4.1.

4 Laplace Transform Method

The Laplace transform of a function x(t) is defined as:

() = [()]=0 () d (4.24)

where s (a complex function) is a subsidiary variable :

= + (rad/s) (4.25)

To solve an equation of motion (EOM)

+ + = (),

each of its element has to be transformed into the Laplace space.

[ ()] + [ ()] + [()] = [()]

[()] = () d = ()
0

d()
[ ()] = 0 d = st x(t)| 0 d = () (0) (4.26)
d 0
Similarly ,

[()] = 2 () (0) (0), and (4.27)

Generally:

d ()
= () 1 (0) 2 (0) 1 (0) (4.28)
d

The EOM becomes:

( 2 + + )() = () + (0) + ( + )(0) (4.29)

Assuming that at steady- state

(0) = (0) = 0
the corresponding solution is as:

() 1 1
= =
() 2 + + ( 2 + 20 + 02 )
1
( ) = (4.30)
2 ++

and is called the Transfer Function

() = ()() (4.31)

1
() = 1 [()] = 1 [() ]
2 + +
If the complex function s is admitted as :

1
= ( = ) = (4.32
2 ++

the Transfer Function (TF) becomes the Frequency Response Function, (FRF).

Laplace Transform: Example--Free vibration in un-damped SDOF system.

The EOM : + = 0,

and the normalized form: + 02 = 0

Laplace transform: 2 () (0) (0) + 02 () = 0 , and

(0)+(0)
( ) = () = 1 [()]
2 +02

The Laplace transform table are used to get x(t) from X(s), i.e.

(0)+(0) (0) (0)

( ) = = + 1 [ ] = cos ,
2 +02 2 +02 2 +02 2 +02

1 [ ] = sin
2 +02

(0)
() = (0) cos(0 ) + sin(0 )
0
4.1.5 Response to the unit impulse excitation

A unit impulse excitation, (called Dirac function), is characterized by a force

which at time = has an infinite magnitude but encloses unit area, whereas
for any time , f(t) = 0.

for =

() = {lim ()d = 1 }
0
(4.33)
0 for

The impulse excitation acting at time induces a response of the vibratory system
which is denoted ( ), Figure 4.8. It is evident that if < , ( ) = 0.

Fig. 4.8 The time domain response of the vibratory system to unit impulse excitation

A large force of magnitude that is acting over a short period, can be written
as:

() = ( ) (4.34)

The sampling propriety. Multiplying a continuous function f(t) by the quantity

( ), and integrating over the entire time axis the value of function f(t) at
the time t=a is obtained.

() ( ) = () ( )d = () (4.35)
4.1.6 Use of Fourier Transforms

The superposition principle together with Fourier transform operation represents a

very efficient tool used to study the response of the linear system to external
forces.

The Fourier transform F(f) of the excitation f(t) is first determined and the response
of the system to each Fourier component is determined separately.

Applying the forward Fourier transform to impulse response function ( )

transforms it into a complex frequency response function H(f).

The time response x(t) is obtained as the inverse Fourier transform of X(f) :

() = ( ()) = () 2 d = 2 d ()( )d =

= d 2() ( ) 2 ()d

Introducing = , expanding the regions of integration and considering the

statement (4.3) the forward Fourier transform X(f) can further be written:

() = d 2 ( ) 2 ()d

= () 2 d () 2 d = ()()

The final form:

( ) = ()() (4.36)

reveals a very important and useful statement:

 the forward Fourier transform of the response is the product between the
frequency response function and forward Fourier transform of the excitation
force.

The spectrum of the output is obtained very simply by multiplying the input
spectrum by the frequency response function at each frequency.

The phase of response is the sum between the phases of frequency response
function and excitation.

|()| = |()| |()| (4.37)

= + (4.38)

Note, that in this formulation the solution is a superposition of steady state

response to simple harmonic excitations. The relation defining the power
spectrum is obtained by squaring the equation between amplitudes:

|()|2 = |()|2 |()|2 (4.39)

Note. If the excitation applied at the time t=0 is the unit impulse (Dirac function)
then the response is depicted as h(t) and called the response function to the unit
impulse excitation. In this case the Eq. (4.37) becomes:

() = ((t)) () = ()

The response in the time domain is obtained applying the inverse Fourier transform
to X(f), that in this particular case is H(f):

() = 1 (()) = 1 (()), for > 0,

() = 0, for 0 (4.40)

Hence, the response function to the unit impulse excitation and frequency
response function formed a pair of Fourier Transform functions.

On basis of the convolution theorem:

( ) = ,

and the response in the time domain is:


() = ( ) = () ( )d (4.41)

The last equations reveals that a time analysis of the response x(t) is not able to
provide any direct information regarding the excitation f(t).

Application. The complex frequency response function H(f) of a SDOF system

A complex frequency response function represents a vibrating system response

which gives information on both the absolute value of the response and the lag
between the response and the excitation.

Fig. 4.9 The displacement x(t) of a SDOF system to an external force f(t).

