs, lz, rossz kzrzet, gyengesg, kimerltsg, izomfj-
dalom, fejfjs
1-5 tnet 0 pont, 6-9 tnet 0,5 pont 10-12 tnet 1 pont
1. MILYEN VESZLYES KVETKEZMNYEKKEL JRHAT A
1pont MEGHLS S AZ INFLUENZA?
- tterjedhet a tdre
- (a httrben) komoly alapbetegsg ll(hat)
(egyik vlasz meglte esetn fl pont adhat)
3. MELYIK ORVOSSGCSOPORT HATSTALAN MINDKT
1 pont BETEGSG ESETN? MIRT?
az antibiotikumok, mert mindkt betegsget vrusok okozzk
(egyik rszvlasz meglte esetn fl pont adhat)
6. MELYIK BETEGSGRE JELLEMZ A SZRAZ KHGS?
1pont influenza

A 4. krdsnl az okozta a gondot, hogy minimum tz tnetet fel kellett

sorolni a maximlis pont megszerzshez. Ez nehz volt a hallgatknak,

198
mindssze 49 f, a vlaszolk 23%-a rt el maximlis pontot, jellemzen
6-8 kztti felsorols volt, amely 0.5 pontot rt.
Az 1. krds nehzsge valszn abban rejlik, hogy mg nem tudtak
teljes mrtkben koncentrlni a feladatra, ezrt sokan csak egy vlaszt
rtak, az elvrt kett helyett. A jellemz pontszm itt 0.5 pont volt.
A harmadik legnehezebb krds az ltalnos nyelvet tanulknl a 6.,
a szakmai nyelvet tanulknl pedig a 3. szm krds volt, az eredmny
mindkt esetben 74 %.
A 6. krdsnl az volt a jellemz, hogy sokan egyltaln nem vla-
szoltak, ezrt a kt jellemz pontszm ennl a krdsnl a 0 s az 1 pont
volt. (azaz vagy tudta, vagy nem.)
A 3. krdsnl a jellemz pontszm a 0.5 pont volt, kt informcit
kellett volna megadni, ebbl tbbnyire az indoklst tartalmaz rsz elma-
radt, ez okozhatta a szernyebb teljestmnyt.

9. MIT JELENT AZ ELHANGZOTT SZVEGBEN A BORZONGS?

1 pont Az influenza okozta lz ksrje/velejrja/tnete.
10. MI A LEGLNYEGESEBB KLNBSG A MEGHLS S AZ
1 pont INFLUENZA KZTT?
az influenztl sokkal rosszabbul rzi magt a beteg
2. MEDDIG TART A MEGHLS, ILLETVE A KHGS?
1pont - (meghls) 1 ht
- (khgs) 2-3 ht
(egyik vlasz meglte esetn fl pont adhat)

A hrom legeredmnyesebb vlasz a 9., 10. s a 2. krds estben

szlettet. 9. krds 94 %, 10. krds 91%, a 2. krdsnl 84%-os volt a
teljests.
Az eredmnyessg okai kztt az is szerepelhet, hogy a szveg v-
gre vonatkoz krdsekrl van sz, teht mr teljesen tudtak a tmra,
feladatra figyelni, msrszt a 9-10. krds esetben egy-egy informcit
kellett csupn megadni a teljes pontszm elrshez. A 2. krdsnl
pedig viszonylag egzakt szmadatokra kellett figyelni, ami nem okozott
gondot a hallgatknl.
A 7. s 8. krdsek estben is jk az eredmnyek. A 7. krdsnl
77%. mg a 8. krdsnl 96%-os az eredmny.

7. MIT JELENT A TMPONT SZ?

1 pont kiindulsi pont/ tlet/segtsg/eligazt megjegyzs s rtelem-
szer szinonmk
8. MILYEN AZ, AKI ELESETT?
1 pont gyenge/beteg/ertlen s rtelemszer szinonmk

199
 A 7. krds nehezebbnek bizonyult, a szvegben nem szerepelt, br
gyakoribb az elfordulsa, a 8. krds viszont kzelebb llt a hallott sz-
veg tmjhoz, ezrt eredmnyesebben megoldottk a feladatot.

Hallgati vlemnyek a magyar anyanyelvi hallsrtsi fe-

ladattal kapcsolatban

Miutn az anyanyelvi hallsrtsi feladat alig fordul el a nyelvtantsi

gyakorlatban, megkrdeztk a vizsglatban rsztvevk vlemnyt a
magyar anyanyelvi hallsrtsi feladattal kapcsolatban is. A hallgatk
dnt tbbsge pozitvan rtkelt, rlt a lehetsgnek.
Vgezetl nhny hallgati vlemnyt mutatunk be:

A magyar hallsrtsi feladat nagyon tetszett, gy gondolom,

elszr mindenkinek a sajt anyanyelvn kellene ilyet kitlteni, s
csak ezutn elkezdeni a felkszlst az idegen nyelv hallsr-
tsre. Az anyanyelvi hallsrtsi feladat stresszold, hiszen rtjk
a szveget, csupn tudni kell szelektlni, kiemelni a lnyeget.
Knnyebb, mint idegen nyelvbl, ezrt sokat segthet abban is,
hogy idegen nyelven is jl teljestsk ezt a feladatot.
(zleti angolt tanul hallgat)

Nagyon tetszett a feladat. J volt a tmavlaszts: ez a tli id-

szakban sokunkat rdekel.
A szveget j volt hallgatni, kellemes volt a felolvas hangja, a
szveget tisztn s tagoltan olvasta fel. A krdseket a szveg-
hez illeszked, megfelel nehzsgnek talltam.
(ltalnos angolt tanul hallgat pilot csoport)

A szveg rthet volt, de nem kttt le. Fradtsgom miatt elka-

landozott a figyelmem.

- rthet volt, gyakorlsnak mindenkpp jt tett. Tbbszr is csi-

nlhatnnk ilyet angol rn is. Sok mindent megtudtam a beteg-
sgrl, tbb ilyen ismeretterjeszt szveget hallgathatnnk, akr
angolul is.
(ltalnos angolt tanul hallgat szintrehoz csoport)

200
 A hallott szveg rthet volt, jl tagolt. Az elhangzottak nagy r-
szt mr tudtam, megjegyzse nem okozott gondot. A terem
akusztikja is j volt, gy tisztn rthet volt minden.
(zleti nmetet tanul hallgat)

sszegezve elmondhatjuk, hogy eredmnyes volt a magyar anya-

nyelvi hallsrts vizsglat. rdemes volt elvgezni, mert mind az idegen
nyelvet oktat tanrok, mind az idegen nyelvet tanul fiskolai hallgatk
szmra sok hasznos informcit adott. Arra is felhvta ez a vizsglat a
figyelmet, hogy az idegen nyelvtantsa/tanulsa sorn rdemes olykor
az anyanyelvi kszsgekre is figyelmet fordtani az eredmnyes idegen
nyelvtanuls rdekben.

KRDSEK A MAGYAR ANYANYELVI HALLSRTSI FELADATHOZ

(Brdos Jen)

Krjk, vlaszoljon a kvetkez tz krdsre az elhangzott szveg alap-

jn! Adjon pontos s rszletes vlaszokat! A feladatlap kitltsre 10 perc
ll rendelkezsre.

1. Milyen veszlyes kvetkezmnyekkel jrhat a meghls s az influenza?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. Meddig tart a meghls, illetve a khgs?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. Melyik orvossgcsoport hatstalan mindkt betegsg esetn? Mirt?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
4. Nevezze meg a kt betegsg minl tbb tnett!
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
5. Szerepel-e a tnetek kztt a ketts lts?
___________________________________________________________________
6. Melyik betegsgre jellemz a szraz khgs?
___________________________________________________________________
7. Mit jelent a tmpont sz?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
8. Milyen az, aki elesett?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
9. Mit jelent az elhangzott szvegben a borzongs?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

201
10. Mi a leglnyegesebb klnbsg a meghls s az influenza kztt?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

II. MAGYAR ANYANYELVI HALLSRTSI FELADAT

A legtbben knnyen felismerik a meghls jeleit, de jval kevsb tudjk el-

dnteni, hogy slyos megfzssal, vagy inkbb influenzval van-e dolguk. Ez
nha mg az orvosoknak is nehzsget okoz. Mindkt fertzs fels lgti pa-
naszokkal jr, s mindkettt vrusok okozzk, ezrt az antibiotikumok hatstala-
nok ellenk. A klnbsgttel teht valban nem egyszer, de nhny tmpont
azrt segthet.

Tsszgs. A meghlsre jellemz, br nha influenza is okozhatja.

