Kina22034ens 002

abstract
The main objective of this project is the application of numerical and experimental tools to better
control thermal cycles of steel strips in continuous annealing lines.
The innovative aspect is to give and explain the real and complete thermal history of a steel strip all
along an industrial annealing line. We expect to reduce of 2 % the non quality of high resistance steels,
that correspond to a possible economy of about 24 M / year for European community. Another
objective is to reduce of 10 or 15 C the temperatures of heating zones, that correspond to a reduction
of 16 M Nm3 CO2 / year for European community.
The main principle of such a mathematical model is to connect different models (heating by flames,
heating by radiative tubes, soaking, cooling by cylindrical gas-jets or plane gas-jets) to simulate a
complete annealing line.
The models of radiative heating and soaking zones use different elementary 3D cells to compute
radiative transfer between tubes, strip, rolls and walls of the furnace. In fine, it is possible to simulate
all kind of continuous annealing furnaces by a very simple way, by joining different cells together.
For the Modelisation of the thermal performances of cooling technologies our method consists in using
2D or 3D numerical simulation in particular with turbulent flows. For the technology of a plane jet, we
showed that a two-dimensional modelling (in the direction of the displacement of the band) gave
results very close to a three-dimensional approach.. To describe dissymmetry of flow between two jets,
related to the displacement of the strip, two half-jets in interaction must be modelled. From the local
values of the convective exchange coefficients, an average value is determined for the entire cooling
box. Thus, the total thermal evolution of the strip can be calculated for an industrial configuration of
cooling (all boxes).
During the project, several industrial measurements were made and compared with 2D/3D
mathematical models. The good results showed the mean to perform accurate simulations of
temperature evolution of products in industrial annealing lines.
To connect the thermal cycles and (mechanical and metallurgical) steel properties, we propose to
include to the simulation interface a new block allowing determine mechanical properties of resistance
steel grades from cooling parameters. So, it is possible to determine some metallurgical and
metallurgical properties for particular steel compositions.
During this project, we investigated how the distribution of fast cooling on continuous annealing line
may affect the strip geometrical characteristic. This objective was achieved by installing a strip profile
temperature measuring system at the entrance of strip cooling section and measuring thermal profile
and flatness at the exit. A statistical analysis on data collected was carried out, which shows a good
correlation between flatness and some independent variables. It was observed that the most influent
independent variable is strip speed followed by temperature difference on the edge at furnace exit.
So, a first cause of strip flatness defect is the temperature difference on the strip width. The second
cause is produced by strip temperature oscillation on the strip length. We determined some
recommendations to increase geometrical deformation on strip profile.
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Table of contents
1. Objectives of the project ...P. 8
2. Main tasks of each partner ...... P. 9
3. Simulation of heating and gas cooling zones ... P. 11

Modelisation of heating sections (radiative tubes) ..... P. 11
Modelisation of cooling sections (slots, holes) ..... P. 14
Temperature measurements on industrial lines ..... P. 17
Comparison between measured and computed data ..... P. 22
Guidelines to compute thermal history of products in annealing lines .... P. 29
4. Simulation of water cooling zones . P. 33

Modelisation of water cooling sections..... P. 33
Temperature measurements in CRM pilot line (the two systems) ...;. P. 53
Comparison between measured and computed data . P. 65
Connection between thermal cycles and mechanical or metallurgical
characteristics P. 71
5. Control of geometrical characteristic ... P. 75

Definition of specifications, design and assembling of on-line measurement
systems (temperature and flatness of steel strips) . P. 75
Calibration . P. 83
On-line systems installation . P. 86
On-line experimental test and data analysis ... P. 90
Conclusion ........ P. 105
6. Global results of the project P. 107

Guide lines to better predict thermal evolution of steel strips
(heating, gas cooling, water cooling) in annealing lines ...... P. 107
Prediction of mechanical properties of some special steels .... P. 108
Prediction of flatness of steel strips inside fast cooling sections ..... P. 109
Bibliography ..... P. 110
4
List of Figures
Figure 3.1 : Geometry of a typical continuous annealing line
Figure 3.2 : Principle of the global model
Figure 3.3 : Principle of the Imaginary Planes Method
Figure 3.4 : Multi-reflexion effects in the furnace
Figure 3.5 : Easy simulation of the different furnace geometry
Figure 3.6 : Schematisation of cooling technology by cylindrical jets
Figure 3.7 : Schematisation of cooling technology by slots
Figure 3.8 : comparison measurement/simulation on a cooling experiment
with cylindrical impacting jet
Figure 3.9 : Schematisation of simulated technology by slots
Figure 3.10 : variation of the convective exchange coefficient between two slots
Figure 3.11 : Description of 4 first chambers of the annealing
Figure 3.12 : Visualization of the crossing on the totality of the line
Figure 3.13 : Crossing the DFF (Direct Flamme furnace) and the RTS (Radiant Tube furnace)
Figure 3.14 : Zoom in the RTS and in the soaking zone
Figure 3.15 : Zoom in the first cooling zone with gas-jet
Figure 3.16 : Comparison between measured and computed data
Figure 3.17 : Comparison calculation/measurement on a cooling system with slots
Figure 3.18 : Simulated configuration of a system with cylindrical jets matrix
Figure 3.19 : spatial distribution of the convective exchange coefficients under the jets
Figure 3.20 : experimental facility
Figure 3.21 : blowing enclosure
Figure 3.22 : Measured coefficient distribution (W.m-2.K-1)H/d = 2, Re = 62000
Figure 3.23 : Measured coefficient distribution (W.m-2.K-1) H/d = 5, Re = 62000
Figure 3.24 : Mean Nusselt numbers
Figure 3.25 : Comparison of measured and predicted mean Nu numbers Martin correlation
Figure 3.26 : 3-D results Distribution of h for H/d = 5
Figure 3.27 : Comparison of numerical and experimental results H/d = 5, Re = 62 000
Figure 3.28 : Principle of Modelisation for radiative heating and soaking zones
Figure 4.1 : Definition of the axes of the system

Figure 4.2 : Elementary cells for finite difference computations: k = 0 (left), k ? 0 (right).
Figure 4.3 : Uniform cooling source: temperature field
Figure 4.4 : Linear variation of specific heat flow along x-axis: computed temperature x profile
Figure 4.5 : Example of possible cooling heterogeneity by pressure losses
Figure 4.6 : Parabolic variation of specific heat flow along strip width
Figure 4.7 : Cooling sections modelling Parabolic thickness profile
Figure 4.8 : Modelling arrays of nozzles: superposition of gaussian functions
Figure 4.9 : Hexagonal array of nozzles
Figure 4.10 : Square array of round nozzles
Figure 4.11 : Slot nozzles
Figure 4.12 : Hexagonal array of round nozzles with parabolic weighting along strip width
Figure 4.13 : Stripwise defect
Figure 4.14 : Circular defect
Figure 4.15 : Gaussian defect
Figure 4.16 : Entry temperature profile type examples
Figure 4.17: the flying thermocouple rig
Figure 4.18 : the locking device
Figure 4.19 : the welding holder
Figure 4.20 : the flying welding
Figure 4.21 : CRM pilot line section for the cooling cycle characterization by thermocouples
Figure 4.22 : Cooling curves in the whole cooling equipment (TWICE not activated)
Figure 4.23 : Cooling curves in the whole cooling equipment (TWICE activated)
as a function of the water temperature
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Figure 4.24 : Cooling rates in the global cycle (Normalized to a thickness of 1 mm
Figure 4.25 : Cooling rates in the TWICE equipment in calefaction regime
(normalized to a thickness of 1 mm)
Figure 4.26 : Cooling rates in nucleate boiling regime (normalized to a thickness of 1 mm)
Figure 4.27 : Cooling rates into water tank in calefaction regime
Figure 4.28 : Global cooling profile in near-HOWAQ condition
Figure 4.29 : Strip Cooling in near-HOWAQ conditions
Figure 4.30 : Calculation of cooling parameters in water tank
Figure 4.31 : Water tank - error message if water temperature is less than 85C
Figure 4.32 : Water tank - error message if water temperature is upper than 100C
Figure 4.33 : Water tank warning message if exit temperature is less
than transition temperature
than water temperature
Figure 4.35 : Calculation of cooling parameters in TWICE section
Figure 4.36 : TWICE unit - error message if water temperature is upper
than 70C
Figure 4.37 : TWICE unit - error message if water temperature is less than 0C
Figure 4.38 : TWICE section warning message if exit temperature is less than water temperature
Figure 4.39 : Mechanical properties of various steels [4]
Figure 4.40 : Influence of the quenching temperature on ultra tensile strength
Figure 4.41 : Influence of the quenching temperature on martensite fraction
Figure 4.42 : Influence of the quenching temperature onto the tensile strength
Figure 4.43 : interface for determination of mechanical properties of resistance steel
Figure 5.1 : measuring systems disposition on the line

Figure 5.2 : Sensor for thermal profile measure at the furnace exit
Figure 5.3 : Furnace exit sensor
Figure 5.4 : Thermal profile measure system at the end of first cooling section
Figure 5.5 : Sensor for thermal profile measure at the exit of second cooling
Figure 5.6 : Sensor assembling
Figure 5.7 : Flatness measuring system
Figure 5.8 : Design of flatness measure
Figure 5.9 : Flatness system assembling
Figure 5.10 : Computer screen of thermal profile measure at the exit of heating
Figure 5.11 : Thermal profile system calibration
Figure 5.12 : Software correction of optical aberration
Figure 5.13 : Thermal profile measure system at the furnace exit
Figure 5.15 : Thermal profile measure system at the end of second cooling section
Figure 5.16 : Rack dedicated to thermal profile systems
Figure 5.17 : Flatness measuring system on plant
Figure 5.18 : Computer rack position
Figure 5.19 : Thermal profile and flatness of 1500 mm wide strip.
Figure 5.20 : Temperature and flatness trend on the strip length
Figure 5.21 : Temperature and flatness on the strip width
Figure 5.22 : Strip flatness on the edges follows the trend of strip temperature
Figure 5.23 : Variable values considered in statistical analysis
Figure 5.24 : Temperature difference at the furnace exit
Figure 5.25 : Temperature difference at the end of first cooling
Figure 5. 26 : Temperature difference at the end of second cooling section
Figure 5.27 : Flatness on the two strip edge
Figure 5.28 : Pearson correlation coefficients
Figure 5.29 : Statistical model results
Figure 5.30 : Strip flatness distribution vs strip thickness on the two edges
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Figure 5.31 : Comparison between strip temperature difference and critical
temperature difference
Figure 5.32 : Example of effect produced on flatness by strip temperature oscillation
List of Tables
Table 4.1 : General parameter values for computed examples.

