THEORY OF STRUCTURE

ASSIGNMENT

SUBMISSION BY:
MANAS ARORA
3RD YEAR B
ROLL NO.3
VASTU KALA ACADEMY
QUE.1 WHAT IS PRESTRESSING AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE?
ANS.1
Prestressing concrete is a method for REINFORCED
overcoming concretes natural weakness in CONCRETE
tension.

It is a method of applying pre-compression to

control the stresses resulting due to external
loads below the neutral axis of the beam. PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE
Prestressed concrete is basically a concrete in
which internal stresses of a suitable magnitude
and distribution are introduced so that the
stresses resulting from the external load are
counteracted to a desired degree.

It is introduced by stretching steel wire and anchoring them against concrete.

There are two basic methods of applying pre-stress to a concrete member:

1) Pre-tensioning most often used in factory situations

2) Post-tensioning site use

Advantages of prestressed concrete are:

1) Section remains uncracked under service loads

a. Reduction of steel corrosion
b. Full section is utilized
I. Higher moment of inertia (higher stiffness)
II. Less deformations (improved serviceability)
c. Increase in shear capacity.
d. Suitable for use in pressure vessels, liquid retaining structures.
e. Improved performance (resilience) under dynamic and fatigue loading.

2) High span-to-depth ratios

a. Larger spans possible with prestressing (bridge, buildings with large column spaces)

3) Suitable for precast construction

a. Rapid construction
b. Better quality control
c. Reduced maintenance
d. Suitable for repetitive construction
 e. Availability of standard shapes

Disadvantages of prestressed concrete:

1) Prestressing needs skilled technology. Hence, it is not as common as reinforced concrete.

2) The use of high strength materials is costly.
3) There is additional cost in auxiliary equipment.
4) There is need for quality control and inspection.

QUE.2 WHAT IS POST TENSIONING AND HOW IS IT DIFFERENT FROM PRE STRESSING?
ANS.2

In Post tension, the tendons are tensioned after the concrete has hardened. Commonly,
metal or plastic ducts are placed inside the concrete before casting.

After the concrete hardened and had enough strength, the tendon are placed inside the
duct, stressed, and anchored against concrete.

Grout may be injected into the duct later. This can be done either as precast or cast-in-
place.

Post-tensioning tendons, which are prestressing steel cables inside plastic ducts or
sleeves, are positioned in the forms before the concrete is placed.

Afterwards, once the concrete has gained strength but before the service loads are applied,
the cables are pulled tight, or tensioned, and anchored against the outer edges of the
concrete.

Post-tensioning is a form of prestressing. Prestressing simply means that the steel is

stressed (pulled or tensioned) before the concrete has to support the service loads.

Most precast, prestressed concrete is actually pre-tensioned-the steel is pulled before the
concrete is poured. Post-tensioned concrete means that the concrete is poured and then
the tension is applied-but it is still stressed before the loads are applied so it is still
prestressed.

QUE.3 HOW IS PRESTRESSED CONCRETE DIFFERENT FROM REINFORECED CONCRETE?

ANS.3

A prestressed concrete structure is different from a conventional reinforced concrete structure due
to the application of an initial load on the structure prior to its use.
The initial load or prestress is applied to enable the structure to counteract the stresses arising
during its service period.
The prestressing of a structure is not the only instance of prestressing. The concept of prestressing
existed before the applications in concrete.
 Differences between Reinforced Concrete (RC) and Prestressed Concrete (PC)

1. Tensile Strength
RC: Tensile strength of concrete is assumed to be negligible.
PC: Permanent stresses are created prior to full DL and LL application to reduce net
tensile stresses.

2. Cracking and Deflection

RC:
RC cracks only 1/2-1/3 of concrete crosssection contributes to effectiveness.
Cracking and deflection are typically irrecoverable after reaching these limit states.
Limited by deflections because cracking reduces effective moment of inertia.
Service deflections are typically large.
PC:
Little, if any, cracking. Entire cross-section contributes to effectiveness.
A higher level of recovery of cracking and deflection due to prestressing force.
Service deflections are small (camber reduces ? and full section is stiffer).
Both RC and PC deflect appreciably at ultimate loads.