Khgs. A meghlsnl s az influenznl is gyakori. Az elbbinl sok eset-
ben vladkrtssel jr, mg az utbbinl ltalban szraz, s igen kn-
z lehet.
Torokfjs. Gyakran elzi meg vagy ksri a meghlst, de nha az influenz-
val is egytt jr.
Orrfolys. A meghlsnl igen, az influenznl csak ritkbban ers; az orrdugu-
ls szintn inkbb a nthra jellemz.
Borzongs. Az influenza okozta lz esetn gyakori, meghlsnl ritkn jelent-
kezik.
Lz. Az influenzs beteg hmrsklete magasra (38 fok fl) is szkhet, s a
lzas llapot kt-hrom napig tarthat. A meghlst ritkbban ksri ma-
gas lz, tbbnyire inkbb csak hemelkeds.
Izomfjdalom. Ha nagyon rosszul rzi magt, s felkelni is alig br, akkor szinte
biztos, hogy influenzs.
Fejfjs. Influenznl gyakori, meghlsnl ritka.
Rossz kzrzet, gyengesg, kimerltsg. Ezek az influenza jellemz tnetei,
de meghlskor is elfordulhatnak, Ha influenzs, nagyon elesettnek
rezheti magt, s ez az llapot hossz napokig, st hetekig is eltarthat.

ltalban az egyetlen lnyegi klnbsg a meghls s az influenza kztt

az, hogy az influenztl sokkal rosszabbul rzi magt. Nagyon fontos azonban
azoknak a tneteknek a felismerse, amelyek azt jelzik, hogy a fertzs a tdre
is tterjedhetett, vagy hogy a meghls, illetve influenza htterben egy jval
slyosabb alapbetegsg ll. A meghls s az influenza tnetei kb. egy hten
bell megsznnek, br a khgs kt-hrom htig eltarthat.

202
 Felhasznlt irodalom

Bacsa va (2012): Az idegennyelv-tanulssal kapcsolatos meggyzd-

sek vizsglata ltalnos s kzpiskols tanulk krben. Magyar
pedaggia 112. vf. 3. szm 167-193.
Brdos Jen (2011): Az idegen nyelvek tantsnak elmleti alapjai s
gyakorlata. Budapest: Nemzeti Tanknyvkiad
GanschowSparksJavorsky (1998): Foreign Language Learning
Diffculties: An Historical perspective. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, vol. 31, No. 3, May/June 1998, 248-258.
Gsy Mria (2005): Pszicholingvisztika. Budapest: Osiris Kiad
Gsy Mria (2008): A szvegrt olvass. Anyanyelv-pedaggia, 2008/1.

http://www.anyanyelv-pedagogia.hu/cikkek.php?id=25
Hinkel, E. (2006): Current perspectives on teaching the four skills.
TESOL Quarterly, 40(1), 109-127.
Klmn L. Molnr C. (2009): A nyelvi nevels mdszertana. Educatio
Trsadalmi Szolgltat Nonprofit Kft.
Somin Hrebik Olga (2011): Az anyanyelv-elsajtts s az idegennyelv-
tanuls sszefggseinek megkzeltsei egy kzs rtelmezsi
keret lehetsge. Magyar Pedaggia. 111. vf. 1. szm 53-77.
Sznt Anna (2013): A halls utni szvegrts kisiskolsoknl, nhny
szociolingvisztikai tnyez tkrben. Anyanyelv-pedaggia,
2013/4.
http://www.anyanyelv-pedagogia.hu/cikkek.php?id=482
Tnczos Judit (2006): A kognitv folyamatok zavarainak hatsa az idegen
nyelv tanulsra. Iskolakultra. 2006/11. 3-11
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Vol. 39, 2010

***

203
 CSORBA LSZL

KONTRASZELEKCI S A HAZAI
FELSOKTATS

Abstract

Adverse selection is the process in which buyers in a

given market are unable or unwilling to show such degree of
preference to product quality required for the survival or
expansion of the market which would enable the product to
maintain or increase its share on the supply side. Adverse
selection will lead to the deterioration, shrinkage,
marginalisation, and, finally, collapse of the market.
As to higher education, the processes of adverse selection
are basically present in eight areas. Admission of students,
training of students, lecturers, graduates, school selection of
students, course selection of students, accreditation of
educational institutions and field of study, investment
projects, tendering funds, individual aids.
The market players will need to eliminate any superfluous
capacities and to minimize adverse selection processes by
arranging for the shortest possible transitional period.
Keywords: competition, market, higher education, adverse
selection, institutions

A kontraszelekci

George Akerlof hres tanulmnyban (1970) bemutatja, hogy egy pia-

con a keresleti s knlati oldal kztt fennll informcis aszimmetria
miknt eredmnyezhet kontraszelekcit (adverse selection), amely vgs
sorn a piac sszeomlsval is vgzdhet. A folyamat a nagyfok s
nvekv bizonytalansg miatt ersdhet gy fel, miutn a piacon nem
mkdnek olyan intzmnyek, melyek e bizonytalansgot minimalizl-
hatnk. Akerlof modelljben a vevk nem kpesek megtlni a termk
vals minsgt, ezrt knyszerlnek arra, hogy azt szisztematikusan s

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fokozd mrtkben alulrazzk, amely a magasabb minsg termk-
kel jelentkez eladkat ugyancsak fokozd mrtkben tartja tvol a pi-
actl. Ebben az esetben teht a vevk nem kpesek megtlni a ter-
mkminsget, s intzmnyi segtsg hinyban ez a piac leplst
eredmnyezi. A kontraszelekci ebben az esetben a vevi oldali szerep-
lk tudshinynak kvetkezmnye, mghozz nem szndkolt mdon.
A vevk kifejezetten szeretnk felismerni a magasabb minsget, ldoz-
nnak is r ezzel arnyosan tbbet, de erre kptelenek.
Arrow (1979) az rak bizonytalansgnl is jelentsebbnek tlte a
megvsroland ru minsgnek bizonytalansgt. Az r s a nem r
jelleg pldul minsgre vonatkoz jelzsek egyformn szerepet
jtszanak a gazdasgi szereplk dntsei sorn. Egy biztosttrsasg,
ha nem kpes a lehetsges gyfelek rossz minsg hnyadnak kisz-
rsre, akkor a kontraszelekci jelensge teret nyerhet, s egyre inkbb a
legmagasabb krtrtsre ignyt tarthat gyfelek ktnek majd biztostst
a rossz portfli miatti magasabb ron. Ahogy romlik az gyflportfli, s
emelkednek a biztostsi djak, gy maradnak egyre inkbb tvol a bizto-
stsi piactl a j minsg gyfelek. A trsasgnak teht erfesztse-
ket kell tennie annak rdekben, hogy a j s a rossz minsg gyfele-
ket megklnbztetve egymstl (screening szr elmlet), min-
denkinek arnyos biztostsi djat tudjon ajnlani. Nem r jelleg jelz-
sek, informcik felkutatsra, kiknyszertsre fordtott kiads megt-
rlhet ez ltal. A j minsg gyfeleknek is rdekk arra vonatkozan
hiteles jelzst kibocstaniuk (signaling jelzs elmlet), hogy k j
minsg gyflnek szmthatnak.
A signaling elmlet eredetileg az oktats vonatkozsban szletett
Spence-nek tulajdontva, (Spence, 1973), hogy a leend munkavllalk
pldul egy megfelel elismertsggel diploma megszerzsvel miknt
cskkenthetik a leend munkaadk nehzsgeit a munkra jelentkezk
rostlsakor. Amennyiben a diploma megszerzsnek kltsgei arny-
ban llnak az ltala elrhet magasabb fizetssel, msrszt a diploms
munkavllali minsge arnyban ll az ltala munkahelyn ltrehozott
j rtkkel, gy az rintett piacon a munkaadk kltsghatkonyabb
vlnak, ugyanakkor biztostott vlik a jvbeni megfelel szakmai utn-
ptls is. Spencer ksbb kiterjesztette elmlett lnyegben valamennyi
piacra, s rmutatott, megfelel jelzsek gazdasgi intzmnyeslsvel
mind az eladk, mind a vevk tudshinya jelentkeny mrtkben ptol-
hat (Spence, 2002). A szereplk kpesek megtallni a szmukra meg-
felel minsg, a piac msik oldaln ll szereplt, elfogadhat szintre
cskken a bizonytalansg s a kockzat mrtke, a piaci tranzakcik
szma nvekszik, vagy legalbbis relatve kedvezbben alakul. J pl-
dk erre a nagy internetes kereskedhzak, ahogy minstsi rendszerk