Table 4.2 : Uniform cooling : parameters of the computed example
Table 4.3 : Linear specific heat flow (x-axis): Modelling parameters
Table 4.4 : Parabolic specific heat flow : modeling parameters
Table 4.5 : Parabolic heat flow (T): modelling parameters
Table 4.6 : Hexagonal array of nozzles: parameters for the computed example
Table 4.7 : Slot nozzles: parameter values for the modelled example
Table 4.8 : Weighting along strip width: parameter values for modelling example
Table 4.9 : Strip wise cooling defect: modeling parameters
Table 4.10 : Spotwise circular defect: modeling parameters
Table 4.11 : Gaussian spot wise defect: parameter values for modelling
Table 4.12 : Cooling states in the different cooling elements
Table 4.13 : Evolution of the temperature of transition
Table 4.14 : heat transferred to the strip and cooling coefficient in film boiling regime
Table 4.15 : heat transferred to the strip in global cooling
Table 4.16 : steel chemical composition
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1. Objectives of the project
The main objective of this project is the application of numerical and experimental tools to better
control thermal cycles of steel strips in continuous annealing lines.
The innovative aspect is to give and explain the real and complete thermal history of a steel strip all
along an industrial annealing line. We expect to reduce of 2 % the non quality of high resistance steels,
that correspond to a possible economy of about 24 M / year for European community. Another
objective is to reduce of 10 or 15 C the temperatures of heating zones, that correspond to a reduction
of 16 M Nm3 CO2 / year for European community.
We also expect to reduce the number of trials and broken strips to adapt the process for new
production. The consequence of this will be a reduction of risks of human accident during these rather
delicate and hazardous operations.
The main tasks in this project are:
To predict 2D temperature profiles of strips in continuous annealing furnaces and cooling sections
to improve control of thermal cycles by choosing the best suitable adjustment of the process. At
this time, it does not exist such a numerical tool to perform predictive simulations, and the on-line
pyrometric measurements give indications at few locations along the annealing line only.
To connect this knowledge with mechanical and geometrical characteristics of steel strips. Today,
these characteristics are only observed after annealing process, without means to predict them.
To control and improve actual and new annealing cycles of carbon steels, to produce high
resistance steels with good quality and high productivity.
To design and develop a new way to perform temperature measurements in annealing lines,
particularly in water-based cooling sections, where classical methods such as pyrometers are not
possible. The development of such a measurement technique will help to define temperature
profiles in relatively short sections. This technique will make use of a flying thermocouple.
Recent fast cooling technologies perform cooling in one strand, so the flight of the thermocouple
would be very short. The benefit is twofold : on the one hand, the thermocouple can be
permanently and directly linked to the data logger. On the other hand, the short distance should
prevent the thermocouple from breaking.
To investigate the influence of cooling distribution on strip flatness. This objective is achieved by
installing a strip profile temperature measuring system at the entrance of strip cooling system and
measuring thermal profile and flatness at the exit. This investigation will be performed on a
hot/cold rolling strip annealing line for stainless steel.
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2. Main tasks of each partner
2.1. IRSID contribution
The main task of IRSID was to build 2D and 3D models of heating and cooling sections, and to connect
them to obtain a global tool to predict temperature of strips all along the annealing line.
A specific sensor was also used by IRSID to check the temperature profile by thermocouples on the
strip all along the annealing line.
The main steps were:
1) Description for modelisation of different cooling sections to compute 2D temperature profile in the
strip. Several existing systems will be studied like gas jet with holes or gas jet with slots. Heat
transfer coefficients will be determined for the most common systems to predict their efficiency in
industrial conditions.
2) Additional theoretical models for rolls, roll quench and water cooling (hypothesis, algorithm, heat
transfer coefficients) will be studied to compute thermal profile of strips through annealing lines
which use these kinds of processes.
3) Industrial thermal profile measurements by mean of IRSIDs new sensor (with thermocouples
embarked on the strip all though the annealing line).
4) Comparison between experimental and some computed results, and validation of theoretical
models.
5) Description for adaptation of models for several specific lines in Europe.
6) Guidelines to conceive 2D/3D mathematical models in view to predict and to control good thermal
cycles in different kinds of annealing lines.
2.2. CRM contribution

CRM already has a know-how in the cooling processes, as well as in the continuous casting and in
annealing lines.
The CRM activities in the framework of this joint research were:
1) Modelling of strip cooling during water-based cooling for steel strips in cooling sections using
either mixed gas-water jets or pulverised water (nozzles). This model must be sufficiently general
in order to integrate various configurations (type of nozzle, geometry of the nozzle array, distance
between strip and nozzles, ...). The model must describe the evolution of the temperature of the
strip all along the cooling section. Moreover, that description integrates the strip width direction, in
order to take into account the possible temperature non-homogeneity.
2) On-line thermal profile measurements: This step consist in sticking a flying thermocouple onto
the strip. This thermocouple is permanently linked to a data acquisition system situated outside the
annealing furnace. Various solutions were investigated in order to fix the thermocouple onto the
strip. Online measurements were performed in various configurations. This system is well adapted
for local cooling section, especially in a water environment. Thus, it is complementary to the
IRSIDs embarqued system which is able to fellow the strip in all sections of an industrial line, but
which need bigger human and time means for his implementation.
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3) Adaptation of models for several specific lines: From the general model inferred in the first step of
the research and the data obtained by campaigns on various annealing lines, one could have
information about the cooling characteristics of industrial devices (water-based cooling, mixed
water-gas cooling) where measurements with pyrometers is impossible. Moreover, this should
provide a continuous description of the cooling inside the cooling section. It represents a
substantial improvement compared to discrete measurements realised at the entry and exit of the
sections.
4) Guide lines to pre-set the cooling parameters and control thermal cycle : From the conclusions
obtained in the former step, it is possible to adapt the industrial cooling processes to obtain the
desired thermal cycles for steel strips.
5) Connection between thermal cycles and mechanical or metallurgical characteristics: Many data
bases exist, which gather a large amount of information about the various properties of steel strips.
These properties include information about the microscopic structure of steels, but also about user
properties like mechanical ones, surface reactivity and so on. Correlation between these various
properties and the more precise description of the thermal cycle leads to a more accurate control of
these properties. The sensitivity to cooling conditions should also be inferred (in the case of fast
cooling, small variations of the parameters can lead to big effects).
2.3. CSM contribution

The work of CSM concerns heat exchange uniformity control during high rate cooling of annealed
strips, and was composed of five tasks. Three of them concern the development of measuring systems
and their installation on the plant. The last two tasks were dedicated to the data acquisition and data
analysis.
1) Definition of technical specifications of the measuring systems: The following devices compose the
measuring systems:
strip profile temperature measuring at the entrance of cooling stage,
strip profile temperature measuring at the exit of cooling stage,
strip flatness measuring downstream the cooling stage.
For the development of these devices the following actions were carried out :
Definition of the technical specification for measuring systems,
Choice and purchase of CCD cameras, hardware for data acquisition and storage, mechanical
and electrical components,
Definition of the suitable arrangement for the on line installation.
2) Systems assembly and calibration: Connection of CCD cameras with data acquisition boards,
development of suitable software, calibration of assembled devices.
3) On line systems installation: Construction of suitable cases for instrument protection, construction
and installation of mechanical supports, arrangement of a cabinet for data acquisition.
4) On line experimental test and data acquisition: Thermal profile of strip at the entrance and at the
exit was monitored. These measures were performed for various strip thickness, line speed and
cooling conditions. During this phase we also stored the changes of strip flatness, water cooling
flow rate, line speed, strip dimensions and material features.
5) Data analysis : The measured data were statistically correlated to obtain information on strip
flatness with respect to the cooling distribution and strip thermal profile. General considerations
and operative rules for the conduction of the strip cooling stage of annealing line was obtained.
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3. Simulation of heating and gas cooling zones
3.1. Modelisation of heating sections (radiative tubes)
Usually, continuous annealing lines include heating furnaces, a soaking zone, and a cooling device.
An Annealing Line
Exit <---
Cooling
efroidt lent Soaking
aintienzone Heating furnaces
Figure 3.1 : Geometry of a typical continuous annealing line
Our first task in this project was to connect one model for furnaces to an additional model for cooling
chambers. The principle of this global model is as below:
Therm al M odels for A nnealing L ines

P erform ed M odel for furnaces:
w ith radiant tubes
w ith direct fires
Interfacing w ith the different m odels to

sim ulate a com plete therm al cycle
(heating + cooling).
M odel to build for cooling cham ber:

setting up a m ethod to find heat transfert
law s betw een a strip and a gaz Jet
Figure 3.2 : Principle of the global model
The models of radiative heating and soaking zones use different elementary 3D cells to compute radiative
transfer between tubes, strip, rolls and walls of the furnace. To perform the mathematical resolution, we
use the Imaginary Planes Method which consists of the addition of transparent planes between each
individual cell of the domain. On each of these new planes, several radiative fluxes come in from the
considered cell, and an equivalent global flux come out to the neighbour cells.
11
12
3D mathematical model to predict real
thermal cycles in any kind of annealing lines
Radiative transfer between one

element and all the others in
the furnace (multireflexion).
Connection of different
modules to simulate heating,
soaking and cooling section of
a complete annealing line.
Industrial application to
increase productivity of bright
annealing of stainless steel in
Ugine Gueugnon (RB 8),
without change the complete
heating zone as recommended
by several manufacturers.
Proximity of a strip element near the roll :

-side wall
- radiant tubes first level
- downward strip,
- radiant tubes 2nd level,
- the roll.
the focus element have
radiative exchange with
all the other part of the
chamber.
Figure 3.4 : Multi-reflexion effects in the furnace
In fine, it is possible to simulate all kind of continuous annealing furnaces by a very simple way, just
like a LEGO system where we join different cells together.
13
Building of the furnace geometry :
User Grid data
3H CY 3H ZZ ZZ
3H CY 3H ZZ ZZ
VI 10 1X CY 3H
VI 10 1X CY 3H 1S 10 10 10 1E
1S 10 10 10 1E
6S 7S CY 7E 6E
1S 10 10 10 1E
H for Height,
1S 10 10 10 1E VI for Vide,
E et S for Entry and Output ,
CY for cylinder or rolls,
6S 7S CY 7E 6E 1 premier chiffre : cellule tube,
etc ...
Figure 3.5 : Easy simulation of the different furnace geometry
3.2. Modelisation of cooling sections (slots, holes)
In this project, we studied two kinds of technologies: cylindrical jets, and plane jets.
Cylindrical jets
The cylindrical jets are placed at the corner of a mesh square in staggered disposition.
d1
d1 d1
d1
strip
Strip
Figure 3.6 : Schematisation of cooling technology by cylindrical jets
14
Plane jets
The gas injection is done by slots. Porosity (relationship between the surface of ejection and the heat-
transferring surface on the tape) is similar to that of the cylindrical jets.
d1
d4
d3
d2
Strip
Figure 3.7 : Schematisation of cooling technology by slots
Our method for characterization of the thermal performances of cooling

technologies
The thermal transfer exchanged between gas and the strip (by neglecting the thermal radiation) results
from a coupling between a transverse conductive phenomenon and a convective phenomenon in the
direction of the flow. Our method consists in using the numerical simulation to solve this coupled
problem, in the case in particular of turbulent flows. To characterize the thermal transfers, it is
necessary to finely describe the structure of the gas flows in the vicinity of the strip and particularly in
the zone where the turbulent constraints are negligible. This under layer where the conductive effects
are dominating is called conductive under layer. It is in this zone that the heat flux exchanged between
gas and the strip can be directly evaluate by the Fourier analysis.
gaz . grad T .
The determination of the local conducto-convectif flow exchanged between gas and the strip makes it
possible to determine a local or mean convective exchange coefficient, which can express in the form
h where Tb is the strip temperature and Tjet the gas cooling temperature on the level of the
Tb Tjet
jets.
Other approaches are possible to characterize the performances of cooling systems by gas jets. They
are based upon laboratory experiments. The conditions of tests can be far away from the real
conditions. These experiments make it possible to characterize the convective transfers starting from
the numbers (undimensionnal groupings) of Nusselt, Reynolds and Prandtl and of geometrical
parameters related to the studied system requirements of cooling. These correlations can have a very
restricted field of validity.
Validation Elements of impacting jets modelling undertaken at IRSID