3. Stiffness
RC: Stiffness is difficult to control economically.
PC: Stiffness can be flexible or rigid by controlling amount of prestress for a given strength.
** PC acts like RC when applied moment exceeds flexural tensile strength.

4. Shear
RC: No direct assistance from longitudinal steel.
PC: Some assistance from longitudinal steel.

5. Serviceability
RC: Heavy
PC:
Lighter weight
Can accommodate longer spans
More adaptable to precasting.
6. Safety
RC: Safe
PC: Partial testing of steel and concrete by tensioning loads.

7. Economy
 RC: More material.
PC: Less material, but higher cost materials used.
Tend to save on other parts of structure because PC is lighter.

QUE.4 WHAT ARE THE MERITS AND DEMRITS OF FOLDED PLATE STRUCTURE?
ANS.4
Folded plates are assemblies of flat plates rigidly connected
together along their edges in such a way that the structural
system capable of carrying loads without the need for
additional supporting beams along mutual edges.

Engineer Eudene Freyssinet performed the first roof with the

folded structure in 1923 as an aircraft hangar at Orly Airport
in Paris.

Modern folded plate structures are typically made of cast in situ or precast reinforced concrete,
or steel plate.

There are several benefits of folded plate construction.

o They are simpler to manufacture than other shells such as cylindrical shells, with relatively
simple formwork required, and usually use less material.
o Folded plates require more materials than curved shells since there is normally more
bending involved.
o Folded plate structures have an intrinsic rigidity and high load-carrying capacity which
makes them economical over long spans that need to be free of internal columns and other
obstructions.

They can provide a multitude of shapes and overall forms:

1. Prismatic: Rectangular plates.
2. Pyramidal: Non-rectangular plates.
3. Prismoidal: Triangular or trapezoidal plates.

On the other hand, Folded plates can be classified as:

1- single
2- Multiple
3- Symmetrical
4- Unsymmetrical
5- Simple
6- Continuous
7- Folded plates with simple joints
8- Folded plates with multiple joints
9- Folded plates with opened cross sectional
10- Folded plates with closed cross sectional

Advantages and Disadvantages of Folded-Plate Structure:

Advantages:

Very light form of construction. To span 30 m shell thickness required is 60 mm only.

The use of concrete as a building material reduces both materials cost and a construction cost.
 Longer span can be provided.
Flat shapes by choosing certain arched shapes.
Aesthetically it looks good over other forms of construction.

Disadvantages:

Shuttering is difficult.
Greater accuracy in formwork is required.
Good labour and supervision necessary.
Rise of roof may be a disadvantage.

QUE.5 COMPARISION BETWEEN FOLDED PLATE ROOFS AND SHELL ROOFS

ANS.5

Shell structures are light weight constructions using shell elements. These elements are typically curved and
are assembled to large structures

Typical applications are fuselages of aeroplanes, boat hulls and roof structures in some buildings.

A primary difference between a shell structure and a plate structure is that, in the unstressed state, the
shell structure has curvature as opposed to plates structures which are flat.

Following are Advantages and Disadvantages of Folded Plate Roofs over Shell Roofs
Advantages of Folded Plate Roofs over Shell Roofs are:
(a) Movable form work can be employed.
(b) Form work required is relatively simpler.
(c) Design involves simpler calculations.
Disadvantages of Folded Plate Roofs over Shell Roofs are:
(a) Folded plate consumes more material than shells.
(b) Form work may be removed after 7 days whereas in case of shells it can be little earlier.

QUE.6 EXPLAIN ONE WAY AND TWO WAY SLAB.

ANS.6

ONE WAY SLAB:

One way slab is supported on two opposite side only

thus structural action is only at one direction.