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rvn lehetv teszik a msik fl gazdasgi elletnek jobb megisme-
rst, a megfelel adott r mellett a lehet legmagasabb minsg
potencilis partner megtallst, felismerst.
A screening elmlet kidolgozsa az oktatsra is Spence-hez kapcso-
ldik (Spence, 1973), de Stiglitz adta meg az ltalnostott modellt
(Stiglitz, 1975). Az alapproblma hasonl az Akerlof-fle tragacspiachoz.
A hitelezni kvn bank olyan minsg gyfelekhez szeretne kihelyezni
pnzt, akiktl vissza is kapja, kamatostul, hatridben. Ha nem tesz
semmit, akkor egyre nagyobb arnyban olyanok kvnnak hitelt felvenni,
akik finoman szlva is kockzatos gyflnek tekinthetk. A visszafizets
idszak azonban majd a jvben kezddik el, de ma kell a banknak dn-
teni. Kzenfekv, hogy tbb-kevsb szigor felttelrendszerrel meg-
prblja az gyfelek kzl kiszrni a megfelel minsgeket, hogy az-
tn majd nekik tegyen ajnlatot. A szrs egy kvetelmnyrendszer alap-
jn trtnik, amelyek teljeslse esetn megfelel mrtkben valszn-
sthet, hogy az gyfl j, minsgi gyfl lesz. A gazdasgi szerep-
lknl termszetesen nem jdonsg ez az eljrs, gyakorta alkalmazzk,
belertve a magnszemlyeket is, s nem csak gazdasgi dntsek ese-
tben. Mint ahogy arra Bester is rmutat (1985), lnyeges a szrs szi-
gorsgnak finomhangolsa. Tl nagy szigor a minsgi gyfelek egy
rsznek elvesztsvel ugyangy hanyatlsba taszthatja a piacot,
mint a kontraszelekcis folyamatok trnyerse. Tlsgos lazasg viszont
mg ronthat is a helyzeten a kontraszelekci idbeni lefutsa szempont-
jbl. Termszetesen a szrs ismtld alkalmazsa a piac egyik olda-
ln a msik oldali szereplket arra sztnzheti, bizonyos piacokon
knyszertheti, hogy a szrs felttelrendszernek eleget tev jelzseket
tudjk magukrl kibocstani (Riley, 2001).
Kornai Jnos a szocialista orszgok gyakorlatt vizsglva a mennyi-
sg s minsg sszefggsrendszerben (1993: 212) bemutatja, hogy
a mennyisg s a minsg kztt sajtos tvlts is rvnyeslhet. A
minsg rovsra valsul meg a mennyisgi nvekeds. Az adott piac
szempontjbl termszetesen kvnatos lenne a minsg javtsa, illetve
fenntartsa nagyobb mennyisg esetn is, azonban amint arra Kornai
rmutat (Uo. 213) a brokratikus koordinci erre vagy nem kpes,
vagy ezt nem is igazn kvnja kiknyszerteni. A szocialista vllalatok a
szerzdseket rendszeresen s bntetlenl megsrthetik (U. 523) ha
nrdekk ezt kvnja. Ebben az esetben teht nem arrl van sz, hogy
a magasabb minsget nem kpesek a vevk felismerni, s megfelelen
rtkelni, hanem sajtos egyni rdekeiket kvetve nem akarjk.
rdemes a tovbbiakban nmileg grcs al venni, hogy miknt le-
hetsges az, hogy br a szerepl meg tudja klnbztetni a magasabb
minsg jszgot, ezt mgsem teszi, s ez itt nem rkrds.

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 A megbz-gynk s a kontraszelekci elmlett sszekapcsolta
Harrison s Harrel (1993) is. A vllalat menedzsmentje mint a tulajdonos
megbzk gynkei hatroznak projektek beindtsrl, megvalsts-
rl. Mivel rdekeik eltrek a tulajdonosokitl, s tbblet informcikkal is
rendelkeznek velk szemben a projektek s a vllalat jvedelmezsge
szempontjbl, gy sok esetben nem a vllalat s a tulajdonosok szm-
ra kedvezbb, jobb minsget fogadjk el, hanem a gyengbb, alacso-
nyabb minsget nyjtt. Az Amerikai Egyeslt llamokban egybknt a
menedzsment ilyen visszalsszer gyakorlatt a korrupcihoz soroljk,
hiszen egy kzssg rdekei kerlnek felldozsra magnrdekek rv-
nyestse okn, mghozz szablyellenesen. A hivatali korrupci hason-
lan felfoghat a megbz-gynk elmlet keretben, azzal a klnbsg-
gel, hogy a hivatalokat ellenrz politikusok maguk is a vlasztpolgrok
gynkei. Teht ebben az esetben az gynkk gynkeirl van sz.
Mint ahogyan Guriev (2004) is bemutatja, a korrupci azzal, hogy a hiva-
talnokok rszt kvetelnek maguknak a projektek kivitelezsi kltsgeibl,
vagy bevteleibl, a legmagasabb minsget irtjk folyamatosan, szisz-
tematikusan. Hiszen a gyztesek nem a legjobbak lesznek tipikusan,
nekik nem lenne ugyanis szksgk korrupcira ahhoz, hogy nyerjenek.
De mg ha esetenknt a legmagasabb minsg is kerl kivlasztsra,
megsznik a gazdasgi sztnzs a tovbbi minsgfejlesztsre. Teht
mindenkppen fokozatosan eltnik a minsgi jszg a piacrl, egyre
gyengbb minsg egyre nagyobb krokat okozhat a kzssgnek.
Kornai Jnos a puha kltsgvets korlt elemzsekor rmutat arra
(1997, 944. o.), hogy kemny kltsgvetsi korlt esetn let-hall kr-
dse a szereplnek, hogy jvedelmkbl megfelel hatkonysgot elrve
fedezni tudjk kiadsaikat. Puha kltsgvetsi korlt mellett azonban a
szerepl mr nem a verseny termszetes szelekcijval szembesl. Aki-
nek a termszetes szelekci ldozatv kellene vlnia, azok is tovbb
virulhatnak, hiszen tnyleges vagy a hatkonyabbakhoz kpest rela-
tv vesztesgeik fedezsre kerlnek. Amennyiben az llam a megment,
gy kzvetlenl, vagy kzvetve, a sikeres szereplk nyeresgt elvve
teremti el a forrsokat e vesztesgfedezshez, jvedelemptlshoz. (
Uo. 948. o.) Ebbl is addik, hogy kontraszelektv folyamatok nyerhetnek
teret, nem kltsgcskkent, s/vagy termk-rtknvel minsgfej-
leszts, s az ebbl add ersd kltsghatkonysg fel val halads-
ra sztnzi a verseny a szereplket.
Rgtn felmerl a krds, hogy amennyiben a puha kltsgvetsi kor-
lt egyfajta sajtos forrsbsg, akkor az ezzel szembesl vllalkozs
vezeti mirt nem hasznljk ki ezt a lehetsget arra, hogy magasabb
minsg rutinokat ptsenek ki a szervezetknl, nveljk jvbeni ver-
senykpessgket. Mg akkor is, ha erre klnsebb szksg, piaci,

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brokratikus knyszer nincs, ha msrt nem azrt, hogy tartalkokat k-
pezzenek a rendszerben a jvbeni elvrsoknak val aktulis megfele-
ls cljbl: racsnihats (Kornai, Maskin, Roland 2004b, 784. o.)
Az llami vllalatoknl nem volt lnyegi klnbsg a kiemelkeden,
vagy az alacsony szinten teljest vllalatvezetk, ahogy az orszgos
nagyvllalat vagy helyi vllalat vezetinek munkabre kztt sem. A ter-
mels korszerstse, vagy a vgtermk fejlesztse azonban kezdet-
ben mindenkpp fokozott erfesztst, ptllagos erforrsokat, jelen-
tkeny bizonytalansgot s kockzatvllalst ignyel, amely ldozatokrt
a majdani nyeresg nyjthat krptlst. Azonban ha a vllalat mrete s
a nyeresgessg mrtke nem befolysolja jelentkeny mdon a veze-
tk javadalmazst, akkor nincs meg a kell sztnz er arra nzve,
hogy lnyegi erfesztseket tegyen a vezets a kltsgek cskkentse,
a nyeresgessg nvelse rdekben. (Kornai, Maskin, Roland 2004a,
619. o.) De ugyanez a helyzet a beosztottak vonatkozsban is: a sike-
res jtsnak nincs, vagy jelentktelen a jutalmazsa a kzpont rszrl
mg vezet szinten is, ami alig rinti a feladatot tnylegesen elvgzket
(Kornai, 2010. 14. o.).
Tmnk szempontjbl klnsen rdekes a szocialista mezgazda-
sgi termelszvetkezetek mkdse az 1970-es, 80-as vekben. A ma-
gyar mezgazdasg a vilg lvonalba kerlt kltsghatkonysg, hoz-
zadott rtk, alkalmazott fejlett technolgia szerint (Cski, 1983). A ha-
zai mezgazdasg egy lakosra vettve 93,1%-t volt kpes ellltani,
mint az USA agrrszektora. (Merrese, 1983, 331. o.) A tulajdonformk
hierarchijban a szvetkezeti az llamit kvette ugyan, de megelzte a
magnt. A parasztsg is csak msodlagos bzis s clcsoport volt a
munkssghoz kpest a prtllam szmra s szempontjbl, ugyanak-
kor biztostani kellett a vidki lakossg foglalkoztatst, s gondoskodni
kellett az orszg lelmiszerszksgletnek kielgtsrl is. A puha klt-
sgvetsi korlt a termelszvetkezetek esetn is rvnyeslt, ha nem is
olyan mrtkben, mint az llami vllaltok esetben. Azonban lnyeges
klnbsgek addtak a szvetkezeti vezetk s az llami vezetk kztt.
A szvetkezeti vezetket a tagsg vlasztotta 4 vente. Igaz, e vlaszts
nem volt teljes mrtkben szabad, hiszen a jellteket az llamprt el-
szrte, ugyanakkor a felsvezetknl alapfelttel volt a szakirny vg-
zettsg. Minden termelszvetkezet menedzsmentjben legalbb 2-3
agrrvgzettsg, s 1 pnzgyi vgzettsg szemly llt akkor, amikor
az agrrkpzs vilgsznvonal volt, s nem tmegkpzs folyt. A munka-
brek tekintetben hasonl volt a szvetkezetek s az llami vllalatok
helyzete: a dolgozk munkabre jelentkeny mdon nem trhetett el a
kartrsaktl, de a beosztottak sem a vezet dolgozktl. Ugyanakkor a
vezetk s a beosztottak szmra vente nyeresgrszesedsrl dnttt