The comparison of results obtained by numerical simulations and experimental results validates the
physical models introduced in simulation (model of turbulence, description of the conducto-convective
transfers to the level of the strip). In the case of the impacting jets simulation, we carried out at IRSID
several confrontations of our models with experimental results. As example, we present here two
validations carried out:
15
A cylindrical jets with undimensionnal numbers correlations:
Validation with a cylindrical single impacting jet and not confined (experiment of J Lee and SJ Lee,
Experimental Heat Transfer, 1999). For a Reynolds number of 30000 and a ratio H/D (distance jet-
band / jet diameter) of 6, the comparison of the Nusselt numbers (h.D / local simulated and measured
is presented on figure 3.8. The variation on the mean Nusselt number
is less than 5%.
configuration jet rond turbulent (Re=30000 - H/D=6

comparaison simulation FLUENT avec transferts conducto-convectifs en sous-couche
visqueuse/mesures exprimentales
200
cart simulation-exprience sur Nu moyen ~2% Nu (simulation IRSID modle de turbulence 2)
180
Nu exprience
160 Nu (simulation IRSID modle de turbulence 1)
140
120
Nu
100 D
80
60
H
40
20
0
0,00000 0,50000 1,00000 1,50000 2,00000 2,50000 3,00000 3,50000 4,00000
R/D
Figure 3.8 : comparison measurement/simulation on a cooling

experiment with cylindrical impacting jet
A plane jet with trials on a scaled-down installation:
For this technology, we showed that a two-dimensional modelling (in the direction of the displacement
of the band) gave results very close to a three-dimensional approach. The thermal performances in the
strip width can be regarded as constant in first approach. To describe dissymmetry of flow between two
jets, related to the displacement of the strip, two half-jets in interaction are modelled (figure 3.9).
400 mm
H=100 mm
Strip
Figure 3.9 : Schematisation of simulated technology by slots
16
- On the level of the strip, the grid in the gas field is very fine (dimension of the first meshes gas = 1-2
m).
- For simulations, the thermo physical properties ( ,Cp, ) depend on the Temperature and the rate
of H2 in the gas mixture H2N2.
Figure 3.10 shows the variations of the coefficient of convective exchange between two jets. The
maximum values are in the zone of impact of the jets. Between the jets, in the parietal development
area, the decrease is fast, due to significant spacing (400 mm) between the jets.
8.000E+02
Jet 1 Jet 2
6.000E+02
4.000E+02
2.000E+02
Strip
0.000E-01
0.000E-01 1.000E-01 2.000E-01 3.000E-01 4.000E-01
I-DIRECTION LENGTH (M)
Node Values Along J-Position = 4 Fluent 4.51
Heat Transfer Coeff. (W/M2-K) Vs. I-Direction Length (M) Fluent Inc.
Figure 3.10 : variation of the convective exchange coefficient between two slots
From the local values of the convectifs exchange coefficients, an average value is determined for the
entire cooling box. This average value is then used in a model. The total thermal evolution of the strip
can be calculated for an industrial configuration of cooling (all boxes).
3.3. Temperature measurements on industrial lines
We present in this report the first really complete thermal cycle of a strip in a continuous annealing
line.
Our radio sensor embarked on the strip correctly transmitted the measurements.
The thermocouples resisted well in their crossing all along the line.
This shows the mechanical reliability of this system of measurement in the most difficult
configurations.
17
These photography show the supple
sensor which is use for temperature
measurements. This sensor is put on
the strip before entering the line,
and cross the line without be
destroyed by the different rolls in
the furnace.
8 themocouples were welded on the
strip to measure the transversal
profile of temperature all along the
line. The data are transmitted in real
time by radio to a computer outside
the furnace.
Description of the line
The annealing line is made with the following chambers:
a direct flames furnace where the strip temperature raise 600C with an inside temperature of
1100C
a radiant tube furnace with temperature of tube of 950C, the strip get out with 800C
a chamber where the strip is maintaining at 800C
a gas-jet cooling chamber where the strip temperature goes down to 450C.
a "roll-quench"
a reheat chamber no used actually
two over-aging chambers
another gas-jet cooling
finally a water cooling chamber
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Direct flames furnace
Radiant tubes furnace FOUR FLAMMES DIRECTES
GAZ JET MAINTIEN FOUR TUBES RADIANTS
- - - - - - x x x
3H CY 2C CY 2C CY 2C CY 3H
VI 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 VI
1S 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 VI
1S 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 VI
VI 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 1E
1S 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 VI
VI 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 1E
1S 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 VI
1S 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 1E
VI 10 10 VI 10 10 VI 10 1E
VI 10 10 10 10 10 VI 10 1E
6S 7S CY 2C CY 2C CY 7E 6E
- - x x x x x x x
Strip inlet
Strip outlet
Figure 3.11 : Description of 4 first chambers of the annealing line
We passed a series of 3 steel coils instrumented with temperature gauges embarked on the strip. On
these three tests, we had a really complete crossing on all along the line, roll-quench included. It is the
first time that we obtain the total thermal cycle of the strip..
Final cooling
DFF RTS MNT GJ+RQ
OverAging1 OverAging2
CH1 water cooling
Figure 3.12 : Visualization of the crossing on the totality of the line
19
The heating zones :
On figure 3.13 we see perfectly the evolution of the various slopes of rise in temperature between the
preheating zone (PCH), the passage in the higher tunnel in which very few fume circulate, and the
direct flames furnace (DFF) where the ambient temperature reach 1100C.
After the passage of the tunnel between the DFF and the RTS, in which we observe a fall of
temperature, the evolution in the RTS is characterized by the cooling or the stabilisation of the strip
over the rolls.
Figure 3.13 : Crossing the DFF (Direct Flamme furnace)

and the RTS (Radiant Tube furnace)
20
The soaking zone :
Figure 3.14 : Zoom in the RTS and in the soaking zone
On figure 3.14 above, we see a fall of temperature of about fifteen degrees with the passage of the two
rolls between the room with radiant tubes and the room of maintenance. The strip reaches his target at
the end of the maintenance. The passage of roller is still quite visible. That shows the line was in a
transient running.
The cooling zones by gas-jet :
Figure 3.15 : Zoom in the first cooling zone with gas-jet
21
We see perfectly on figure 3.15 the evolution in the different boxes of blowing, as well as the inter-
boxes and the rolls. These experimental results were used to evaluate the accuracy of the mathematical
models of the line, which were developed in this project.
3.4. Comparison between measured and computed data
Validation of radiative model

For the heating and soaking zones, the comparisons between measured and computed temperatures on the
strip show a good agreement in industrial conditions.
Figure 3.16 : Comparison between measured and computed data
Validation in the case of plane jets on a hot model

For the cooling zones, we had first simulated the case of plane jets (slots) and compared with
experimental results obtained on a hot model. In this case, the cooling gas is air and the slots are spaced
of 300 mm. The temperature evolution of the strip i directly measured during its passage under the jets.
For the simulation, the step consists in gas flows and local heat flux determination between strip and
gas. The comparison measurement simulation is given on figure 3.17. The simulated cooling
performances are slightly higher than those measured, but he simulated oscillations of temperature
(oscillations induced by the spacing of the jets) are in conformity with those measured on the strip.
22
comparison measurement-simulation trials SH- Vb=20 m/min- eb=0,2 mm- box with slits: 300 mm
1000
900 T calculation (C)

Inlet box
T measurement (C)
800
slit
700
slit
600
T strip (C)
slit
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
time (s) (1 s = 0,33 m)
Figure 3.17 : Comparison calculation/measurement on a cooling system with slots
Numerical simulation of a system with cylindrical jets matrix

In our case, we dont have comparison with experimental measurements, but we shown with the
previous cases that the numerical simulation allows different shapes and gives us good results. So we
simulated an industrial complex configuration to compare efficiency with plane jet. With that kind of
technology, a 3D representation is necessary. We can see the shape on the figure 3.18.
23
ZY
Strip element
X
Grid
FLUENT 5.0 (3d, segregated, ke)
Figure 3.18 : Simulated configuration of a system with cylindrical jets matrix
Figure 3.19 shows variations of the convective local exchange coefficient on the level of the strip. The
maximum values are in the zone of impact of the jets.
.
7.81e+02
7.03e+02
6.25e+02
5.47e+02
4.69e+02
3.91e+02
3.12e+02
2.34e+02
1.56e+02
Z
7.81e+01 Y
X
0.00e+00
Figure 3.19 : spatial distribution of the convective exchange coefficients under the jets
We calculate a mean value with the local values of the convective exchange coefficients for the entire
cooling box. This mean value is used in a model who simulate a cooling process to estimate the
performance of a line.
This approach allows us to obtain correlations according to different parameters as dimension or nature
of the cooling gaz.
24
Cooling of a plate by an array of round jets: experimental and numerical study
That presentation deals with the cooling of a plate using an array of round gas jets. The aim of the work
is to measure and predict the local heat transfer coefficient distribution along the plate. The study is
devoted to a particular configuration in which spent air is ejected through holes placed between the
jets. This particular configuration is simulated using the FLUENT 6.0 CFD code. The numerical results
are compared to local heat transfer coefficients obtained by infrared thermography measurements on a
thin fixed heated plate.
Figure 3.20 : experimental facility
In the test facility, this particular outlet flow condition has been obtained by confining the flow inside a
parallelepipedic enclosure and by providing for natural outlet of the air through holes between the
nozzles (figure 3.21).
Figure 3.21 : blowing enclosure
25
Heat transfer distributions have been measured for different jet Reynolds numbers (10000<Re<62000)
and reduced nozzle-plate distance (2<H/d<10).
Figure 3.22 : Measured coefficient distribution Figure 3.23 : Measured coefficient

(W.m-2.K-1)H/d = 2, Re = 62000 distribution
(W.m-2.K-1) H/d = 5, Re = 62000
From a practical point of view, mean heat transfer coefficients are needed. The measured mean Nusselt
numbers are given on figure 3.24 as a function of the separation distance and Reynolds number.
Figure 3.24 : Mean Nusselt numbers
The mean coefficients can also be compared with values given by classical correlation. Up to now, no
specific correlation has been developed for the present jet configuration, but general correlation for
regularly spaced square and hexagonal arrays of round nozzles have been developed by Martin. As the
geometry of the present array does not differ very much from a hexagonal arrangement, the correlation
is expected to give good estimates of the measured mean Nusselt numbers. The comparison between
the experimental results and those given by Martin correlation is shown on figure 3.25. The correlation
generally underestimates the coefficients but the error is less than 25 % in most cases.
26
Figure 3.25 : Comparison of measured and predicted
mean Nu numbers Martin correlation
Turbulent fluid flow and heat transfer have also been investigated independently by numerical
simulation techniques, using the FLUENT 6.0 C.F.D. software. The simulations have been carried out
using the realizable k- turbulence model with a low Reynolds wall treatment.Typical results obtained
on the 3-D geometry are represented on figure 3.26. This shows the local coefficient distribution
obtained for H/d = 5 and a jet velocity of 120 m/s, corresponding to a Re number of about 73000.
Figure 3.26 : 3-D results Distribution of h for H/d = 5
27
Comparison with the experimental results:
A few comparisons have also been made between computed and measured transfer coefficient profiles.
Only 2-D simulation results are currently available for the operating conditions of the experiments. A
typical result is shown on figure 3.27, obtained for a distance H/d = 5 and
Re = 62000.
The computed Nu profile is very different from the measured one: the simulation overestimates the
heat transfer coefficients in the vicinity of the stagnation points, i.e. at low r/d values, and
underestimates them at large r/d values. The inadequacy of the standard and low-Reynolds k- models
to correctly predict heat transfer distribution in the stagnation region has already been pointed out for
single jets by several authors [10]. It is confirmed here for a multi-jet configuration.
Figure 3.27 shows that the k- model also fails to correctly predict adjacent jets interaction. As for
single jets, low-Reynolds non-linear k- models [10] are expected to be able to give much better heat
transfer predictions.
Figure 3.27 : Comparison of numerical and experimental results