Total load is carried in the direction perpendicular to

the supporting beam. If a slab is supported on all the
four sides but the ratio of longer span (l) to shorten
span (b) is greater than 2, then the slab will be
considered as one way slab.
Thus, L/W >= 2
 Because due to the huge difference in lengths, load is not transferred to the shorter beams. Main
reinforcement is provided in only one direction for one way slabs.

TWO WAY SLAB:

Two way slabs are the slabs that are supported on

four sides and the ratio of longer span (l) to shorter
span (b) is less than 2. Thus, L/W < 2

In two way slabs, load will be carried in both the

directions. So, main reinforcement is provided in
both direction for two way slabs.

QUE.7 DIFFENTIATE BEYTWEEN ONE WAY AND TWO WAY SLAB

ANS.7

ONE WAY SLAB TWO WAY SLAB

One way slab is supported by beams in only 2 sides. Two way slab is supported by beams in all four

sides.

The ratio of longer span panel (L) to shorter span The ratio of longer span panel (L) to shorter span

panel (B) is equal or greater than 2. panel (B) is less than 2.

Thus, L/B >= 2 Thus, L/B < 2.

Main reinforcement is provided in only one direction Main reinforcement is provided in both the

for one way slabs. direction for two way slabs.

One way slabs will behave in the same manner as a Two way slabs is evenly distributed and will reduce

support beam. bending and shifting.

QUE.8 WHAT ARE THE MERITS & DEMERITS OF TRUSS ROOFING SYSTEM OVER OTHER LONG SPAN
STRUCTURES?
ANS.8

A roof truss is basically a structure that includes one or multiple triangular units that include
straight slender members with their ends connected via nodes. They are then shipped to the
construction site and installed using a crane after the homes walls have been framed.

Truss roof construction is a type of roof framing technique that uses a truss to support the roof of a
house or building. A roof truss is structural framework of wood or metal bars specifically designed
to support structures, such as a roof or bridge.

The flexibility in the roof design and complexity that roof trusses enable have also made them
increasingly popular.

In Architecture and Structural Engineering, a truss is a structure comprising one or more

triangular units constructed with straight slender members whose ends are connected at joints
referred to as nodes.

External forces and reactions to those forces are considered to act only at the nodes and result
in forces in the members which are either tensile or compressive forces.

Advantages of Roof Trusses

1. Easy to Install:
Roof trusses can be installed and erected quickly, with many being fixed in a single day. This
allows for a quicker build on site, which ultimately saves money. Getting the roof on a
structure in a shorter time also reduces the exposure of the building's interior to the
elements--something which can prevent damage.

2. Engineered Designs:
While traditionally trusses have been constructed by the carpenters on site, the use of pre-
manufactured truss designs means that they have already been thoroughly tested to
ascertain their level of strength and load capacity. Therefore, nothing is left to chance and
you have peace of mind that what you are installing is fit for purpose.

3. Increased Span:
Trusses can reach almost any span required when the correct design is applied. Therefore,
there is no need for load-bearing internal walls, which gives the architect more flexibility to
design the interior layout without having to be concerned with supporting the trusses.

4. Design Availability:
Trusses are available in a wide spectrum of designs--each of which performs a specific
function in the span it crosses and the load it can hold. Simple truss designs are often used
on houses, whereas more complex truss designs will be implemented in industrial and
commercial buildings. Bespoke trusses can even be designed for buildings that cannot
accommodate a standard truss design

5. Professional design and fabrication techniques; in conventional roof building, the carpenters build a
roof frame, leaving much to chance and the builders opinion in terms of the roofs strength. By
comparison, a trussed roof system is designed by engineers to accommodate the specific roof
 design and meet building codes and enabling a more uniform size and roof pitch.

6. Higher quality materials and strength; roof trusses are fabricated inside a shop, where the materials
are not exposed to inclement weather or moisture conditions.

7. Trusses can typically be installed in a single day, speeding the home construction process and
getting the structure closed up sooner, which helps prevent moisture and other weather elements
from getting inside.