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a kzgyls. Ezt egsztette mg ki az integrlt hztji gazdasgok s
szakcsoportok, illetve ipari tevkenysget folytat mellkzemgak rend-
szere. gy a puha kltsgvetsi korlt ellenre a mezgazdasgban a 80-
as vek kzepig alig rvnyesltek kontraszelektv folyamatok, ntt a
kibocsts, s ezzel egyidejleg a minsg, a tagok s a vezetk tnyle-
ges jvedelme, javultak a hatkonysgi mutatk, lenjr technolgik
kerltek alkalmazsra, st fejlesztsre. Nem volt ritka az sem a 70-es
vektl, hogy tartsan gyenge teljestmnyt nyjt termelszvetkezetet
szomszdos, hatkonyabb szvetkezetbe integrltak.
A szocialista termelszvetkezetek mkdsnek ellehetetlenlsvel
a meglehetsen hatkonynak s produktvnak bizonyult hztji, szak-
csoporti gazdlkodsnak bealkonyult. Az szvetkezet technolgija
mvelsi eszkzk jelents rsze, feldolgoz kapacits dnt hnyada
ltalban a korbbi vezetk irnytsa al kerlt gazdasgi trsasgokba
kerlt. A hztji gazdasgok tbbsge kiegszlt a szvetkezetbl meg-
szerzett fldterletekkel, ritkbban gpekkel, felszerelsekkel. A korbbi
rdekkzssg fellazult: a vezetvlasztsba a korbbi tagoknak nem
volt beleszlsuk, a nyeresgbl sem rszesedhettek. Az j integrto-
rok ltalban valjban mr csak felvsrlk voltak, akik a felvsrlsi
rak leszortst tartottk ltalban megfelelnek ahhoz, hogy minl na-
gyobb nyeresget rhessenek el. Szksgk volt a minl magasabb mi-
nsg alapanyagra, de a magasabb minsget nem szndkoztak
megfizetni, s ltalban nem is fizettk, fizetik meg. Semmilyen elnyt
nem jelent teht a magasabb minsg jszg az ellltjnak, elvileg
brmikor alacsonyabb minsg ellltsra trhet t. Fontos hangs-
lyozni, hogy ebben az esetben nem klcsnsen egyttmkd, egyms
irnt elktelezett felekrl van sz, hanem a knlati oldali szerepl gaz-
dasgilag aszimmetrikusan fgg a termkt megvsrltl (Balogh,
2007. 18-19. o.), aki ezzel visszalhet.
Mint Akerlof modelljben (1970) is lthattuk, ilyenkor a magasabb mi-
nsg fokozatosan el is tnik a piacrl a knlati oldalon. Krds, milyen
hossz ez az tmenet. A knlati oldal szerepli ugyanis tudsuk, kpes-
sgeik birtokban alaktottk ki rutinjaikat, melyek eredmnye egy adott
mennyisg s minsg jszg. Elkpzelhet, hogy maga a technol-
gia sem teszi lehetv gyengbb minsg ellltst. Msrszt a gyen-
gbb minsget elllt termelsi folyamat ms rutinokat ignyel a
munkaer szempontjbl is. A minsgront rutinokat is ki kell dolgozni,
meg kell tanulni, ez is erfesztst ignyel. Harmadrszt akr a termel
stratgit alkot tulajdonosai, vezeti, akr a dolgozk kulturlis begya-
zottsga, normarendszere nem teszi lehetv a minsg szndkos
cskkentst, mg akkor sem, ha az nveln a szerepl nyeresgess-
gt, tllsi eslyeit. Amennyiben a magas minsg, lehet legjobb

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jszg ellltsa mlyen begyazott normkon, szoksokon, esetleg
vallson alapul, gy ezek akr vtizedekig, genercikig is kpesek tar-
tani magukat (Williamson, 2000, 596-598. o.) Ugyanakkor az intzmnyi
talakuls, melynek motorja North (1994. 4. o.) szerint pontosan a relatv
rak megvltozsa, elbb-utbb mdosthatja a magasabb minsg el-
lenttelezs nlkli nyjtsra vonatkoz intzmnyeket, gy akr elfo-
gadott vlhat akr a kzssg elhagysa is pldul munkahelyvlts,
emigrls formjban.
Kontraszelekcinak nevezzk teht azt a folyamatot, melynek sorn
adott piacon a vevk nem kpesek, vagy nem akarjk olyan mrtkben
elnyben rszesteni a piac fennmaradshoz, illetve tovbb fejlds-
hez szksges jszgminsget, hogy az megrizze, illetve nvelje r-
szesedst a knlaton bell. Kontraszelekcival a piac lepl, zsugoro-
dik, marginalizldik, vgl sszeomlik.
A kontraszelekci erssge annl nagyobb, minl kevsb lvez rela-
tv elnyt a kvnatos minsg jszg a minsg alattihoz kpest.

1. A legersebb, mikor a minsget bntetik;

2. Kzepes, ha a minsg nem lvez elnyt, de htrnyt sem
szenved;
3. Gyenge, ha a minsg arnytalanul csekly elnyt lvez.

Termszetesen ugyanez a helyzet amennyiben a minsg alatti j-

szgok, s ellltik jutalomban rszeslnek, vagy elmarad a bntets,
esetleg arnytalanul csekly a bntets mrtke. A kontraszelekcis
intzmny rvidtvon valban cskkenti a bizonytalansgot az anarc-
hihoz, koszhoz kpest azonban ez fokrl-fokra egszen addig nhet,
mg a gazdatest piac sszeomlik.
A felsoktatsban a kontraszelekcis folyamatok alapveten nyolc te-
rleten rvnyeslhetnek.
Hallgatk felvtele. Az iskolk tipikusan folyamatosan engednek a mi-
nsgi elvrsokbl a megfelel hallgati ltszm biztostsa rdekben.
A minsgi elvrsok gy idvel ltalnosan alacsonyabb vlnak, mint a
relisan elvrhat szakmai bemeneti kvetelmnyek. A felvett hallgatk
bemeneti jellemzik szerint nagy szrst mutatnak, s az tlagminsg
folyamatosan cskken.
Hallgatk oktatsa. A roml minsg hallgati kr megnehezti, id-
vel megakadlyozza, hogy a korbbihoz hasonl minsgi elvrsokat
rvnyestsenek velk szemben az rtkelskor. Kevesebb tananyagot
s rosszabb sznvonalon sajttanak el. A kvetelmnyek folyamatos
erodldsa a j tanulk szmra kedveztlen, hiszen gyengbb telje-