H/d = 5, Re = 62 000
Local heat transfer distributions have been measured using infrared thermography, for different nozzle-
to plate distances (2 H/d 10) and Reynolds numbers (10000 Re 62000). The effects of these
parameters on the shape of the distribution as well as on the values of the stagnation and mean Nusselt
numbers have been investigated. The Martin correlation has also been shown to give good
approximations of the mean Nusselt number.
Numerical simulations have been carried out using the FLUENT C.F.D. code and a low-Reynolds k-
turbulence model. The heat transfer profiles predicted by the model differ very significantly from the
measured ones. More sophisticated turbulence models, i.e. non-linear models, should be tested in the
future to improve the accuracy of the predictions.
[10] B. Merci, E. Dick, Heat transfer predictions with a cubis k-e model
for axisymmetric turbulents jets impinging onto a flat plate, Int. J. of
Heat and Mass transfer, 46 (2003):469-480.
28
3.5. Guidelines to compute thermal history of products in annealing lines
In accordance with the initial schedule, IRSID made the synthesis of guidelines to conceive 2D/3D
mathematical models to perform accurate simulations of temperature evolution of products in industrial
annealing lines.
The main principles of such a mathematical model are as follow:
Performed Model for furnaces:

with radiant tubes
with direct fires
Interfacing with the different

models to simulate a complete
thermal cycle
(heating + cooling).
Model to build for cooling chamber:

setting up a method to find heat
transfert laws between a strip
and a gaz Jet
radiative transfer between tubes, strip, rolls and walls of the furnace.
To perform the mathematical resolution, we use the Imaginary Planes Method which consists of the
addition of transparent planes between each individual cell of the domain. On each of these new planes,
several radiative fluxes come in from the considered cell, and an equivalent global flux come out to the
neighbour cells.
With this method, it is possible to take in account the radiative multi-reflexion effects between all the
cells of the domain, and thus to simulate the influence of all solid element on all the other part of the
furnace (tubes, walls, rolls, radiative screens).
In fine, it is possible to simulate all kind of continuous annealing furnaces by a very simple way,
just like a LEGO system where we join different cells together.
29
30
For the Modelisation of the thermal performances of cooling technologies we developed specific
models. In this case, the thermal transfer exchanged between gas and the strip (by neglecting the
thermal radiation) results from a coupling between a transverse conductive phenomenon and a
convective phenomenon in the direction of the flow. Our method consists in using the numerical
simulation to solve this coupled problem, in the case in particular of turbulent flows. To characterize
the thermal transfers, it is necessary to finely describe the structure of the gas flows in the vicinity of
the strip and particularly in the zone where the turbulent constraints are negligible. This under layer
where the conductive effects are dominating is called conductive under layer. It is in this zone that the
heat flux exchanged between gas and the strip can be directly evaluate by the Fourier analysis.
gaz . grad T .
possible to determine a local or mean convective exchange coefficient, which can express in the
form h where Tb is the strip temperature and Tjet the gas cooling temperature on the level
Tb Tjet
of the jets.
For the technology of a plane jet, we showed that a two-dimensional modelling (in the direction of the
displacement of the band) gave results very close to a three-dimensional approach. The thermal
performances in the strip width can be regarded as constant in first approach. To describe dissymmetry of
flow between two jets, related to the displacement of the strip, two half-jets in interaction must be
modelled.
- On the level of the strip, the grid in the gas field is very fine (dimension of the first meshes gas = 1-2
m).
- For simulations, the thermo physical properties ( ,Cp, ) depend on the Temperature and the rate
of H2 in the gas mixture H2N2.
The maximum values of the coefficient of convective exchange between two jets are in the zone of
impact of the jets. Between the jets, in the parietal development area, the decrease is fast, due to
significant spacing (400 mm) between the jets.
We also showed that the Martin correlations give good approximations of the mean Nusselt number.
of the cooling gaz.
entire cooling box. This average value is then used in a model. Thus, the total thermal evolution of
the strip can be calculated for an industrial configuration of cooling (all boxes).
31
4. Simulation of water cooling zones
4.1. Modelisation of water cooling sections

A model was developed at CRM to simulate the cooling of a steel strip into fast water-based cooling
equipments as it is performed on a continuous annealing line. A general framework was designed. It
integrates the characteristics of the strip (geometrical, intrinsec) and those ones of the cooling sources
(uniform, discrete sources). Various types of cooling defects were also simulated.
The program permits to compute two-dimension temperature fields.
The system to simulate is then composed of two fundamental elements :

the steel strip undergoing a cooling on a definite surface
the cooling source
4.1.1 Parameters to describe the steel strip

The steel strip is featured by its geometrical parameters as :
strip length L,
strip width W,
strip thickness th,
and by material parameters as :

volumic mass,
specific heat,
thermal conductivity.
The steel sheet is modelled with a rectangle. It can be located either in a vertical or in a horizontal
plane. Reference orientations are defined from the steel sheet, as reported on Figure 4.1
The X-axis represents the direction of the strip movement.
The Y-axis features the strip width and is parallel to the strip plane.
The Z-axis is perpendicular to the strip plane and is oriented from the background to the foreground.
y
S trip M o v e m e n t
Figure 4.1 : Definition of the axes of the system
The thermal behavior of the steel strip undergoing water cooling is described by the energy
conservation law:
T
.u.C p . = k .T + S (1)
x
33
where:
is the density [kg/m] ;
u is the strip velocity along the x-axis [m/s] ;
Cp is the specific heat at constant pressure [J/kg] ;
T is the temperature [C] ;
k is the thermal conductivity [W/m/C] ;
S is the source term (power per volume unit [W/m] ;
is the LAPLACIAN operator.
4.1.2 Conditions for Modelisation

The definition of the model is based on various postulates:
The cooling source is applied on both strip faces (and then is expressed in W/m).
The cooling source is assimilated to a volumic source. This can be justified by considering that the
temperature is uniform along the strip thickness.
The only source of cooling comes from the fast cooling device, though the strip is also slightly
cooled in air before and after the cooling section.
To solve these problems, a set of boundary conditions was added. The former equation is of the elliptic
type. In this case, the boundary value problem is well posed if the number of unknowns fixed on the
boundary is equal to the half the order of the equation. Here, the order of the equation is 2. So, one and
only one condition can be set at each point on the boundary. Either the temperature or the heat flow can
be fixed. In the framework of this model, the following conditions were chosen:
Entry boundary (x = 0 m) : fixed temperature (possibly different at each point of the boundary),
Edge boundaries (y = W/2) : heat flow = 0 W/m,
Exit boundary (x = L m) : heat flow = 0 W/m.
4.1.3 Modelisation
Both previous formulations were discretized in order to solve the problem numerically.
The steel strip is discretized by using a rectangular mesh, with nx nodes along the X-axis (strip length)
and by ny nodes along the Y-axis (strip width). The distance between two nodes along the strip length
is x and y along the strip width.
The elementary cells were defined for finite difference computations according to the thermal
conductivity (null or not) as reported in Figure 4.2.
Strip
Movement
i-1,j i-1,j
i,j i,j-1 i,j i,j+1
i+1,j i+1,j
Figure 4.2 : Elementary cells for finite difference computations: k = 0 (left), k 0 (right).
34
Zero thermal conductivity (k)
Considering the strip velocity (2.5 m/s is a typical value), the thickness (order of magnitude: 1
millimeter) and the cooling power (a few megawatts/m), the influence of the thermal conductivity can
be neglected in some cases. The equation of energy conservation law becomes :
T
.u.C p . =S (2)
x
The problem then consists in a set of one-dimensional problems. The problem is pseudo two-
dimensional, as it consists in a set of one-dimensional problems. The equation is hyperbolic and a
temperature value must be given for each point on the entry boundary (x = 0 m).
Considering that the thermal conductivity k is null, the problem can be discretized as follows :
T T Ti 1
i , pour i = 2, ... , nx. (3)
x i x
Subsequently, the discretized equation reads :
Ti Ti 1
u. .C p (Ti 1 ). = S i , pour i = 2, ... , nx (4)
x
and Ti can be computed from Ti-1 using :

Si
Ti = Ti 1 + , for i = 2, ... , nx. (5)
x. .u.C p (Ti 1 )
Si is the source term at the node i. It can be computed at each step, if the heat flow depends on
temperature. It can be fixed if it is considered that the source term is a constant value.
The temperature value for i = 1 and j = 1, ..., ny must be known.
Non-zero thermal conductivity (k))

If the thermal conductivity k is not null, the first partial derivative of temperature versus x and the
laplacian operator must be discretized.
We have :
T Ti , j Ti 1, j
(6)
x i, j x
and
Ti +1, j 2.Ti , j + Ti 1, j Ti , j +1 2.Ti , j + Ti , j 1
T = + T + . (7)
x y 2.x 2.y
The problem is solved by iteration using the following scheme :
Si, j
Ti , j = c 2 .Ti +1, j + c3 .Ti 1, j + c 4 .Ti , j +1 + c5 .Ti , j 1 + , (8)
c1
35
where :
k k .u.C p k k .u.C p
c1 = + + , c2 = , c3 = + , (9)
x y x 2.c1 .x 2.c1 .x c1 .x
k k
c4 = , c5 = . ( 10 )
2.c1 .y 2.c1 .y
According to the situation, Cp can be considered either as a constant or as a function of temperature. In

the latter case, Cp has to be assessed at each step.
The required boundary conditions are discretized as follows. At the top of the strip, the temperature is
fixed. On the other boundaries, temperature is set equal to the temperature of the nearest node (inside
the physical domain).
Then :
~ ~
For i = 1, j = 1, ... , ny : Ti , j = Ti , j , where Ti , j is known ;
For i = nx, j = 1, ... , ny : Ti , j = Ti 1, j ;
For j = 1, i = 2, ... , nx-1 : Ti , j = Ti , j +1 ;
For j = ny, i = 2, ... , nx-1 : Ti , j = Ti , j 1 .
4.1.4 Modelisation of the cooling source

The main task of the modeling work is the definition of relevant cooling sources, as close as possible to
the reality. Indeed, more accurate is the description of the heat flow sources, better are the results in
terms of the strip thermal history.
As it has been said here above, the CRM part of the modeling work is devoted to the description of the
water-based cooling equipments. The main cooling technologies in this field are water quenching (with
or without stirring), where the steel sheet is dipped into a water tank, the spraying technology (where
water is projected onto the strip surface) and gas-mist cooling.
Our approach consisted in modeling sources, from the simplest ones to more complex ones, including
theoretical descriptions of the influence of parameters such as nozzle-strip distance, nozzle array
features, and so on.
The specific heat can be considered constant over the investigated temperature range or function of
temperature. In this case, the source terms is decomposed into convective and radiative terms:
Q = (T T f ) ( 11 )
and
Q = k SB (T 4 T04 ) ( 12 )
where :
Q is the specific value of the heat flow (in watts/m) ;
is the convective heat transfer coefficient (in watts/m/C) ;
T is the strip temperature;
Tf is the cooling fluid temperature;
kSB is the Stephan-Boltzmann constant (5.670400e-8 watts/m/K4) ;
T0 is a reference temperature of the environment of the strip (atmosphere, wall, etc.).
36
In the following, some examples of modeled sources are presented. The same parameters have been
used for all examples. They are summarized Table 4. 1.
For each case, the source map is shown. The volumic source is expressed in watts per cubic meter, as a
function of the position along x- and y- axes. The resulting temperature map is also depicted.
Temperature is expressed in [C]. In some cases, additional charts are also presented, to provide a
better idea of the strip temperature profile at the exit of the cooling section.
Strip length 2 [m]

Strip width 1.5 [m]
Strip thickness 0.0007 [m]
Strip speed 2.5 [m/s]
Density 7800 [kg/m]
Mean specific heat 650 [J/kg/C]
Thermal conductivity 50 [W/m/C]
Mesh type Rectangular
Node number in length 67
Node number in width 50
Table 4. 1 : General parameter values for computed examples.
In most cases, the parameters have been chosen with strong differences, in order to better visualize the
different effects. They do not always correspond to reality.
4.1.5 Uniform heat flow

The simplest case that can be considered is a cooling source with a uniform heat flow over the whole
cooled area. The required parameters are only the value of the specific heat flow (that is, the heat flow
per unit of strip area) and the cooling length (see Table 4.2). This is equivalent to a one-dimensional
model of the strip cooling section (or global one). As far as the parameters are assumed constant, this
model is characterized by a linear variation of the temperature along the x-axis. The computation of the
cooling source and the temperature field are reported in Figure 4.3.
Specific heat flow (per strip face) -3.00E+06 [W/m]