8. Trusses are cheaper than conventional roof framing due to labour savings and since they are built
from shorter lengths of 24 lumber rather than the large size lumber required in building rafters
and ceiling joists.

9. Roof truss systems allow for almost any custom roof design and shape imaginable, allowing
features such as cross gables and cathedral ceilings without being prohibitively expensive.

10. The design of the roof truss is very complex. The critical nature of the joints makes it difficult to be
assembled at the site. Rather, these joints are assembled at a manufacturing plant and are trucked
to the final destination. Despite the complex structure and the fact that these structures appear
very fragile, these structures are extraordinarily strong once they are erected, mainly due to the
amount of sophistication that is put into its engineering.

Disadvantages of Roof Trusses:

1. The conventional truss design leaves a large volume of attic space unused as these structures
create a web of wood framing that leaves no possible space of using it as a utility. Further, because
of the entangled wooden framework, the aesthetic appearance of the roof is very low. No doubt, it
can be covered up with wooden trim, but it is an additional cost.

2. Because of the complexities involved in building the roof structures with multipronged fasteners
with the help of hydraulic equipment, these structures cannot be built at the site of the building.

3. Hence, these roofs are designed at a plant and have to be transported to a location of the building.
Transportation itself raises a major drawback.

4. Once the trusses are assembled, they can get a little too big. Sometimes they are too big for a truck.
In such cases, specially designed truss trailers have to be used to haul the structures around.

QUE.9 COMPARE ANGULAR TRUSSES AND TUBULAR TRUSSES?

ANS.9

ANGULAR TRUSSES

A truss is essentially a triangulated system of (usually) straight interconnected structural elements;

it is sometimes also referred to as an open web girder.

The individual elements are connected at nodes; the connections are often assumed to be
nominally pinned. The external forces applied to the system and the reactions at the supports are
generally applied at the nodes. When all the members and applied forces are in a same plane, the
 system is a plane or 2D truss.

Trusses are used in a broad range of buildings, mainly where there is a requirement for very long
spans, such as in airport terminals, aircraft hangers, sports stadia roofs, auditoriums and other
leisure buildings. Trusses are also used to carry heavy loads and are sometimes used as transfer
structures. Trusses are widely used to serve two main functions:

1. To carry the roof load

2. To provide horizontal stability.

TUBULAR TRUSSES

Tubular Steel roof trusses are used for large span constructions
such as factories, industry worksheds, shopping malls, huge
exhibition centres, multiplexes etc. They are generally used for
spans as large as 25-30m.

There is a similar kind of a truss called Tubular Steel Monitor Roof Truss. There are projections on
the roofs called Monitors to admit daylight into the space.
Uses of Tubular Steel Monitor Roof Truss
It is used in large span constructions such as:
o Factories
o Large Community Meeting Halls
o Industrial Work Zone
o Shopping Malls

It is seen that these trusses are used in large span structures that require large amount of natural
lighting for their efficient functioning

Advantages of Tubular Steel Roof Trusses:

1. Structures designed for material handling equipments (e.g., a bridge and a tower crane)
where weight savings may be very substantial economic consideration.

2. 30% to 40% less surface area than that of an equivalent rolled steel shape. Therefore,
the cost of maintenance, cost of painting or protective coatings reduce considerably.

3. The moisture and dirt do not collect on the smooth external surface of the tubes.
Therefore, the possibility of corrosion also reduces.

4. The ends of tubes are sealed. As a result of this, the interior surface is not subjected to
corrosion. The interior surface do not need any protective treatment.

5. They have more torsional resistance than other section of the equal weight.

6. They have a higher frequency vibrations under dynamic loading than the other sections
including the solid round one.

QUE.10 HOW MANY TYPES OF TRUSSES ARE THERE?

ANS.10
 Trusses are an extremely strong, well-
accepted, cost effective option for the
construction of various structures.