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stmnnyel hasonl rtkelst szerezhetnek a gyengbbek. Hasonl ha-
tst gyakorol a meg nem engedett mdszerek hasznlata a szmonkr-
sek folyamn. E rossz mintk terjedsnek oka fkppen a kontrasze-
lekci az oktatsban, msrszt a trsadalmi normk tern lezajl hasonl
ltalnos folyamatok.
Oktati kar. Az oktatk javadalmazsa a versenyszfra fel is kedve-
ztlen, de az oktati karon bell sincs megfelelen ltalnosan rendezve
a minsg jutalmazsa. Az elmeneteli rendszer gyakran csak formli-
san elktelezett a minsgi oktats, s tudomnyos tevkenysg folytat-
sa mellett. A folyamatosan hanyatl ltalnos hallgati sznvonal ugyan-
csak nem a minsgi oktati kar ersdsnek kedvez.
Kibocstott hallgatk. A diplomsok meghatroz hnyada az llami,
nkormnyzati szfrban helyezkedik el, ahol a kapcsolati tke nagyobb
sllyal esik latba, mint a diploma mgtt hzd tuds, kpessgek. A
privt szfrban sem fejldtt ki ltalnosan a kell rzkenysg, fog-
konysg a minsg irnt, igaz, itt nem az akarat, hanem a megfelel in-
formltsg hinyzik tipikusan. Nem kedvez a minsg megfelel rtke-
lsnek, hogy az orszg jelents rszeirl elvndorolnak a kpzett szak-
emberek, s gy a marad esetlegesen gyengbb minsg munkaer is
hasonl rtkelsben rszesl, mint a magasabb.
Hallgatk iskolavlasztsa. Miutn a hallgatk jelents rsze nem a
tuds megszerzse cljbl kvn diplomt szerezni, ugyanakkor a kibo-
cstott diplomk minsge kztt a piac nem tesz arnyos klnbsget,
gy a hallgatk jelents rsze gyenge minsget nyjt, alacsony kve-
telmnyeket tmaszt iskolk vlasztsban rdekelt. Olyan tuds di-
kokra is rvnyes mindez, akik szigorbb kvetelmnyek kztt is meg-
llnk a helyket.
Hallgatk kurzusvlasztsa. A hallgatk tipikusan nem egy megfelel
sznvonal tudshalmaz megszerzsre, hanem meghatrozott kreditr-
tk, meghatrozott tanulmnyi tlag elrsre trekednek. A magas k-
vetelmnyeket llt kurzusok gy kifejezetten kerlendk, az ilyeneket
tart oktatkkal egytt, mg akkor is, ha kivl pedaggusokrl, tudsok-
rl van is sz. Amennyiben a hallgatk eltt nem ll prhuzamos lehet-
sg az ilyen kurzusok elkerlsre, sok esetben a maguk mdjn a kve-
telmnyek leszlltsra, vgs esetben az oktat eltvoltsra tesznek
ksrletet.
Intzmnyek, szakok akkreditcija. A munkaadk bizonytalansgt
cskkentend hoztk ltre az akkreditci intzmnyt, hogy viszonylag
egysges kvetelmnyrendszer alapjn kerlhessenek kibocstsra a
diplomk, s velk a hallgatk a klnbz ipargi piacokra. Azonban, ha
nagysgrendi minsgi eltrsek ellenre, a ktelez adminisztratv fel-

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tteleket teljestve szinte brki akkreditcihoz juthat, az jelentkeny ht-
rnyba hozza a minsgi tevkenysget folytat oktatsi intzmnyeket.
Beruhzsok, plyzati forrsok, egyedi tmogatsok. Az intzm-
nyek sajt forrsbl val fejldse, fejlesztse elhanyagolhat mrtk a
plyzati esetnkben dnt rszben EU ltal finanszrozott forrsok-
hoz, illetve az eseti, clzott kormnytmogatsokhoz kpest. A sikeres
forrsszerzs nincs sszhangban az egyetemek, fiskolk ltal ltreho-
zott minsgi jszghalmazzal. Tbbet nyom a latba a politikai kapcso-
latrendszer, illetve j plyzatr appartus, msrszt sok beruhzs,
fejleszts az iskolk ftevkenysgvel sincsenek kell sszhangban.
Gyakran ellenttesek a plyz hosszabb tv rdekeivel is, hiszen
olyan kapacitsokat hoznak ltre, melyek fenntartsra forrs sincs.
Nemzetkzileg is rtkelt egyetem nem jut forrshoz, esetleg kzismer-
ten gyenge minsg kpzst produkl vidki fiskola dskl a kollgi-
umi s kutati frhelyekben egy szmra is msodlagos karon.

A felsoktatsi piac intzmnyi alapjai

Douglas North (1991) szerint az intzmnyek a jtkszablyok, s a

szereplk a jtkosok. A jtk viszont nagyon komplex. A jtkszablyok
nem csupn korltok lehetnek, hanem elvrhatjk bizonyos felttelek
teljeslst is e komplex jtk folyamn. Ezltal clokat is meghatroz-
nak a szereplknek. Taktikai clok sorozatt kell elrni stratgiai clok
teljeslshez. Az intzmnyek ltrejtte segthet a stratgiai clok el-
rshez megfelel taktikai clok definilsban, vagy a szerepl sz-
mra relevns cselekvsi helyzetekben eredmnyes clmegvalstst
lehetv tv alternatva meghatrozsban. Az ilyen intzmnyek ltt
nem korltknt li meg a szerepl, hanem megoldsknt, j gyakorlat-
knt problmira. Ilyen volt az els egyetem ltrejtte 1088-ban Bolog-
nban is. Az ilyen intzmnyeknek kezdetben knny a dolguk: nincse-
nek szk keresztmetszetek az inputok tern, a kereslet vgtelennek t-
nik, lnyegben nincs kltsgvetsi korlt sem, hiszen az intenzv fo-
gyaszti igny megfelel outputrakat garantl. Csak a termel jelen
esetben a rmai katolikus egyhz stratgiai megfontolsai kpeznek
korltot a kibocsts tekintetben. A bolognai egyetemnek nem kellett
megkzdenie a hallgatkrt, tudsokban sem szenvedett hinyt, bevte-
leibl bsgesen kpes volt feladatait elltni. Hasonl volt az t kezdet-
ben kvet egyetemek helyzete.
Mire egyetem alakult Pcsett 1367-ben, majd budn 1395-ben, mr
vltozott a helyzet. Oktatkban hiny mutatkozott, bevtelek tervezse
tern is vatosabbnak kellett lennik, s a megfelel hallgatkrt is nmi-
leg mr rivalizlni volt szksges. Ugyanakkor a ppk, kirlyok is ltal-

212
ban trekedtek arra, hogy az egyetemek inkbb kiegsztsk egymst,
mintsem konkurljanak. Tbb-kevsb ez sikerlt is a 18. szzad vg-
ig. Az egyetemek mint a Samuelson-fle telepes trsadalom kpviseli
hdtottk meg Eurpt. A klnbz egyetemek, s egyb felsfok isko-
lk ltnek, mkdsnek sszehangolshoz termszetesen jabb ki-
egszt jtkszablyok, intzmnyek megszletse vlt szksgess.
Ezek vagy a regultorok ltal szlettek meg, vagy maguk a piaci szerep-
lk alkottk meg ket a chrendszerhez hasonlatos mdon. A verseny
ugyanis bizonytalansgot teremt, ami rvidtvon legalbbis tbblet kia-
dsokat okoz a szereplk rszrl. Termszetes teht, hogy ezt ameddig
csak ez lehetsges, a szereplk el kvntk kerlni.
Az egyetemek, fiskolk szmossga, a nemzetllamok rivalizlsa,
az egyre marknsabban eltr s tkz stratgik a 19. szzad elejre
ltalnoss tettk azt, hogy a korbbi sszehangol intzmnyek meg-
gyengltek, s fokozatosan tadtk helyket a verseny intzmnyeinek.
Verseny kezddtt az oktatkrt, a hallgatkrt, a forrsokrt. A verseny
alapveten ktfle lehet, attl fggen, hogy mekkora az intzmnyest
szereplk relevns tudsnak, illetve a szkssg mrtknek egyms-
hoz viszonytott arnya. Amennyiben a tuds relatve szmottevbb, gy
az rintett szerepli kr kpes az sszehangoltsg rovsra az egyedi
felelssget olyan mrtkben s felttelekkel megnvelni, hogy az egye-
di erfesztsek eredjeknt mind az egynek, mind a piac kedvezbb
helyzetbe kerlhet. Ebben az esetben ugyanis a szereplk nmaguk sor-
sa irnti tbbletfelelssg ltal hajtva tudsukkal egymst is tmogatva
olyan mkdsi tartalkokat trnak fel, melyek felhasznlsval keve-
sebb hallgatval, oktatval, forrssal is kpesek vltozatlan stratgiai
cljaikat megvalstani. A fair play intzmny adta eslyekkel brki lhet,
de ehhez tbblet-erfesztseket szksges tennie. Folyamatosan tarta-
lkokat kell feltrnia, majd ezeket felhasznlnia, mindehhez pedig term-
szetesen folyamatosan jabb s jabb tartalkokat ltre is kell hoznia.
Amennyiben ezek a tartalk-feltr intzmnyek sikeresek, a tll sze-
repli kr valamennyi tagja relis mdon kpes lehet az sszehangoltsg
llapothoz hasonlan cljainak megfelel eredmnyessggel val reali-
zlsra.
Nem minden esetben sikerl megfelelen a tartalk-feltr intzm-
nyek ltrehozsa, ms esetekben a szkssg mr olyan mrtk, hogy
a szerepli tartalkok mozgstsa mellett sem tarthat fenn a szerepli
kr egsze a piacon. A harcnak, a hbornak is megvannak az intzm-
nyei, amelyek abbl a szempontbl tekinthetk elsdlegesen unfair-nek,
hogy msok erfesztseitl dnt rszben fggnek a szereplk, kzve-
tettebb vlik a sajt erfesztsek s a sikeressg kapcsolata. A szerep-
lk alapveten msok rovsra kzdhetik le a sajt problmikat. A sze-

213
lekcis intzmnyeket a relatve korltozott tuds, a mgttesen fokoz-
d szkssg knyszerti ki. Egyidejleg mindenkinek mr elvileg sem
lehet helye a piacon. A piac tarts fennmaradsa rdekben viszont nem
mindegy, kik lesznek a tllk. A rjtszsba azoknak a szereplknek
kell bejutniuk, akik azutn tartsan kpesek a piacot vagy sszehangolt
llapotban, vagy tartalk-feltr verseny kzepette mkdtetni. A kontra-
szelekci ebben a megkzeltsben teht az, amikor tllv olyan piaci
szereplk vlnak a hosszabb tv szempontjbl ideiglenesen akik
nem kpesek ltrehozni, ltrehozatni a szelekcis intzmny helyett a
szereplk egyttmkdsre pt versenyt, vagy a szerepli tevkeny-
sget sszehangol kartelt. A tartss vl szelekci kivrezteti a meg-
marad piaci szereplket, lerombolja a piacot.