Cooling length 1 [m]
Entry temperature profile type Uniform
Entry temperature 750 [C]
Table 4.2 : Uniform cooling : parameters of the computed example.
37
0.00E+00
800
-1.00E+09
700
-2.00E+09
Power Density [W/m]
600
Temperature [C]
-3.00E+09
500 700-800
600-700
-4.00E+09
500-600
400
400-500
-5.00E+09 300-400
300 200-300
-6.00E+09 100-200
0-100
200
-7.00E+09
100
-8.00E+09
0
-9.00E+09
Figure 4.3 : Uniform cooling source: temperature field
Length linear
A second simple case to be considered is one where the specific heat flow is a linear function of the x-
position. This configuration is able to represent the situation where water accumulates downwards and
impairs the cooling properties of the device in its bottom part. Indeed, water streaming has a screening
effect on the impinging action of nozzles. Such a case is depicted on Figure 4.4 and the corresponding
parameters are presented in Table 4.3. Yet, it can be stated that if parameters are considered constant
(for instance, steel specific heat considered as a constant over the cooling temperature range), the
resulting temperature variation along the x-axis is parabolic, due to the linear shape of the specific heat
flow along x.
Entry specific heat flow (per face) -5.00E+06 [W/m]

Exit specific heat flow (per face) -1.00E+06 [W/m]
Table 4.3 : Linear specific heat flow (x-axis): Modelling parameters.
800
0.00E+00
700
-2.00E+09
600
Power Density [W/m]
-4.00E+09
Temperature [C]
500
-6.00E+09
-8.00E+09 400
-1.00E+10 300
-1.20E+10
200
-1.40E+10
100
-1.60E+10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Position along Strip Length [m]
Figure 4.4 : Linear variation of specific heat flow along x-axis: computed temperature x profile
38
Width Parabolic
Another simple case regards the variation of specific heat flow along the strip width. An example of
such a situation is depicted on Figure 4.5. It represents a cooling device where water is fed through
lateral injections. As water progresses along the pipe, the outlets yield pressure losses. If the outlets are
close to each other and successive pressure drops are small, the pressure profile along the pipe can be
considered as a simple continuous function.
STRIP
Figure 4.5 : Example of possible cooling heterogeneity by pressure losses
Width Parabolic source term constant

In order to take such an effect into account, a specific heat flow distribution can be considered, where
heat transfer is constant along the x-axis and is a parabolic function along the y-axis. The volumic
source map for this type of configuration has been plotted on Figure 4.6. The parameters used are
summarized in
Table 4.4.4.
Centre specific heat flow (per strip face) -2.50E+06 [W/m]

Edge specific heat flow (per strip face) -3.00E+06 [W/m]
Table 4.4 : Parabolic specific heat flow : modeling parameters.
39
0.00E+00
-1.00E+09
-2.00E+09
Power Density [W/m] -3.00E+09
-4.00E+09
-5.00E+09
-6.00E+09
-7.00E+09
-8.00E+09
-9.00E+09
a) Volumic power
800
700
600
Temperature [C]
500 700-800
600-700
500-600
400
400-500
300-400
300 200-300
100-200
0-100
200
100
b) Computed temperature field

Figure 4.6 : Parabolic variation of specific heat flow along strip width
40
Width Parabolic variation of source term with T
Figure 4.7 is modelled a steel strip with a parabolic thickness profile. The thickness of the edges ar
75% of the thickness at the centre of the strip. The parameters used are summarized in Table 4.5.
Heat flow -5 E+06 [W/m]

Strip width 1,5 [m]
Strip thickness at centre 0,0007 [m]
Cooling length 1,25 [m]
Strip velocity 2 [m/s]
Table 4.5 : Parabolic heat flow (T): modelling parameters.
800
700
600
Temperature [C]
700-800
500
600-700
500-600
400 400-500
300-400
200-300
300
100-200
0-100
200
100
Figure 4.7 : Cooling sections modelling Parabolic thickness profile.
41
Hexagonal array of round nozzles
A wide range of cooling devices using nozzles have been reported in the literature. Moreover, CRM
has been active in this field for many years. It is then interessant to integrate discretewise features of
round nozzles into the developed model.
As a wide range nozzles are available on the market, with numeroous parameters, such as pressure-
flowrate characteristics, opening angle, propulsion mode, jet shape and so on, a rather general model
for nozzle arrays has been designed, in order to have a rough idea of the behaviour of such a cooling
means. It consists in considering that the heat flow for a single round nozzle perpendicular to the strip
is a gaussian function of the distance from the nozzle axis :
Q1 = Q0 . exp( R 2 / 2 ) ( 13 )
where :
Q0 is the maximum value of the heat flow (at the location of the nozzle axis),
R is the distance from the nozzle axis,
is the width of the gaussian function.
The specific heat flow at a given point for an array of as-defined round nozzles is assumed to be the
sum of the contributions for each nozzle at this position. The following notations have been used :
xi is the nozzle i coordinate along the x-axis

yi is the nozzle i coordinate along the y-axis
x is the position of the considered point on the strip
y is the position of the considered point on the strip
The sum of the contributions of the nozzles at point (x,y) is given by :
( x xi ) 2 + ( y y i ) 2
Q N ( x, y ) = Q0 . exp 2
( 14 )
i
The QN is renormalized by using the maximum value for all x, y values of the strip domain :
QMAX = max W W
Q N ( x, y ) ( 15 )
0 x L , y
2 2
The specific heat flow value for each point (x,y) of the strip area is given by :
Q N ( x, y )
Q( x, y ) = Q0 . . ( 16 )
QMAX
Here, we consider that the strip is cooled on both faces and that the nozzle array on both faces perfectly
coincide. From the thermal point of view, this configuration is the worse situation that can be
encountered, as shifted arrays tend to uniformize the specific heat flow over the cooled strip area.
These assumptions allow to take into account superposition phenomena and consider that the maximum
value of the heat flow at the nozzle axis when the nozzle is alone or integrated into an array are
identical. Figure 4.8 represents the superposition of two gaussian functions in a one-dimensional case.
In some extent, this is able to reproduce the superposition of specific heat flow between nozzles.
42
Considering that sufficiently far from the nozzle axis, the value of the flow becomes null, we do not
need to sum the contributions of some nozzles. Thus, we have used a condition that when the distance
from the considered point the axis of a nozzle is greater than a given multiple of the gaussian width for
this nozzle, its contribution does not need to be taken into account.
Amplitude [Arbitrary Units]

F1
F2
F1 + F2
Position [Arbitrary Units]
Figure 4.8 : Modelling arrays of nozzles: superposition of gaussian functions.
Table 4.6 summarizes the parameter values used for the modelling example of an hexagonal array of
nozzles and the related graphical results for volumic power and temperature are presented on Figure
4.9.
Number of lines of nozzles 6

Number of nozzles per line 10
Distance between axes of neighbouring nozzles 0.2 [m]
Maximum specific heat flow (per strip face) -3.00E+06 [W/m]
Width of the gaussian function 0.1 [m]
Entry temperature profile type Uniform
Table 4.6 : Hexagonal array of nozzles: parameters for the computed example.
43
0.00E+00
-1.00E+09
-2.00E+09
Power Density [W/m]
-3.00E+09
-4.00E+09
-5.00E+09
-6.00E+09
-7.00E+09
-8.00E+09
-9.00E+09
a) Volumic power
800
700
600
Temperature [C]
500 700-800
600-700
500-600
400
400-500
300-400
300 200-300
100-200
0-100
200
100
Figure 4.9 : Hexagonal array of nozzles
44
Square array of nozzles
A square array of nozzles can also be considered. It is well known that such an arrangement is not so
homogeneous as a hexagonal one. But for the sake of comprehensiveness, it was also modeled. The
computation parameters are identical to those used for an hexagonal array. The source map and the
resulting temperature field are shown on Figure 4.10.
It can be observed that for the same parameter values, the solution leading to the most homogeneous
temperature profile is the hexagonal configuration.
0.00E+00
-1.00E+09
-2.00E+09
Power Density [W/m]
-3.00E+09
-4.00E+09
-5.00E+09
-6.00E+09
-7.00E+09
-8.00E+09
-9.00E+09
a) Volumic power map
800
700
600
Temperature [C]
500 700-800
600-700
500-600
400 400-500
300-400
300 200-300
100-200
0-100
200
100
45
900
800
700
Temperature [C]
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Position along Strip Width [m]
c) End-cooling temperature profile
Figure 4.10 : Square array of round nozzles
Gaussian slits
Slot nozzles were also modelled, as they are frequently encountered in cooling devices, such as gas jet
coolers. In the case of water-based cooling, similar solutions are also available. If no heterogeneity is
considered along the strip width, this situation is also purely one-dimensional.
As for round nozzles, we have assumed that the heat flow of a slot nozzle behaves as a gaussian
function of the distance from the slot nozzle. The heat flow for one slit is then characterized by its
maximum value and its width . A cooling device is constituted with a set of such slot nozzles and we
have also supposed that the heat flow at one point of the strip domain is the sum of the contributions of
all slot nozzles. The sum has been renormalized to the maximum value of the heat flow for one single
nozzle.
46
An example of modeling for a such slot nozzle cooling device is shown on Figure 4.11 and the
corresponding parameter values are listed in
Table 4.7.
Number of slot nozzles 6

Distance between slot nozzles 0.2 [m]
Maximum specific heat flow per strip face -3.00E+06 [W/m]
Entry temperature profile type
Table 4.7 : Slot nozzles: parameter values for the modelled example.
0.00E+00
-1.00E+09
-2.00E+09
Power Density [W/m]
-3.00E+09
-4.00E+09
-5.00E+09
-6.00E+09
-7.00E+09
-8.00E+09
-9.00E+09
a) Volumic power map
800
700
600
Temperature [C]
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
b) Computed temperature profile along strip length
Figure 4.11 : Slot nozzles
47
Parabolic weighting
To be more general, it was decided to provide some means to apply some varying coefficients along
strip width (similar to former parabolic case). This way, effects such as pressure losses can be easily
applied to complex sources such as arrays of nozzles. An instance of this type of modelling has been
computed (in the case of an hexagonal array of nozzles). The weighting function is parabolic and its
characteristics are listed in
Table 4.8. Graphical results are presented on Figure 4.12. The parameters for the hexagonal array are
identical to the previous ones.
Weighting function parabolic

Centre weighting coefficient 0.6
Edge weighting coefficient 1
Entry temperature profile type uniform
Table 4.8 : Weighting along strip width: parameter values for modelling example.
0.00E+00
-1.00E+09
-2.00E+09
Power Density [W/m]
-3.00E+09
-4.00E+09
-5.00E+09
-6.00E+09
-7.00E+09
-8.00E+09
-9.00E+09
a) Volumic power
48
800
700
600
Temperature [C]
500 700-800
600-700
500-600
400 400-500
300-400
300 200-300
100-200
0-100
200
100
800
700
600
x = 0.4 m
Temperature [C]
500 x = 0.56 m
x = 0.72 m
x = 0.88 m
400 x = 1.04 m
x = 1.2 m
x = 1.36 m
300
x = 1.52 m
x = 1.68 m
200
100
0
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
X-Position [m]
c) Temperature profiles along strip width
Figure 4.12 : Hexagonal array of round nozzles with parabolic weighting along strip width
4.1.6 Modeling source defects

So far, the modeled situations were considered to be perfect ones. However, in some situations, it is
interesting to investigate the modifications of the exit temperature profiles when some cooling defects
are present. In the following parts some simple defects are presented.
49
Strip wise defects
This first type of cooling defect considers that a band of definite width along the cooling path is cooled
less efficiently than the other parts of the strip. This could be the case for cooling devices divided into
plural sections, in order to regulate the specific heat flow over the strip width. This model is rather
sharp and considers that the specific heat flow fastly drops from a high-cooled area to a low-cooled
area. An example of such a situation is depicted on Figure 4.13. The chosen parameters are
summarized in Table 4.9.
Entry temperature profile type uniform