To maximise the efficiency of the strucutre

(which is often meaured in material used or
labour), an appropriate truss type should be
selected for design.

A truss can be of two types as far as

workspace is considered;-
1. Planar truss
2. Space truss

Planar truss is that in which members lie in a two dimensional plane while space truss lies in three
dimension.

A truss is composed of three basic parts, one is top chord, the beam at the top which is usually in
compression, bottom chord, beam at the bottom which is usually in tension, webs are interior
beams.

There are variety of trusses available depending on the requirement including span length and
loading condition.
Basically two types of trusses exists :-
1. Bridge Truss
2. Roof Truss

Bridge Truss

1. Pratt Bridge Truss

It includes vertical members and
diagonals that slope down towards the
center.
The diagonal members are subjected to
tension while vertical members are subjected to compression.
Pratt Truss is made of steel.
Vertical members are tension and diagonal members are compression.
It can be used for spans from 6-10m.
2. Howe bridge Truss
It includes vertical members and
diagonals that slope up towards the
center.
It is made of combination of wood and steel.
The vertical members or tension members are made of steel.
It can be used for spans from 6-30m

3. Baltimore Bridge Truss

A Baltimore truss has additional bracing in the
lower section of the truss to prevent buckling in
the compression members and to control
deflection.

4. K Bridge Truss
The K Truss is a slightly more complicated version of the Pratt Truss. It's main difference is that the
vertical members have become shortened - improving it's resistance against buckling. It does
however have similar pros and cons to the Pratt Truss and although it is not widely used, it is a
strong design.

A truss in the form of a K due to the

orientation of the vertical member
and two oblique members in each
panel is known as a K bridge Truss

5. Warren Bridge Truss

It consists of longitudinal members joined only by
angled cross-members, forming alternately inverted
equilateral triangle-shaped spaces along its length.

One of the main advantages of a Warren Truss is its

ability to spread the load evenly across a number of
different members; this is however generally for
cases when the structure is undergoing a spanned
load (a distributed load).

6. Bailey Bridge Truss

A temporary bridge of lattice steel
designed for rapid assembly from
prefabricated standard parts, used
especially in military operations.

It is designed for military use, the

prefabricated and standardized truss elements may be easily combined in various configurations to
adapt to the needs.
Roof Truss
1. Pratt Roof Truss
It uses vertical member for
compression and horizontal members
to respond to tension and is most
efficient under static and vertical
loading.

2. Fink Roof Truss

They are used for longer spans having high pitch
roof, since the web members in such truss are
sub-divided to obtain shorter members.
3. Howe Roof Truss
This type of truss is a combination of steel and
wood, which makes it elegant, while also
offering a very appealing design.

It is a roof truss with vertical web members to

take tension forces and with angled braces to
take compression.

4. Warren Roof Truss

In warren roof truss diagonal members are
alternatively in tension and compression are
used in a building ranging from 20-100 m in
length.

5. King Post Roof Truss

A king post extends vertically from a crossbeam to the apex
of a triangular truss. It connects the apex of the truss with
its base, holding up the beam (in tension) at the base of the
truss.

6. Queen Post Truss

Queen Post Truss is also a wooden truss.

It can be used for spans upto 10m.
QUE.11 WHAT LOADS GOVERN THE DESIGN OF A TRUSS AND WHY?
ANS.11

The loads on trusses would depend upon the application for which the trusses are used. The loads
may be static, as in the case of buildings, or dynamic, as in the case of bridges.

These are briefly reviewed below.

Industrial Buildings The roof trusses in industrial buildings are subjected to the following loads:

1. Dead load
o Dead load on the roof trusses in single storey industrial buildings consists of dead load of
claddings and dead load of purlins, self weight of the trusses in addition to the weight of
bracings etc.
o Further, additional special dead loads such as truss supported hoist dead loads, special
ducting and ventilator weight etc. could contribute to roof truss dead loads.
o As the clear span length (column free span length) increases, the self weight of the moment
resisting gable frame increases drastically. In such cases roof trusses are more economical.