A hazai felsoktatsi piac

A hazai felsoktats a vilg lvonalba kzdtte fel magt krlbell

az 1930-as vekig. Trtnt ez annak ellenre, hogy ezt megelzen is
jelentkeny mrtkben rvnyesltek kontraszelekcis folyamatok a
hallgatk s oktatk felvtele, illetve a beruhzsok allokcija vonatko-
zsban nemzetisgi, vallsi, politikai s vagyoni alapon is. A mindenkori
kormnyzatok ugyanakkor elktelezettek voltak ltalban az oktats fej-
lesztse vonatkozsban. Ezt kveten a negatv folyamatok durvn
felersdtek, ami sajnlatos mdon sz szerint is nagy vrvesztesget
jelentett a magyar felsoktatsnak. A legnagyobb csapst a zsidldzs
s maga a hbor miatt kellett elszenvedni, amelyet taln mig sem tu-
dott kiheverni az orszg szellemi tren. 1945-t, 1947-et s 1956-ot k-
veten tbb hullmban is a mindenkori kormnyzat mestersgesen fo-
kozta a kontraszelekcit, de egyre inkbb kizrlag politikai alapon.
1989-et megelzen mr ugyanakkor elhanyagolhat mrtkv vlt ez
a tpus kontraszelekci is. Ezeket a negatv folyamatokat ugyanakkor
jelentkenyen ellenslyozta a szocialista korszakban az, hogy a felsok-
tats tartsan tbb forrshoz juthatott, megsznt a nemzetisgi, vallsi
alap kontraszelekci, s a korrupci is ltalban vve cskken ten-
dencit mutatott. Megjegyzend, hogy az oktati brtbla nem volt men-
tes a kontraszelektv elemektl abban az idben sem.
A tervgazdasg kiplsvel a felsoktats szerepli is megkaptk a
maguk sszehangol intzmnyt. Az egyetem s fiskolk stratgijt
az ssz-felsoktatsi stratgia al rendeltk, ehhez kapcsoldan vala-
mennyi szerepl szerept pontosan meghatroztk. Mindez elgsges
mrtkben rgzlt is, intzmnyeslt, hiszen a tervgazdlkods 1968
utni reformjait kveten is megmaradtak az ilyen mdon kialaktott in-

214
tzmnyi keretek a brokratikus koordincis mechanizmusok kisebb
rvnyeslse mellett is.
A puha kltsgvetsi korlt eleve nem innovci-bart krnyezetet
eredmnyez. Az sszehangol intzmnyek pedig kifejezetten nehezen
viselik az egyes szereplk tevkenysgnek, stratgiinak megvltoz-
st.
A rendszervltst kveten fokozatosan megntt a felsoktatsban
rsztvev hallgatk szma, mghozz gy, hogy ehhez tbbletkapacit-
sok kerltek kiptsre. A hallgatk tlagminsge ezltal is romlott, hi-
szen korbban a legkivlbbak kerlhettek a felsoktatsba. Az oktati
kar esetben szintn felersdtek a kontraszelektv folyamatok. Ez rsz-
ben a hallgatk minsgromlsra adott vlasz volt, dnten azonban az
oktati javadalmazsok vllalati, kzigazgatsi szektorral szembeni le-
maradsa, elremeneteli rendszer torzulsa kvetkeztben llt el. E kt
folyamat tartssga, a korrupci terjedse, a politikai alap kontraszelek-
ci felledse a korbban trgyalt maradk 4 terleten is fokozta a kont-
raszelektv folyamatok erssgt.
A hazai felsoktatsban ezen az oligopol-szer kis piacon az el-
mlt 25 vben nem sikerlt olyan tartalk-feltr intzmnyt, fair versenyt
ltrehozni, amely egyidejleg biztosthatn valamennyi szerepl eredm-
nyes clmegvalstst. Emiatt nem egyszeren szelekcis, hanem kont-
raszelekcis intzmnyek intzmnyesltek. Ugyanakkor lnyegben
mg egy piaci szereplt sem sikerlt a knlati oldalon likvidlni, ami a
felek tovbbi ltalnos tartalkfelshez vezet. Ebben a helyzetben pr-
blja forrsszkts, azaz a szkssg mestersges fokozsa rvn el-
rni a jelen kormnyzat, hogy a piaci szereplk tartalk-feltr intzm-
nyeket hozzanak ltre, s ezek alkalmazsa ltal vljon egyszerre klt-
sghatkonyabb s minden szempontbl minsgibb a hazai felsok-
tats. Ez egy lpsben lehetetlen, mivel ez kevsb szks krlmnyek
kztt sem sikerlt eddig.
Az elmaradt endogn intzmnyi talakuls oka elsdlegesen az,
hogy a szereplk a kontraszelekcis rvid tv bizonytalansgcskke-
nst a korbbi sszehangol intzmny nmileg eltorzult vltozatnak
eredmnyekpp lik meg, holott az sszehangoltsg mr rgen a mlt.
Msrszt eleve hinyoznak szerte a trsadalomban is a piaci szerep-
lk egyttmkdst elsegti, generl intzmnyek, s ha lteznek is,
akkor is csak formlisan, mint pldul a kamark. Harmadrszt s ez
nem hazai sajtossg a felsoktats rdekrvnyest kpessge ele-
ve gyenge. Mindehhez jrul, hogy a felsoktatsban a szereplk tbbs-
ge mr clszersget preferl az ugyan dnten informlisan ltez,
minsget kzppontba llt intzmnyek helyett. Vgl, de nem utols

215
sorban, a szereplk tbbsgnl mg mindig hinyzik a megfelel kom-
petencia a stratgiai egyttmkdshez a vezetsben.

Konklzi a helyzet lehetsges megoldsa

Tny, hogy a hazai felsoktats knlati oldalnak szerepli nem k-

pesek cljaikat megfelel eredmnyessggel realizlni. Ekzben a hely-
zet folyamatosan tovbb romlik, hiszen mind a 6 kontraszelekcis folya-
mat tartsan teret nyert, a demogrfiai folyamatok kedveztlenek, a kor-
mnyzati forrsokat von ki rvid- s kzptvon, mikzben minden sze-
repl fennmaradt.
A szocialista gazdasg ltal fellrl stratgiai szvetsgbe knyszer-
tett egyetemek, fiskolk a korbbi kartellszeren felosztott piacot ahol
vgs soron sikerlt sszehangol, versenyt minimalizl intzmnyi
keretet ltrehozni nem voltak kpesek az elmlt 25 vben felvltani
tartalk-feltr versennyel. Ezt jobbra egybknt is a felsoktatsrt
felels minisztriumtl vrtk el, vrjk el ma is. A versenyt ilyen keretek
kztt biztost intzmny hinyban, a kontraszelekcis mechanizmu-
sok trhdtsval termszetszeren egy likvidl-szelektl verseny jtt
ltre, amely azonban mg rdemben ldozatokat nem szedett, de ered-
mnyekppen a legtbb intzmny tartalkai legnagyobb rszt mr
fellni volt knytelen. Hasonlatosan egy Csehov-darab sznpadkphez,
a puska mr a falon van, elbb-utbb el fog drdlni az els lvs. Ter-
mszetesen minden intzmny abban bzik, hogy valamilyen mdon el
tudja kerlni az ldozati szerepet. Szvetsg tagjaknt, megkrdjelez-
hetetlen jvj llami nagyegyetemknt, vagy akr kormny-kzeliknt.
Ilyen helyzetben, ha szletne is tartalk-feltr fair verseny, az csak
egyttes tovbbi leplst eredmnyezne, nem pedig az erre a verseny-
re egybknt jellemz ipargi megersdst. Mindezt jl jelzi az, hogy
piacgazdasgban igen szokatlan mdon a szereplk tbbsge szmra
mr folyamatosan a kltsgvetsi korlt az effektv, ami mr szinte tarta-
lknlkli ltharcra utal.
Mivel a piaci s brokratikus koordincis mechanizmusok eddig nem
tudtk a piacot sem megtiszttani a legkevsb hatkonyaktl, sem r-
demi tartalkokat feltrni, ltrehozni, gy a piaci szereplkre vr ez a fe-
ladat, melyet kt lpsben lehetsges vgrehajtani.
1. A finanszroz kormnyzat jvhagysval a piaci szerep-
lknek egymssal egyttmkdve, a lehet legrvidebb tme-
nettel, egyszeri kompenzlsval a kiszorultaknak, fel kell sz-
molnia a felesleges kapacitsokat. Ehhez a szereplk kpvisele-
tben a jelenleg megszokottan tudsi vnj vezetk mellett