Cooling defect type stripwise
Transition position 1 2 -0.15 [m]
Transition position 2 3 0.45 [m]
Specific heat flow area 1 -2.50E+06 [W/m]
Table 4.9 : Strip wise cooling defect: modeling parameters.
0.00E+00
800
-1.00E+09
700
-2.00E+09
Power Density [W/m]
600
Temperature [C]
-3.00E+09
500 700-800
-4.00E+09 600-700
500-600
-5.00E+09 400
400-500
300-400
-6.00E+09 300 200-300
100-200
-7.00E+09 0-100
200
-8.00E+09
100
-9.00E+09
0
a) Volumic power b) Computed temperature field
Figure 4.13 : Stripwise defect
50
Spotwise circular defects
Another defect case considers that a spot on a cooled area has a weaker heat flow than the specific heat
flow over the whole cooling area. Here, a circular shape was assumed for the defect. As for strip wise
defects, heat flow variations are sharp.
Table 4.10 summarizes the parameters used to compute the case and the results are shown on Figure
4.14.
Defect type spotwise circular

Specific heat flow outside the spot -3.00E+06 [W/m]
Specific heat flow inside the spot -2.00E+06 [W/m]
x-coordinate of the defect centre 1.25 [m]
y-coordinate of the defect centre 0.5 [m]
Diameter of the defect 0.3 [m]
Table 4.10 : Spotwise circular defect: modeling parameters
800
0.00E+00 700
-1.00E+09
600
Temperature [C]
Power Density [W/m]
-2.00E+09
500 700-800
-3.00E+09 600-700
500-600
400
400-500
-4.00E+09
300-400
-5.00E+09 300 200-300

100-200
0-100
-6.00E+09 200
-7.00E+09
100
-8.00E+09
0
-9.00E+09
a) volumic power b) computed temperature field
Figure 4.14 : Circular defect
51
Spotwise gaussian defects
Less sharp spot wise defects can also be considered. One of the simplest cases is a defect that is bell-
shaped (it can be modeled by a gaussian function). This leads to softer exit temperature profiles. A
parameter set has been listed in
Table 4.11 and the results can be seen on Figure 4.15.
Defect type spotwise gaussian

Nominal specific heat flow (per face) -3.00E+06 [W/m]
Ratio of the nominal heat flow value 0.5
x-position of the defect 1.25 [m]
y-position of the defect 0.5 [m]
Table 4.11 : Gaussian spot wise defect: parameter values for modelling.
800
0.00E+00
700
-1.00E+09
600
-2.00E+09
Temperature [C]
Power Density [W/m]
-3.00E+09 500 700-800

600-700
500-600
-4.00E+09 400
400-500
300-400
-5.00E+09 300 200-300
100-200
-6.00E+09 0-100
200
-7.00E+09 100
-8.00E+09
0
-9.00E+09
a) Volumic power b) Computed temperature field
Figure 4.15 : Gaussian defect
52
Temperature initial profile
Eventually, the model is provided with a set of possible entry temperature profile types, such as
parabolic, linear, gaussian, uniform, square, step, ... (see Figure 4.16). It is designed in order to easily
combine to other models, like preheating, heating, soaking and overaging sections.
900
800
700
Temperature [C]
600
500 Linear
Parabolic
Square
400 Gaussian
300
200
100
0
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Width Position [m]
Figure 4.16 : Entry temperature profile type examples
4.2. Temperature measurement in CRM Pilot line
4.2.1. The flying thermocouple technique

One objective of the project was to perform on-line thermal profile measurements in CRM water-based
cooling equipment. This thermal measurement had to be realized with a thermocouple hanged to the
strip and permanently linked to a data acquisition system.
A previous idea was consisting to hang the thermocouple to the moving strip by spot welding before
coming into the cooling equipment. The concept of flying thermocouple spot welding was designed and
experimented in laboratory. The objective of this trial was to prepare and to test it before performing
temperature measurements into fast water-based cooling devices on a continuous annealing line.
Task list
The following tasks have been carried out:
Design and build the testing rig,
test different speeds of a moving target,
optimise the device and the welding conditions on the moving target (steel strip),
test several substrates,
Test several thermocouple thicknesses Influence on cooling speed and welding quality.
The laboratory testing rig

Figure 4. is presented the main components of the rig. It is composed of:
A linear guide of 3 m long equipped with a moving target. The target drive is controlled by a
speed variator. The speed can be adjusted from 0 to 60 m/min.
53
A copper electrode relied to a welding unit to perform the thermocouple welding on the target.
An electromagnet to lock the target.
An actuator to push the electromagnet on the target.
Limit switch actuators to release the actuator.
Thermocouple wires to weld on the target.
Figure 4.17: the flying thermocouple rig
Figure 4.18 and Figure 4.18 illustrated the locking device and the welding holder.
Figure 4.18 : the locking device Figure 4.19 : the welding holder
Principe of flying welding

The welding holder is locked to the moving target by an electromagnet. The testing rig is set on trolleys
that moves freely on rails parallel to the target itself moving on a linear guide. When the electromagnet
locked to the target, the whole system (electromagnet + copper electrode) takes the speed of the target.
The electromagnet permits to perform the welding operation by hold the thermocouple wire and the
54
electrode closed to the substrate. Limit switch actuators induce the feeding of the electromagnet and
the moving (up and down) of the actuator when the target releases them.
The tasks are organised as follows:

1. The target starts to move, see Figure 4.20.a.
2. The target releases the first limit switch actuator: the actuator starts to get down and the
electromagnet is feed. The actuator pushes the electromagnet and the electrode closed to the target.
3. After variable slip of the system, the electromagnet is locked on the moving target.
4. The welding device moves at the same speed as the target.
5. The welding is performed, see Figure 4.20.b.
6. The moving target releases the second limit switch actuator: the electromagnet is no more fed and
the actuator gets up.
7. The thermocouple wire is welded on the target, see Figure 4.20.c, and the wire goes on to unroll
itself.
a) b) c)
Figure 4.20 : the flying welding
Flying welding system performance
Target speed
Different target speeds have been experimented. It is observed a slip of the electromagnet before
succeeding to have a strong contact with the strip. The slip distance depends on the target speed, the
electromagnet force and the roughness of the strip.
With an electromagnet which develops a force of 230 N, strong contacts could be only obtained up to a
target speed of 17 m /min. With an electromagnet that develops a force of 1300 N, the target speed has
been experimented up to 32.5 m/min.
Higher speeds can be used. The strip could be scratched to increase artificially its roughness in view to
create a better contact.
Welding operation
The welding conditions have been determined. Successful welds have been obtained at each trial when
the wires are crossed (see Figure 4.20.b) in view to produce a single weld instead of two simultaneous
welds.
Several thicknesses of thermocouple wires have been experimented: 0.25 mm, 0.3 mm and 0.5 mm.
The welding is performed without problem whatever is the wire diameter.
55
Substrate
Thermocouples have been welded on different substrates: bare steel, electro-galvanized steel sheets and
galvannealed steel sheets. Strong welds could be obtained on these substrates although the quality of
the substrate surface influences the welding. Sparks can be observed if the surface is too irregular and
the welding device is not exactly in contact with the strip.
A steel sheet thickness of 0.7 mm was used: it corresponds to the current thickness used on the CRM
pilot line. Higher steel thickness increases the influence of the electromagnet on the strip.
Thermocouples
Several thermocouples were experimented in laboratory in view to study the influence of the insulation
shealth, wire diameter and thermocouple positioning on steel strip. The use of thermocouples to follow
thermal cycles must be carried out carefully.
In the concerned case the thermocouple wires and their insulation shealth must resist to temperature up
to 800C, to mechanical contacts and to wire traction. Moreover the shealth must be waterproof.
The wire diameter must be a compromise between quick response time of the thermocouple and
mechanical resistance of the wires.
Limits of the concept for experimentation on a continuous annealing line

The spot welding of thermocouple wires on a moving target was realised successfully. But reasons
linked to the temperature prevented the experimentation of the flying thermocouple on the CRM
pilot line in the same conditions as tested in laboratory.
A first and fundamental reason is linked to the thermocouple signal.

The range of temperature allows the use of K-type thermocouples. Several diameter of thermocouples
were experimented in the frame of laboratory tests in view to control response time, shield resistance
and so on but the most fundamental limitation is linked to the fin-thermocouple effect in contact with
water.
Tests, especially with comparison with Cryotron probe signal, showed that the thermocouple wires can
not be used in direct contact with water because their diameter is very small compare to the steel sheet
on which thermocouple wires are welded. Even if they are protected by waterproof shealth, they are
cooled more quickly than the steel strip - in few tenths of seconds. Then the only solution to have real
thermocouple signal during a cooling process in water is to insulate the thermocouple in sandwich
between the strip and a steel sheet to prevent contact with water.
Other limitations of the system are linked to the limited accesses to the strip on the line before the
cooling equipment.
At ambient temperature
The welding just after the pay-off reel is impossible for distance question.
No other strip accesses are available before the annealing furnaces. Slide distance needs enough
space to guarantee the locking of the welding device on the strip.
At high temperature ~ 800C

The welding on a hot strip is more complicated. The electro-magnet works no more above the
Curie point.
The pieces of welding equipment must bear high temperature.
The initial flying thermocouple concept showed its limits, then another technical solution was chosen
to be able to perform cooling measurements in the CRM water-based equipment.
56
4.2.2. On line thermal profile measurements on CRM pilot line
To perform temperature measurement in the cooling equipment, the line section was modified just
above the cooling unit. A muffle furnace was set. The thermocouples are welded on the strip at line
stop. A steel sheet is welded on the strip where the thermocouples were welded. A thermocouple wire
guide was also prepared on the strip to prevent thermocouple moving and sliding along the strip.
A view of the section is reported in Figure 4.21.
Full Quench strip Strip to be treated
Thermocouple wires in a
stainless steel shealth
Data-logger
Thermocouple K
between the strip
and a steel sheet
Muffle furnace
Sealing unit
TWICE
Water tank
Basket
Figure 4.21 : CRM pilot line section for the cooling cycle characterization by thermocouples
The water-cooling section is composed by:

a Turbulent Water Immersed Cooling Equipment TWICE, installed in entry of water tank
a so-called basket composed of 22 rolls
a water tank
Test preparation
The thermocouples were welded inside a sandwich composed of two steel sheets of 0.4 mm thick in
view to avoid fin effect.
The selected thermocouples are K-type wires integrated into a stainless steel sheath and embedded in
highly compacted magnesium oxide for an optimum electrical insulation.
The wire diameter must be a compromise between quick response time of the thermocouple and
mechanical resistance of the wires. Then thermocouples with diameter of 0.5 mm and 1.0 mm were
experimented. Both thermocouples have well resisted to the line traction and to the passing over the
gates. But the thermocouple of 1.0 mm presented a slower response time than the thermocouple of 0.5
mm. The extremity of this thermocouple sheath was stripped to have the thermocouple wires in closed-
contact with the steel strip by direct welding. In this case, the same thermal response was obtained as
the 0.5-mm diameter thermocouple. Then the response time of the thermocouple of 0.5 mm seemed
enough to characterize the cooling cycle.
57
Test protocol
The strip with thermocouples is introduced into the muffle furnace. The strip is heated at stop up to
high temperature (maximum temperature reached 750C).
When the strip reached high temperature, the line starts to accelerate. Speeds of 13-15 mpm are
reached when the strip passes into the cooling section.
The line is stopped when the sandwich goes out of the cooling section.
The length of thermocouple wires to unroll is around 6-7 m.
Experimental conditions
Cooling tests were performed with various water temperatures in the water tank: 73C, 78C, 88C and
97C. According to the tests the TWICE equipment was used or not.
4.2.3. Results
Thermal cycles
The thermal cycles obtained from thermocouple signals are presented Figure 4.22 and Figure 4.23.
In Figure 4.22 is presented the cycles obtained without the TWICE for the various temperatures of
water and in Figure 4.23 is presented the cycles measured with the TWICE in use. The thermal cycles
are reported as function of the covered distance in view to observe the length of the different sections.
To characterize correctly the whole cooling cycle, it is necessary to decompose it from the different
cooling elements:
The TWICE has a length of 0.25 m. It is immersed into the water tank.
The basket is composed of 22 rollers and has a length of ~1.27 m
The strip is in contact with water in tank.
The covered distance depends on the water level height in water tank. We measured covered distance
in water between 2.25 and 2.5 m.
58
Cooling curves without TWICE in use
Water
~0,50 m
700 73C
Basket 78C
600 88C
~1,27 m
97C
500 Water
97C
~0,50 m
roller
400
T(C)
interval~0,06 m
T* = 406C ?
300 T* = 358C
T* = 265C
200
73C 78C 88C