For generality, the excitation is considered an arbitrary Fourier series component,

() = 0 2 :

() + () + () = 0 2

0
+ + = 2

Applying the forward Fourier transform to both sides and using Fourier Transform
proprieties we have:

0
( ) [ (2)2 + (2) + 1] = () = =

2
) 1 1( ) 2
0 0
( ) = = = 2 2 + 2 2 (4.42)
() (2)2 + (2)+1 2 2
[1( ) ] +(2 ) [1( ) ] +(2 )
0 0 0 0

where:

1
0 = is the natural circular frequency of the un-damped free vibration,
2

= 2 is the fraction from critical damping, both previously defined (Eq.

(3.6) and Eq. (3.7), respectively).

The modulus and phase of the frequency response are as follows:

1
| ( )| = (4.43)
2 2 2
[1( ) ] +(2 )
0 0

2
1 0
() = tan ( 2
) (4.44)
1( )
0

4.1.7 Response of a SDOF system to periodic excitations

A periodic excitation repeats itself in time, called period T:

( ) = ( + ), 0 (4.45)

By using the Fourier series any periodic excitation can be decomposed in a sum
of many harmonic excitations whose frequencies are multiples of the
fundamental frequency (see chapter 2.3.4).
In the case of linear systems (linear springs and linear dampers) the response can
be obtained by the superposition the responses of individual harmonics.

Plot of the amplitude of each harmonic component versus its frequency

represents the frequency spectrum. For periodic excitations that is a discrete
frequency spectrum.

Harmonic decomposition and discrete frequency spectrum is exemplified in

Figure 4.10 for the case of a square wave excitation.

Fig. 4.10 Harmonic decomposition of periodic square wave excitation (a) time
domain; (b) frequency domain.

+ + = () = 0 + 2Re[
=1(
2
)] (4.46)

In the base of superposition principle, Figure 4.10 and Figure 4.11, the response is
written as the sum of responses to each Fourier component of excitation:
 0
= + 2Re[
=1( (0 )
0
)] (4.47)

where (0 ) is the frequency response function of the linear SDOF system:

1
(0 ) = (4.48)
2
(1( ) +2( ))
0 0

Fig. 4.11 Response of the linear system to components of a periodic square wave
excitation.
Fig. 4.12 Response of the linear system to components of a periodic square
wave excitation.

4.1.8 Response to an arbitrary external force f(t)

Time superposition approach. Duhamels integral. The idea is to regard the

arbitrary excitation as a superposition of impulses of varying magnitude and
applied at different times. The vibratory system is also admitted as a Linear Time
Invariant (LTI) system that means that the shape of the response will not be
influenced by the time the input is applied to the system.

The external function f(t) can be considered as consisting of an infinite number

of impulses, each with an infinitesimal width and a height (), Figure 4.13.
Based on superposition principle the response of the system to the external
function f(t) can be obtained superimposing the responses produced by the
action of each of these impulses. Mathematically this statement can be written
in the form:

() = ()( )d (4.49)

The superposition integral represents a convolution, and the excitation f is said to

be convolved with h to produce the response x. Because the convolution
operation is commutative we can write the equivalent form:

() = ()( )d (4.50)

where = .

The equation (4.50) points out that the response to external force f(t) can be
obtained by superposition of free vibration solutions.

Fig. 4.13 Time domain superposition

4.1.9 Response of SDOF systems to shocks

Shocks may be described in terms of force, acceleration, velocity or

displacement. A simple shock may be defined as a transmission of kinetic energy
to a system which takes place in a relatively short time compared with the natural
period of oscillation of the system. The Fourier analysis proved to be helpful to
estimate the effect that the corresponding shock, f(t), would have on a certain
mechanical system:

(()) = () 2 d

Various shock time functions and the amplitude of their Fourier spectra are
presented in Figure 4.14.

The shocks spectra exemplified in Figure 4.14 point out two important
particularities:

I. the spectra are continuous with no discrete frequency components;

II. shock pulse contains energy spread over all frequencies from zero to
infinity.

In the expressions for F(t) in the Figure 4.14 all the expressions within the parallel
brackets approach unity as frequency f goes to zero. That means that at very low
frequencies the magnitude of the spectrum component is equal to the area
(amplitude-time integral) of the shock pulse, irrespective of the shock shape. It
means that the severity of the shock is determined by the area of the shock pulse
alone.
Fig. 4.14 Example of shock time functions and their amplitude spectra as obtained
by Fourier transforms,(Broch 2.13):

(a)rectangular shock pulse,

(b) a peak saw tooth shock pulse;

(c) a half-sine shock pulse.

4.1.10 Response of SDOF systems to transient phenomena

Transient phenomena may last for one single period being called shock wave,
or several periods being an oscillating phenomenon. Transient phenomena are
termed also complex shocks. A Fourier spectrum function of a typical transient
excitation is presented in Figure 4.15. Particularities:

I. the magnitude of the spectrum components tends to zero as the

frequency goes to zero, that is a rather different evolution comparing
with that corresponding for simple shocks (Figure 4.14);
II. maximum magnitude of the spectrum is reached around frequency
f0 which corresponds roughly to the frequency of oscillation of the
transient;
III. the maximum is broader the quicker the transient phenomenon
ceases;
IV. when the transient acts as a harmonic vibration the frequency
degenerates into a discrete spectral line.

Fig.4.15 Oscillating transient and its Fourier spectrum function,( Broch 2.14)