216
 stratgiai s tnyleges pnzgyi-kontrolling vezetk is szks-
geltetnek.
2. A felesleges kapacitsok leptse, ugyanakkor a feltrek-
v OECD orszghoz ill a GDP 1,1-1,3 szzalkt elr forrs-
biztosts mellett lehetsge nylik az gazatnak, hogy ismt
csak egyttesen, a kormnyzat jvhagysval olyan tartalk-
feltr verseny-intzmnyrendszert dolgozzanak ki, amely rvn
a kontraszelekcis folyamatok minimalizlhatk, magas min-
sg s fenntarthat felsoktats hozhat ltre.
A kulcs mindkt feladat elvgzshez a felsoktatsi vezetk kezben
van. Kpesek-e piaci szereplktl elvrt mrtkben s mdon egyttm-
kdni, felismerni azt, hogy mindent megprblni megrizni annyit tesz,
mint mindent kockra tenni.
Joggal merlhet fel azonban kt krds. Egyrszt, hogy egyes gyen-
ge lncszem intzmnyek mit tudnnak ajnlani a tllsrt cserbe,
vagy megfordtva, mit ajnlhatnak nekik a tbbiek a httrbe vonulsrt
cserbe. Msrszt, mi az akadlya annak, hogy az egyetemek, fiskolk
tnylegesen ipargi kartellbe tmrljenek, felosszk a piacot egyms
kztt, s megllaptsk azokat a terleteket, ahol versenyeznek egyms-
sal- a piac fejldse rdekben , s azokat ahol nem a tartalkok feltl-
tse kapcsn.
Pldul egy kisebb intzmnynek nem szksges, hogy mindenkinek
tudjon ajnlatot tenni. Elg, ha egy-egy dominns szerepl fel meg tud-
ja ezt tenni, s ezzel vlik egy kzs ajnlati-hl rszesv. Az szm-
ra szabad piaci rseket lehet felknlni, valamint elssorban forrsokat a
kompenzcihoz, mely a leplsi vesztesgeket az rintett szereplk-
nek ellenslyozhatja.
A leglis kartell ltrejttnek akadlya a szereplk relatve elgtelen
tudsa. Az intzmnyi lthatatlan kz termszetesen folyamatosan te-
szi a dolgt, de ahogy North is rmutatott nem szksgkppen hat-
kony eredmnyeket teremtve. A krlmnyekhez, kvetelmnyekhez
kpest nem kell kpessgekkel rendelkez szerepli kr nem kpes
olyan felttelrendszert a termkeny versenyhez kialaktani, mely egyfor-
mn elfogadhat a kartellt alkot oligopliumoknak, s a f forrsgazda
kormnyzatnak.

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***

219
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Lszl Csorba taught Economics and Finance studies at the
Comparative Economics Department of Corvinus Budapest University
and Department of Finance of University of Debrecen. He has taught
Business Administration studies at the Department of Business
Economics of Eszterhzy College in Eger, Hungary. He is candidate for
PhD in the Management and Business Administration PhD School of
Szent Istvn University Gdll, where the theme of his thesis is
uncertainty and risk taking. He carries out research into topics of
institutional and ecological economics.

Attila rsek gained his MA degree in History and Hungarian

Literature. He has 23 years of teaching experience in elementary and
secondary school as well as in adult education. His interests include
developing the personality of students, constant renewal and self-training
based on internal motivation. Besides having a full-time job, he is also a
second-year doctoral student in the Doctoral School of Pedagogy at
EKC, Eger. He is highly interested in the usage and methodology of
computers and devices connected to computers. He has teaching
experience in the use of ICT tools.

Florence Fontaine habil., PhD has been a researcher and a teacher

since 2002 at the University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne. She teaches
in biology and physiology of plant and fungi and also in biology and
physiology of the grapevine, and grapevine pathology. She is the
supervisor of two Erasmus agreements of the period of 2010-2014, one
with the University of Debrecen in Hungary, one with the University of
Piacenza in Italy and another one with the University of Firenze in Italy.
In the unity of research on vine and wine in Champagne area, she is the
supervisor of research focusing on the impact of pathogens associated to
trunk diseases on the grapevine physiology and on the development of a
friendly strategy to control these diseases. In 2009, she obtained her
habilitation at University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne. Since 2013, she
has been the chair of the COST Action FA1303 entitled Sustainable
control of grapevine trunk diseases.

220
 Krisztina Godsave graduated from College for Foreign Trade in Bu-
dapest and before taking on her current role as Country Manager for the
London Chamber of Commerce & Industry Examinations Board (LCCI),
now part of Pearson Education, she specialised in Customer Care
training for major international companies such as American Express and
Ford. Recognising that taking an examination can be a stressful event,
Kriszti has created a candidate package focused on providing timely
information and support, which combined with a range of third-generation
Business English examinations offers a vital service to both learners and
teachers.

Mria Gcsi Jask PhD, adjunct, has been working at the

Department of Educational Sciences at Comenius Faculty of Eszterhzy
College College in Sarospatak, Hungary since 2006. Her main research
areas are kindergarten education, educational methodology of games
and drama pedagogy. She has been awarded the Pro Academicae Civis
award for excellent work in pedagogy as well as the Outstanding
Educator Degree Award for her outstanding relationship with the
students, co-operation and in recognition of her work in developing
higher education. She holds professional memberships and offices in
Hungarian Drama and Theatre in Education Association, being a
member since 1997; in the National Institute of Vocational and Adult
Education, being a vocational expert since 2010; Baccalaureate
Chairman since 2012; Faculty Council - Membership voting rights since
2014 in Eszterhzy College Comenius Teacher Training College. She
has been a member of rpd-hzi Szent Erzsbet Historical Society
since 1999, of the Kazinczy Ferenc Society since 2010 and the Society
of Hungarian Scientists and Scholars since 2014. She has been invited
to several national and international conferences since 2009, e.g. Scien-
ce and Education in Service of Knowledge-Based Society, 3rd Internatio-
nal Scientific Conference in 2011, or the 4th International Conference for
Theory and Practice in Education Society and Education in 2011.

Zsuzsanna Hank PhD is a professor in Eszterhzy Kroly College,

Eger, Hungary. She began her studies at the Teacher Training College of
Eger, then continued in Debrecen University and Etvs Lrnd Univer-
sity. As to her qualification, she is a psychologist specialized in
educational psychology as well as a teacher of geography and biology.
She has been working at Eszterhzy Kroly College since 1992. Her
fields of interest: individual treatment of children with special needs,
differentiated ability development and special aspects of adult education.

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 Prima Dona Hapsari is an English teacher at the Faculty of
Performing Arts, Indonesia Institute of the Arts Yogyakarta known as
ISI Yogyakarta. Her major focus is on English language teaching.
Moreover, she is also a Bahasa Indonesian teacher for non-native
Indonesians. She published an English book for kids (Fun Learning Eng-
lish for Kids, 2006). She has received research grants from ISI
Yogyakarta and the Indonesian Ministry of Education and Culture. For
holding her master degree in English studies for English teaching prog-
ram, she is much interested in Education. However, she is also
developing her interest in Art Education and Cross-Cultural
Understanding. Currently she is also the secretary of International Affairs
Office of ISI Yogyakarta which enables her to explore the International
programs in developing any potential partnerships that ISI Yogyakarta
could develop and in sharing the positive effects on partnership programs
with ISI Yogyakarta counterparts.

Judit Agnes Kadar habil., PhD has taught American and Canadian
culture studies at the Department of American Studies of Eszterhzy
College in Eger, Hungary for 23 years, more recently with a focus on
ethnic and multicultural studies. She published a textbook (Critical
Perspectives on English-Canadian Literature, 1996). She has received
some research grants (FEFA, FEP, FRP/CEACS, JFK, Fulbright) and
held a temporary lecturing position at GCSU (Georgia, USA, 2009),
taught and did research at UNM (Albuquerque, USA, 2012-3). As for
research, she has studied alternative histories in recent western
Canadian fiction (PhD thesis), the psychological and sociological
implications of the vanished indigenous passage rites
(Othering/indigenization) in US and Canadian literature and culture, and
has published Going Indian: Cultural Appropriation in Recent North Ame-
rican Literature (2012, University of Valencia Press). In 2013, she
obtained her habilitation at ELTE University of Budapest. Currently she
explores mixed blood narratives and identity negotiation in the SW
literature and recent Nuevomexicano writing respectively. She is the
director of the International Relations Center at Eszterhzy College.