100
Cooling section
0
1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5
Distance (m)
Figure 4.22 : Cooling curves in the whole cooling equipment (TWICE not activated)
Cooling curves with TWICE at 65 m/h

800
TWICE
73C
700 WATER 78C
88C
Basket
600 97C
~1,27 m
T* = 624C WATER
500
97C
T(C)
400
300 T* = 402C
T* = 330C
200
88C
73C 78C
100
Cooling section
0
1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5
Distance (m)
Figure 4.23 : Cooling curves in the whole cooling equipment (TWICE activated)
59
Observations
The first and expected observation of the various cooling cycles shows an increase of the cooling rate
with the decrease of the water temperature.
The use of turbulent immersed water jets increases the cooling rate.
The length of the turbulence zone is bigger than the size of the TWICE section.
The cooling into the basket depends on the pass. The cooling rate is higher in the descending pass than
in the ascending pass. In the descending pass, the contact of the strip with the rollers induces a local
decrease of temperature.
The complete cycle is not easy to investigate because the strip can be submitted to two cooling states:
A film boiling state (FB) or calefaction state above a transition temperature called Leidenfrost
temperature. A stable vapour film is formed between the steel surface and the water. The cooling
rates are perfectly controlled but lower than those measured in nucleate boiling state.
A nucleate boiling state (NB) below the transition temperature for which the heat transfer
coefficient is very high.
In the original HOWAQ process, the water temperature is near 100C. The strip temperature is always
above the transition temperature. By this way the heat transfer coefficient is lower but the cooling rate
is perfectly controlled during the cooling cycle.
For the temperature of 97C, with and without the TWICE, the steel strip leaves the water tank
around 300C. The whole cooling is performed in film boiling regime.
When the water temperature is decreased and with the use of TWICE, the cooling rates are increased
and the transition temperature can be reached directly into the TWICE.
For the temperature of 73C and the use of TWICE the steel strip is completely cooled before
leaving the TWICE.
Table 4.12 is reported the repartition of the two cooling processes for the different tests in the various
cooling elements. For the temperature of water of 73C without using the TWICE, the determination of
the cooling regimes is difficult to establish.
Flow rate
T water TWICE BASKET WATER
(m/h)
65 NB, 73C 73C 73C
73C
0 FB ? FB + NB, 73C 73C
65 FB + NB NB, 78C 78C
78C
0 FB FB + NB, 78C 78C
65 FB FB + NB, 88C 88C
88C
0 FB FB FB + NB, 88C
65 FB FB FB, 293C
97C
0 FB FB FB, 308C
Table 4.12 : Cooling states in the different cooling elements
FB : film boiling or calefaction

NB : nucleate boiling
60
In
Table 4.13 is reported the transition temperature measured during the various thermal cycles.
T water With TWICE Without TWICE

73C 624C 406C ?
78C 402C 358C
88C 330C 265C
Table 4.13 : Evolution of the temperature of transition

as a function of the water temperature
The transition temperature is not easy to determine especially if the transition is produced into the
TWICE. Moreover this transition temperature is not stable and can vary for a same water temperature.
The turbulence of water jets in the TWICE probably affects this transition temperature between the two
cooling regimes.
As shown in Figure 4.24, a global analysis of the cooling rates does not permit to extrapolate to other
water temperature. If the cooling implicates the two cooling phenomena (film boiling and nucleate
boiling) it is impossible to establish the ratio of each and the cooling rate is not linear with the
temperature of water. Then we preferred analysed the cooling rates in each region. The cooling rates as
a function of the water temperature are reported in Figure 4.25 for the Film Boiling regime and in
Figure 4.26 for the Nucleate Boiling process.
Global cooling in the total cooling equipment

600
542C/s with TWICE
without TWICE
500
400
Cooling rate (C/s)
300 268C/s
200
121C/s
179C/s
100 125C/s 43C/s

80C/s
41C/s
0
70 75 80 85 90 95 100
T water (C)
Figure 4.24 : Cooling rates in the global cycle (Normalized to a thickness of 1 mm)
61
Cooling in descending pass
300
with TWICE
without TWICE
250
222C/s
y = -8,5177x + 885,87
R2 = 0,9969
200
Cooling rate (C/s)
150 126C/s
100
62C/s
86C/s
y = -1,5882x + 211,33
50 73C/s
R2 = 0,9822
56C/s
0
70 75 80 85 90 95 100
T water (C)
Figure 4.25 : Cooling rates in the TWICE equipment in calefaction regime

Cooling rate in nucleate boiling regime

600
553C/s Tests with flow rate of 0 m/h
Tests with flow rate of 65 m/h
500 538C/s
400 366C/s
y = 89031e-0,0698x
R2 = 0,9982
CR (C/s)
300 340C/s
235C/s
200
185C/s
100
0
70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90
T water (C)
Figure 4.26 : Cooling rates in nucleate boiling regime (normalized to a thickness of 1 mm)
Into the water tank, the influence of the cooling part (descending, basket and ascending) was
determined in calefaction regime. An average cooling rate was calculated from these data. Graph is
reported Figure 4.27.
62
Cooling rates in calefaction process into water tank
100
90 y = -1,5827x + 210,67
R2 = 0,9827
80
70
Cooling rate (C/s)
y = -1,6043x + 210,39
R2 = 0,9726
60
50 y = -1,755x + 212,75
R2 = 0,9939
40
Descending part y = -1,9022x + 214,79

30
R2 = 0,9995
Basket
20
Ascending part
10
moyenne
0 Li
75 80 85 90 95 100
T water (C)
Figure 4.27 : Cooling rates into water tank in calefaction regime

Calcul of cooling coefficient and heat transferred to the steel strip
The cooling coefficient is calculated from:
T
= (Tstrip Twater ) ( 17 )
t
At t = 0, = 0 ( 18 )
( t )
Then: = 0 e ( 19 )
th c
And = 2 ( 20 )
With :
Th is the strip thickness [m]
is the density [kg/m]
C is the specific heat at constant pressure [J/kg]
The cooling coefficient was determined from the curves: Ln = f (t )
In
Table 4.14 is reported the cooling flows and the cooling coefficients into the descending pass (with
and without the TWICE unit).
63
T water TWICE No TWICE
h
h (kW/m/face) (kW/m.C) (kW/m.C)
(kW/m/face)
78C -554 0.999 -219 0.393
88C -335 0.605 -177 0.310
97C -167 0.309 -117 0.229
Table 4.14 : heat transferred to the strip and cooling coefficient in film boiling regime
In Table 4.15 is reported the heat flow for the global cooling.
With TWICE Without TWICE

T water
h(kW/m/face) h(kW/m/face)
73C -1385 -466
78C -640 -322
88C -310 -208
97C -109 -98
Table 4.15 : heat transferred to the strip in global cooling
64
4.3. Comparison between measured and computed data
Experimental data can be integrated into the simulation software but the software needs among others
the entry of the heat flow values to compute the strip evolution into the cooling unit.
The simulation software as it was conceived do not allow to integrate several cooling equipment and
the two cooling regimes (film boiling and nucleate boiling). It is possible to simulate a global cooling,
see Figure 4.28 and Figure 4.29, or the cooling into a specific equipment.
700
600
500
Temperature [C]
400
300
200
100
0
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5
Figure 4.28 : Global cooling profile in near-HOWAQ conditions
700
600
600-700
500 500-600
Temperature [C]
400-500
400 300-400
200-300
300 100-200
0-100
200
100
Figure 4.29 : Strip Cooling in near-HOWAQ conditions
As a complement to the simulation software, VBA macros were created to foresee cooling evolutions
and help into the choice of experimental conditions: water temperature, line speed... The programs can
simulate the cooling in water tank and the cooling in TWICE section.
65
4.3.1. Simulation into water tank
We limited the cooling into water tank to calefaction regime because it is impossible to keep good
flatness properties if the cooling is performed in nucleate boiling regime into the water tank. According
to anterior studies, the water temperature must be upper than 85C. In fact it is possible to perform
cooling in calefaction regime with lower water temperature if the line speed and the steel strip
thickness allow an exit temperature upper than the transition temperature.
But as the cooling in water was not investigated in this study at higher line speed than 14 mpm, it is
better to follow former suggestions [1], [2], [3].
The program allows the determination of:

1. Water temperature
2. Cooling rate
3. Exit temperature of the water tank
4. Cooling flow
The global interface is presented in Figure 4.30:
COOLING IN HOWAQ TANK

Water temperature (> 85C) Cooling rate
Cooling_rate = 90 C/s T_water = 85 C
Thickness = 0,7 mm Thickness = 1,0 mm
T_water = 85 C Cooling_rate = 63,6 C/s
T water Cooling rate

Exit temperature Cooling flow
-1 -1
T_i = 780 C Cp = 650 J.kg .K
Line_speed = 36 mpm Cooling_flow = -321,5 kW/m
T_exit = 405 C
T exit Cooling flow
Figure 4.30 : Calculation of cooling parameters in water tank
Water temperature and cooling rate

The water temperature can be calculated from a chosen cooling rate and a strip thickness. In parallel it
is possible to perform the opposite calculation, i.e the determination of the cooling rate from chosen
water temperature and strip thickness. It can be useful to determine cooling rates compatible with the
water temperature range in calefaction process.
In view to calculate data compatible with calefaction process, the water temperature range was
restricted between 85C and 100C.
If the value of cooling rate (combined with the strip thickness) gives water temperature out of this
range, the following messages appear:
Calefaction regime is not guarantee for water temperature less than 85C, see Figure 4.31.
!!! Data not compatible with a realistic process for water temperature upper than 100C, see Figure
4.32.
66
COOLING IN WATER TANK
Water temperature (> 85C) Cooling rate
Cooling_rate = 72,4 C/s T_water = 80 C
T_water = ! C Cooling_rate = 72,4 C/s
!!! calefaction regime is not guarantee!
Figure 4.31 : Water tank - error message if water temperature is less than 85C
COOLING IN WATER TANK

Water temperature(> 85C) Cooling rate
Cooling_rate = 33,7 C/s T_water = 102 C
T_water = ! C Cooling_rate = 33,7 C/s
!!! data not compatible with a realistic process!
Figure 4.32 : Water tank - error message if water temperature is upper than 100C
Temperature at the exit of the water tank

The program allows determine the temperature at the exit of the water tank from the entry temperature,
the line speed, the strip thickness, etc
In this case, we considered that the length of the strip into the water tank was a constant (2.3 m). It is of
course possible to modify the length into the water in view to simulate the cooling into a tank with
another dimension.
In the case where the line speed would be too slow to guarantee an exit temperature upper than the
transition temperature, we imposed limit conditions to the program.
If the exit temperature is lower than the transition temperature, a warning message appears, see Figure
4.33: !!! The cooling is not completely performed in calefaction regime!

-1 -1
T_i = 660 C Cp = 650 J.kg .K
T_exit = 209 C
!!! The cooling is not completely performed in calefaction regime !
T_transition ~ 310 C
T exit Cooling flow

than transition temperature
The expected transition temperature is also reported. The calculated exit temperature is mentioned but
it is clear that if it is less than the transition temperature, the cooling rate is increased and the real exit
temperature is lower than this value. But as the objective is not to cool the strip below the transition
temperature, it is not necessary to calculate the reached temperature.
Moreover, if the exit temperature is lower than the water temperature, the warning message appears, see
Figure 4.34: !!! Strip cooled before leaving the cooling equipment !
67
Then the exit temperature indicates the temperature of water.