2. Live load
o The live load on roof trusses consist of the gravitational load due to erection and servicing as
well as dust load etc. and the intensity is taken as per IS:875-1987 (Reaffirmed 1992).
Additional special live loads such as snow loads in very cold climates, crane live loads in
trusses supporting monorails may have to be considered.

3. Wind load
o Wind load on the roof trusses, unless the roof slope is too high, would be usually uplift force
perpendicular to the roof, due to suction effect of the wind blowing over the roof. Hence the
wind load on roof truss usually acts opposite to the gravity load, and its magnitude can be
larger than gravity loads, causing reversal of forces in truss members. The horizontal and
 vertical bracings employed in single and multi-storey buildings are also trusses [Fig. 1(d)],
used primarily to resist wind and other lateral loads. These bracings minimize the
differential deflection between the different frames due to crane surge in industrial
buildings. They also provide lateral support to columns in small and tall buildings, thus
increasing the buckling strength.

4. Earthquake load
o Since earthquake load on a building depends on the mass of the building, earthquake loads
usually do not govern the design of light industrial steel buildings. Wind loads usually
govern. Howev er, in the case of industrial buildings with a large mass located at the roof,
the earthquake load may govern the design. These loads are calculated as per IS:18931985.

Multi-Storey Buildings

The lateral load due to wind or earthquake may be resisted by vertical bracings acting as
trusses. These bracings, properly designed, make these buildings very stiff in resisting lateral
loads. Hence they are economical in the buildings of intermediate height ranges. In the case of
earthquake loading, stiff buildings may attract larger inertia force and hence use of bracings
may not be desirable.

Bridge Trusses Trusses

Trusses are used in bridges to transfer the gravity load of moving vehicles to supporting piers.
Depending upon the site conditions and the span length of the bridge, the truss may be either
through type or deck type. In the through type, the carriage way is supported at the bottom
chord of trusses. In the deck type bridge, the carriage way is supported at the top chord of
trusses. Usually, the structural framing supporting the carriage way is designed such that the
loads from the carriage way are transferred to the nodal points of the vertical bridge trusses.
More details of the trusses bridges are discussed in the chapter on bridges.

QUE.12 WHAT ARE NORTH LIGHT TRUSSES?

ANS.12

When the floor span exceeds 15m,

it is generally more economical to
change from a simple truss
arrangement to one employing
wide span lattice girders which
support trusses at right angles.

In order to light up the space

satisfactorily, roof lighting has to
replace or supplement, side lighting
provision must also be made for ventilation form the roof.

One of the oldest and economical methods of covering large areas is the North Light and Lattice
girder.

This roof consists of a series of trusses fixed to girders. The short vertical side of the truss is glazed
so that when the roof is used in the Northern Hemisphere, the glazed portion faces North for the
best light.
 It can be used for spans from 20-30m.

Used for industrial buildings, drawing rooms etc.

The North Light Roof Truss is suitable for the larger spans that go over 20m and get up to 30m. This
happens because its cheaper to add a truss that has a wide, larger set of lattice girders that include
support trusses. This method is one of the oldest, as well as most economical ones that you can find
on the market, as it allows you to bring in proper ventilation. Plus, the roof has more resistance too
because of that.

QUE.13 EXPLAIN BEAM SLAB SYSTEM IN R.C.C?

ANS.13
This system consists of beams framing into columns and supporting slabs spanning between the
beams.

It is a very traditional system.

The relatively deep beams provide a stiff floor

capable of long spans, and able to resist lateral
loads. However, the complications of beam
formwork, co-ordination of services, and
overall depth of floor have led to a decrease in
the popularity of this type of floor.

The traditional reinforced concrete beam-

and-slab floor has an economical span L
of D x 15 for a single span and D x 20 for a
multi-span, where D is the depth of the slab
plus beam. The depth of slab between the
beams can be initially sized using the span-
to-depth ratios for a flat plate. Pre-stressing
is not normally used with this system.