Lszl Krpti is an English teacher and a freelance translator and

interpreter. So far he has been teaching in secondary education. At the
moment he is teaching in a primary school. He has also been in tertiary
education, teaching English to adults. He is a PhD student at Eszterhzy
Kroly College under the supervision of professor Jen Brdos. His focus
of research includes linguistics, psychology, communication and
pedagogy. His dissertation is centered around communication strategies

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and their possible development in foreign language education. His main
concern is to improve students level of fluency in speaking while
maintaining accuracy.

Judit Kelemen PhD graduated from Ferenc Liszt Music Academy in

Budapest as a music teacher and a choral conductor. She was awarded
her doctoral degree (DLA) from the Music Academy . She has been
teaching music subjects in the field of teacher training and preschool
teacher training as an associate professor at Comenius Faculty of Esz-
terhzy Kroly College.

Josef Keek was born in Prague in 1950, studied catchment

hydrology at the Czech Technical University (MSc, 1973), and submitted
his PhD thesis on forest hydrology (Czech Agricultural University, 1977).
Since 1991, he has been associate professor at the Department of
Hydrology, Czech Technical University in Prague. In 1995-96, he was a
visiting research professor oatTWU Denton (Texas). His research
activities focus on the management of mountain watersheds and
environmental impacts of the acid atmospheric deposition. Between 1991
and 2012, he was the leader of the project Mountain Waters of the
Czech Republic (Earthwatch Institute, Oxford).

gnes Petrsovits has been working as a teacher of English for 28

years. She is the head of the General Language Group (Institute for
Foreign Languages and Communication, Eszterhzy College, Eger) and
she is the coordinator of the foreign language mentoring program, which
was launched at Eszterhzy College in spring 2014. The goal of the
program is to promote the internalization processes at the college
through providing assistance to academics who intend to participate in a
mobility program, teach a course, give a presentation or publish their
academic work in a foreign language.

Cecilia Rego PhD has specialized into the research of young

grapevine decline with emphasis on young vine decline, particularly
Cylindrocarpon complex. Her studies concentrated on fungal taxonomy,
pathogenicity and control. Her current research covers grapevine wood
diseases, mainly esca, young vine decline and related diseases, focusing
diagnosis, host-pathogen interactions and control. She is the leader of
WG1 of ACTION COST FA 1303 Sustainable control of grapevine trunk
diseases and member of Management Committee (Portugal) of ACTION
COST FA1303. As a member of scientific or / and organizing comitee,
she takes part in several international conferences and workshops:

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Member of Scientific Committee of the 8th International Workshop on
Grapevine Trunk Diseases, Valencia, Spain (2012); Member of Scientific
Commitee of the 7th International Workshop on Grapevine Trunk
Diseases, Sta Cruz, Chile (2010); Member of Scientific Commitee of the
6th International Workshop on Grapevine Trunk Diseases, Florence, Italy
(2008); member of the Organising Commitee of 2nd International
Workshop on Grapevine Trunk Diseases, Lisbon (2001).

Andrea Schmidt PhD is an assistant professor at the Deptaratment of

Political Studies, University of Pcs (Hungary). She graduated from Ja-
nus Pannonius University (University of Pcs), CEU, Budapest Business
School and Etvs Lrnd University. She obtained her PhD in Political
Sciences in 2010 from the University of Pcs. Her main academic
interests focus on financial factors of governance, the transitional period
of the Central and Eastern European countries especially Hungary,
Poland and the Visegrad countries. She regularly contributes to the
programmes offered in English by lecturing on East-Central European
Political Structures and Economics of Central and Eastern European
Countries in the Age of State Socialism and Transitional Period. She is
the coordinator of the MA porgamme conducted in English on Internatio-
nal Relations at the University of Pcs, Faculty of Humanities. Among
others, she spent two years at the Jagiellonian University studying
History and Polish Philology, in Leningrad (St. Petersburg) State Univer-
sity, doing Russian Phililogy and History.

Edit Bukovszki Spicze has been working at the University of Miskolc

as a teacher of English for more than a decade, teaching general English
and ESP courses to students of engineering and also to law and
economics students. Currently she is doing her PhD studies at Eszter-
hzy Kroly College in Education Sciences. Her main research topics are
facilitating autonomous learning and teaching ESP in a higher education
context, innovative teaching methods and English-medium instruction.

Rka Tth-Dolenszky graduated as an English teacher from Eszter-

hzy Kroly College in Eger (Hungary) in 2001. She taught English in a
secondary school for a year. Then she was employed at the secretariat
of the regional office where she was in charge of the implementation of
the PHARE Program. There she became interested by the exciting world
of project implementation. Since 2004 she has been working in the Cent-
re for International Relations. In 2014 she became the head of the
Mobility Office where her responsibilities mainly cover the operation of

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student and teacher mobility programs and the coordination of related
administrative, housing and visa services.

va Tth PhD is an associate professor at Eszterhzy Kroly College,

Eger. She has an MA degree in Russian, English and Marketing. She
has 36 years of teaching experience starting her career as a mentor
teacher of Russian and English at Primary Training School N 2 of the
College. From 1989 to 1999 she worked at Andrssy Gyrgy Secondary
School of Economics as head of English. Since 1999 she has been the
head of Foreign Languages for Special Purposes Group and the Eger
Accredited Business Exam Site of Budapest Business School.

Klmn Zoltn Vczy PhD has been a researcher since 2001. He

started his career at the Research Institute for Viticulture and Oenology.
Now he is a senior researcher and director general at the Regional
Knowledge Centre of Eszterhzy Kroly College. In the unit of research
on food, vine and wine he is the supervisor of research focusing on the
impact of fungal pathogens of grapevine (gray and noble rot, powdery
mildew, black rot, trunk diseases) from a biological and fungicide
resistant point of view and on the development of a sustainable strategy
to control these diseases. He teaches microbiology, applied
microbiology, wine microbiology and grapevine pathology. Since 2013 he
has been taking part as a Management Comitee member at COST Acti-
on FA1303 entitled Sustainable control of grapevine trunk diseases. He
has organised several research programs, and now he is the leader of
several research projects as well, taking part in national and international
research programmes, projects and contributions. He is the winner of
National Excellence Program, FEMS Grats for Young Scientists and
awards of different societies. He is active in scientific life also with
memberships of more than ten scientific societies and as a public body
member of Hungarian Academy of Sciences.

Mrta Vkony Vinnai is a teacher of English. She graduated from the

University of Leeds as a Master of Education in Primary Teacher
Training. At present she is an assistant professor at Eszterhzy Kroly
College, Comenius Faculty where students can obtain a BA degree
which entitles them to teach English for the lower sections of Hungarian
primary schools and for grades five and six in the upper section. Her
research interest includes English language childrens literature and the
methodology of teaching English as a second language to young
learners. The professional development of primary teachers, classroom

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observation and multicultural education in the field of teacher training
also belong to her main concern.

Mria Vincze (PhD student) obtained her MA degree at Szeged Uni-

versity (former JATE) in Russian and French Language and Literature,
General and Applied Linguistics. She studied English and Bulgarian too.
She has taught Hungarian as a foreign language at different levels - from
primary to university also in Sofia, Bulgaria for 10 years. She has
developed her own teaching materials for Young Learners, focusing on
how to improve the students' language skills in Hungarian. She has 17
years of experience as an interpreter in the Bulgarian language also. She
has a strong interest in education sciences, teaching methods and
developing teaching content with a special focus on improving language
skills, based on the results of linguistics, psycholinguistic theories of
foreign language learning and neurosciences researches. Currently, she
is working on her PhD dissertation concerning teaching Hungarian as a
foreign language.

Hans de Wit PhD is Director of the Centre for Higher Education

Internationalisation at the Universit Cattolica Sacro Cuore in Milan, Italy,
and Professor of Internationalization of Higher Education at the Amster-
dam University of Applied Sciences. He is a Research Associate at the
Unit for Higher Education Internationalisation in the Developing World at
the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa.
He is Founding Editor of the Journal of Studies in International Educati-
on and writes a monthly blog in University World News on international
higher education, www.universityworldnews.com. He has (co)written
several books and articles on international education and is involved in
assessment and consultancy in international education. In 2005-2006, he
was a New Century Scholar of the Fulbright Program. He is a founding
member and past president of the European Association for International
Education (EAIE).

Erika Gyngysi-Wiersum PhD gained her MSc degree with

distinction at the Department of Mathematics at Kossuth Lajos University,
Debrecen, in 1999. She defended her PhD with summa cum laude
honour in recognition of her proficiency in the field of Mathematics and
Computer Sciences in 2004 at the University of Debrecen; the title of her
thesis was ''Computer Assisted Teaching of Mathematics: Potentials and
Possible Dangers". Between 2004 and 2011 she worked as a tutor, then
she became an assistant lecturer in 2012. Since 2014 she has been
working as an assistant professor at Comenius Faculty of Eszterhzy

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Kroly College. Her scientific research focuses on teaching and learning
methods in order to make the learning of mathematics more effective. In
addition, she also investigates questions such as the integration of
computers into teaching and learning mathematics in primary, secondary
and advanced levels.

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