Advantages:
o Traditional effective solution
o Long spans.

Disadvantages:
o Penetrations through beams for large ducts difficult to handle
o Depth of floor
o Greater floor-to-floor height.
 A Reinforced Concrete Slab is the one of the most important component in a building. It is a
structural element of modern buildings. Slabs are supported on Columns and Beams.

RCC Slabs whose thickness ranges from 10 to 50 centimetres are most often used for the
construction of floors and ceilings.

QUE.14 EXPLAIN WAFFLE SLAB SYSTEM?

ANS.14
Ribbed floors consisting of equally spaced ribs are usually
supported directly by columns.

They are either one-way spanning systems known as

ribbed slab or a two-way ribbed system known as
a waffle slab.

This form of construction is not very common because

of the formwork costs and the low fire rating.

A 120-mm-thick slab with a minimum rib thickness of

125 mm for continuous ribs is required to achieve a 2-
hour fire rating. A rib t hickness of greater than 125 mm
is usually required to accommodate tensile and shear
reinforcement.

A waffle slab is a type of building material that has two-directional reinforcement on the outside of the
material, giving it the shape of the pockets on a waffle. This type of reinforcement is common on
concrete, wood and metal construction.

This makes a waffle slab perfect for

large flat areas like foundations or
floors.

The most common material for a

waffle slab is concrete. These slabs
are used as the foundation for
many different types of buildings
and structures, but are most
common in commercial or
industrial buildings.

Waffle foundations are resistant to cracking and sagging and can hold a much greater amount of
weight than traditional concrete slabs.

The top of a waffle slab is generally smooth, like a traditional building surface, but the underside has a
shape reminiscent of a waffle. Straight lines run the entire width and length of the slab, generally
raised several inches from the surface. These ridges form the namesake square pockets of the entire
 length and width of the slab.

Advantages:
1. More presentable finish for open ceiling areas
2. Ceiling height is maximized
3. The ridges make the slab less susceptible to bending

Disadvantages:
1. Fomworks consuming
2. Requires more time and more manpower to construct the forms
3. Imperfections can be easily noticed when the quality of work is poor
4. Too difficult to lay rebars and connect to beams cubic metres of concrete

Benefits:

1. Flexible
2. Relatively light, therefore less foundation costs and longer spans are economic
3. Speed of construction
4. Fairly slim floor depths
5. Robustness
6. Excellent vibration control
7. Good for services integration
8. Durable finishes
9. Fire resistance

QUE.15 WHAT ARE SPACE FRAMES?

ANS.15

A space frame is a structure system assembled of

linear elements so arranged that forces are
transferred in a three-dimensional manner. In some
cases, the constituent element may be two-
dimensional. Macroscopically a space frame often
takes the form of a flat or curved surface.

Like the truss, a space frame is strong because of the inherent rigidity of the triangle; flexing loads
(bending moments) are transmitted as tension and compression loads along the length of each
strut.

The simplest form of space frame is a horizontal slab of interlocking square pyramids and
tetrahedra built from aluminium or tubular steel struts.

A stronger form is composed of interlocking tetrahedra in which all the struts have unit length.
More technically this is referred to as an isotropic vector matrix or in a single unit width an octet
truss.

More complex variations change the lengths of the struts to curve the overall structure or may
incorporate other geometrical shapes. A space frame or space structure is a truss-like, lightweight
 rigid structure constructed from interlocking struts in a geometric pattern.

Types of space frames They are classified broadly in three categories

i. Skeleton (braced) frame work e.g. domes, barrel vaults, double and multiplier grids, braced
plates. They are more popular. They are innumerable combinations and variation possible and
follow regular geometric forms.
ii. Stressed skin systems e.g. Stressed skin folded plates, stressed skin domes and barrel vaults,
pneumatic structures.
iii. Suspended (cable or membrane) structures e.g. Cable roofs.

ADVANTAGES-

1. Lightweight -This is mainly due to the fact that material is distributed spatially in such a
way that the load transfer mechanism is primarily axial; tension or compression.
Consequently, all material in any given element is utilized to its full extent. Furthermore,
most space frames are now constructed with aluminum, which decreases considerably their
self-weight.
2. Mass Productivity -Space frames can be built from simple prefabricated units, which are
often of standard size and shape. Such units can be easily transported and rapidly
assembled on site by semi-skilled labor. Consequently, space frames can be built at a lower
cost.
3. Stiffness- A space frame is usually sufficiently stiff in spite of its lightness. This is due to its
three- dimensional character and to the full participation of its constituent elements.
4. Versatility Space frames possess a versatility of shape and form and can utilize a standard
module to generate various flat space grids, latticed shell, or even free-form shapes.
Architects appreciate the visual beauty and the impressive simplicity of lines in space frames

QUE.16 EXPLAIN FLAT SLAB SYSTEM.

ANS.16
A flat slab is a two-way reinforced concrete slab that
usually does not have beams and girders, and the loads
are transferred directly to the supporting concrete
columns. The column tends to punch through the slab
in Flat Slabs, which can be treated by three methods:

1. Using a drop panel and a column capital in flat slab

2. Using a drop panel without a column capital in flat

slab

3. Using a column capital without drop panel in flat slab

Uses of column heads

o Shear strength of flat slab is increased by using

column heads.
o Column heads reduce the clear or effective span,
and therefore, reduce the moment in the flat slab
floor
 Uses of Drop heads
o Drop panels increase shear strength of flat slab floor.
o Drop panels increase flat slab's negative moment capacity.
o Drop panels reduce deflection by stiffening the flat slabs.

A flat slab is a one-way or two-way system with thickenings in the slab at the columns and load
bearing walls called drop panels. Drop panels act as T-beams over the supports. They increase the
shear capacity and the stiffness of the floor system under vertical loads, thus increasing the
economical span range.

This form of construction has become less popular in recent years because of the limit on economical
spans of about 9.5 m for reinforced slabs and about 12 m for prestressed slabs. Reinforced flat slabs
may need to be sensibly pre-cambered (not overdone) to control deflection.

The plan dimensions of the drop panels are a minimum of 1/3 of the span in the direction
under consideration, usually rounded to the nearest 100 mm. The overall depth of the drop panel is
typically taken as 1.75 to 2 times the depth of the slab, again rounded to suit timber sizes or the
nearest 25 mm.

The principal features of a flat slab floor are a flat soffit, simple formwork and easy construction.
o The economical span L of a reinforced concrete flat slab is approximately D x 28 for simply
supported, D x 32 for an end span and D x 36 for an interior span.
o Prestressing the slab increases the economical span to D x 35, D x 40 and D x 45
respectively, where D is the depth of the slab excluding the drop panel.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Flat Slabs

Advantages:
1. Flexibility in room layout.

Partition walls can be placed anywhere.

Offers a variety of room layout to the
owner.
False ceiling can be omitted.

2. Reinforcement placement is easier.

As reinforcement detailing of flat slab is

simple, it is easier to place

3. Ease of Framework installation.

Big table framework can be used in flat slab.

4. Building height can be reduced.

As no beam is used, floor height can be reduced and consequently the building height will be
reduced.
Approximately 10% in the vertical member could be saved
Foundation load will also reduce.
5. Less construction time.
Use of big table framework helps to reduce construction time

6. Prefabricated welded mesh

Standard sizes
Less installation time
Better quality control.

7. Auto sprinkler is easier.

Disadvantages:
1. Span length is medium.
In flat plate system, it is not possible to have large span.
2. Not suitable for supporting brittle (masonry) partitions
3. Use of drop panels may interfere with larger mechanical ducting
4. Critical middle strip deflection
In flat slabs, the middle strip deflection may be critical.
5. Higher slab thickness
Compared to typical reinforced concrete two way slab system, the thickness of flat plat slabs
are higher.