-1 -1
T_i = 660 C Cp = 650 J.kg .K
T_exit = 87 C
!!! Strip cooled before leaving the cooling equipment !
T exit Cooling flow

than water temperature
Cooling flow
The cooling flow is calculated from various parameters already entry or calculated by the program.
The specific heat of steel can be modified as a function of steel nature.
4.3.2. Simulation into TWICE unit

To help to characterize cooling process into the TWICE unit, a similar interface to the one designed for
the water tank was created. The TWICE unit allows rapid cooling of the steel strip in nucleate boiling
regime without flatness defects.
The program proposes also to determine the following parameters:

1. Water temperature
2. Cooling rate
3. Exit temperature of the Twice unit
4. Cooling flow
The global interface is presented Figure 4.35.
68
COOLING IN TWICE UNIT
Water temperature (< 70C) Cooling rate
T_water = 65 C Cooling_rate = 953 C/s

-1 -1
T_i = 780 C Cp = 650 J.kg .K
Length_cooling = 0,25 m Cooling_flow = -4861,7 kW/m
Line_speed = 48 mpm
T_exit = 408 C
T exit Cooling flow
Figure 4.35 : Calculation of cooling parameters in TWICE section
Water temperature and cooling rate

The water temperature can be calculated from a chosen cooling rate and a strip thickness. In parallel it
is possible to perform the opposite calculation, i.e. the determination of the cooling rate from chosen
water temperature and strip thickness.
As the objective of the TWICE is to propose high cooling rates, the water temperature range was
defined between 0C and 70C.
If the value of cooling rate (combined with the strip thickness) gives water temperature out of this
range, the following messages appear:
!!! Two cooling regimes ! for water temperature upper than 70C, see Figure 4.36. Above water
temperature of 70C, the cooling is mixed (calefaction and nucleate boiling) and then the cooling rate
is lower.
!!! Data not compatible with a realistic process ! for water temperature less than 0C, see
Figure 4.37.

T_water = ! C Cooling_rate = 731 C/s
!!! two cooling regimes !
Figure 4.36 : TWICE unit - error message if water temperature is upper than 70C
69
Cooling_rate = 51184 C/s T_water = -2 C
T_water = ! C Cooling_rate = 51184 C/s
!!! Data not compatible with a realistic process !
Figure 4.37 : TWICE unit - error message if water temperature is less than 0C
Exit temperature of the TWICE section

The program allows determine the temperature at the exit of the water tank from the entry temperature,
the line speed, the length of TWICE section, the strip thickness, etc
The only restrictive condition applied to the exit temperature value is the case where the steel strip is
cooled before leaving the TWICE unit. In this case, the following warning message appears:
!!! Strip cooled before leaving the cooling equipment ! and the exit temperature indicates the
temperature of water, see Figure 4.38.

-1 -1
T_i = 780 C Cp = 650 J.kg .K
Length_cooling = 0,25 m Cooling_flow = -4861,7 kW/m
Line_speed = 23 mpm
T_exit = 65 C
!!! Strip cooled before leaving the cooling equipment !
T exit Cooling flow
Figure 4.38 : TWICE section warning message if exit temperature is less than water
temperature
Cooling flow
Like for the water-cooling characterization, the cooling flow is calculated from various parameters
already entry or calculated by the program and from the specific heat of steel.
70
4.4. Connection between thermal cycles and mechanical or metallurgical
characteristics
For few years, researches have been lead on the elaboration of high strength steels (HSS) and ultra-high
strength steels (UHSS). A diagram with the various steel grades is presented
Figure 4.39.
Figure 4.39 : Mechanical properties of various steels [4]
The elaboration of Dual Phase or Multi-Phases High Strength Steel strips by conventional annealing
cycles needs large additions of alloying elements to the steel that increase the steel hardenability and
the production cost, and makes steels difficult to weld.
HSS (High Strength Steel) and UHSS (Ultra-High Strength Steel) strips can be produced from low
alloyed steels on continuous annealing lines by increasing starkly the cooling rate (>1000C/s) of the
steel strip. This concept was developed at CRM and a TWICE installation was implemented on
HOWAQ continuous annealing line at Cockerill Sambre, Jemeppe, in Belgium. [5], [6].
The association of the HOWAQ tank and the TWICE unit allows to perform a two step cooling:
The primary cooling in boiling water is used to choice with accuracy the quenching temperature.
The secondary cooling is performed in TWICE at rate upper than 1000C/s.
By this way, it is possible from a single steel chemical composition to produce steels with different
metallurgical and mechanical properties and especially with high tensile strength and ductility.
Various studies [6], [7] [8] show that the steel strip properties depend essentially on the chemical
composition of steel and on the quenching temperature before the secondary rapid cooling, seeing than
secondary cooling rate is rather high to induce martensitic transformation that confers high tensile
strength to the steel strip.
Figure 4.40 and
Figure 4.41 is reported a mechanical property (UTS) and a metallurgical property (martensite fraction)
as a function of the intercritical annealing temperature for three steel grades.
71
1600
1400
1200
1000
UTS (MPa)
800
600
400 C 0,15 - Mn 1,00 - Si 0,015 - Cr 0,05
C 0,17 - Mn 1,42 - Si 0,01 - Cr 0,05

200
C 0,09 - Mn 1,5 - Si 0,024 - Cr 0,038
0
720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 810 820 830 840 850 860
Intercritical temperature (C)
Figure 4.40 : Influence of the quenching temperature on ultra tensile strength
120
C 0,15 - Mn 1,00 - Si 0,015 - Cr 0,05
100 C 0,17 - Mn 1,42 - Si 0,01 - Cr 0,05
C 0,09 - Mn 1,5 - Si 0,024 - Cr 0,038

80
% Martensite
60
40
20
0
720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 810 820 830 840 850 860
Intercritical temperature (C)
Figure 4.41 : Influence of the quenching temperature on martensite fraction
In fact, there are few available databases reporting at one and the same time the influence of cooling
rate on mechanical or metallurgical properties.
A recent study [9] shows that the primary cooling rate at a slight influence on the mechanical
properties of high strength steels. An example is reported Figure 4.42.
1400
TS (65C/s) MPa
1300
TS (45C/s) MPa
1200 TS (25C/s) MPa
1100 TS (10C/s) MPa

TS (MPa)
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900
Quench temperature (C)
Figure 4.42 : Influence of the quenching temperature onto the tensile strength
As illustration, for a quenching temperature of 700C a decrease of the cooling rate from 65C/s to
25C/s induces a decrease of tensile strength of ~200 MPa.
72
steel grades from cooling parameters.
The concept is going to be exposed in this part:
From the cooling simulation interface, it is possible to determine water temperature or cooling rate for
a given steel thickness.
If the line speed, the cooling section length and the cooling starting temperature are known, the
simulation interface allows determination of the exit temperature from the cooling equipment.
We can consider that this temperature corresponds to the intercritical annealing temperature. The first
cooling can be realized in water tank section and the secondary cooling can be realized in TWICE unit
as it is performed on the industrial line of Arcelor.
Experimental data connected to cooling simulation show that the secondary cooling is realized at
cooling rate as high as possible and simulations often show that the steel strip is cooled before going
out of the TWICE unit.
The composition of the investigated steel is reported in Table 4.16:

C (w%) Mn (w%) Si (w%) Cr (w%) Mo (w%)
0.13 1.46 0.45 0.18 0.66
Table 4.16 : steel chemical composition
The study allows the determination of Tensile Strength (TS) and Yield Strength (YS) as a function of
the primary cooling rates. The secondary cooling rates are around 1000C/s.
Experimental curves reporting the influence of TS and YS as a function of intercritical annealing
temperature and primary cooling rate were fitted to integrate polynomial equations into the simulation
interface and then give mechanical properties as a function of these parameters.
The interface recalls the cooling parameters (from routines into water tank and into twice unit) and
gives corresponding steel mechanical properties.
The interface is presented Figure 4.43.
Mechanical properties Steel Composition

TS 1190 MPa wt% C 0,13
wt% Mn 1,46
YS 960 MPa wt% Si 0,45
wt% Cr 0,18
wt% Mo 0,066
TS YS Steel thickness 1 mm
Line speed 80 mpm
T_intercritical 746 C
Primary cooling rate 50 C/s
Secondary cooling rate 1350 C/s
Final temperature 60 C
Figure 4.43 : interface for determination of mechanical properties of resistance steel
It is possible to use the same principle to determine other metallurgical and metallurgical properties
and to investigate other steel compositions.
73
5. Control of geometrical characteristic
The CSM project purpose consists of investigating how the distribution of fast cooling on continuous
annealing line may affect the strip geometrical characteristic. This objective is achieved by installing a
strip profile temperature measuring system at the entrance of strip cooling section and measuring thermal
profile and flatness at the exit.
This investigation will be performed on cold rolling strip annealing line for stainless steel.
The following tasks were performed:

Definition of specifications, design and assembling of on-line measurement systems
Calibration
On-line systems installation
On-line experimental test and data analysis
5.1. Definition of specifications, design and assembling of on-line

measurement systems (temperature and flatness of steel strips)
5.1.1. On line width temperature profile measurement systems
Strip is subject to heating and cooling cycles in short times on continuous annealing lines. If system is
not well planned, the short treatment time may cause, particularly in cooling phase, thermal non-
homogeneity on strip section.
Different temperatures between center and edge give irregular stresses on strip section, because of
different thermal expansion.
This phenomenon causes permanent strains which have negative effects on product quality, giving
flatness defects and at the same-times can produce difficulties in strip guidance as well, such as lead to
plant stop.
In this project, in order to study how the different thermal distribution on strip influences flatness, an
annealing line was equipped with measurement systems of thermal profile and flatness.
Experimentation was carried on at Torino AST works, on a continuous annealing line of stainless steel.
The line is composed of a reheating furnace fed by methane burner and of a cooling area constituted by
two sections in succession, inside of which blade-shaped air jets are set, crosswise to strip feed
direction. Air jets are fed by fans, while a constant depression is preserved inside cooling sections.
Initially two temperature measuring systems were designed to be positioned at the furnace exit and at
the end of second cooling zone. Successfully a third temperature measuring system was prepared to be
positioned between the two cooling sections in order to obtain a better knowledge of temperature
uniformity of strip also in the intermediate cooling zone. The Flatness measurement system, instead,
was developed to be positioned at the exit of the second looper, in a vertical segment, where strip is far
enough from rolls, which can affect measure and where there is enough room to permit installation. In
fig. 5.1 is showed a scheme of the measuring systems arrangement on plant.
75
Annealing furnace First cooling section Second cooling section
4
1 2 3
5 5
1 High temperature thermal profile measure system

2 Intermediate thermal profile measure system
3 Low temperature thermal profile measure system
4 Flatness measure system
5 Computer cabinets
Figure 5.1 : Measuring systems disposition on the line
5.1.2. Temperature system at the furnace exit

section and to obtain information about the right operation of heating treatment.
Strip has got, in this position, a temperature between 900C and 1100C. At these sufficiently high
temperatures, heat radiation emitted by strip is such as to permit the use of red or near infrared sensors.
Matrix sensors, used in CCD matrix cameras, are also included in this category.
An equipment developed by CSM, which uses just a CCD matrix camera, is placed in this area.
Fig. 5.2 and fig. 5.3 show the drawing and the photo of sensor head assembled. We can observe the
camera and optical filter that selects a radiation band in near infrared in the response range of CCD
sensors. The filter was chosen so as to get a signal dynamics to cover the range between 800 and 1150C.
It also has the function to limit the infrared radiation incident on sensor so reducing the heating of
sensitive device. The linear slot on camera front part has the purpose to let only the radiation coming from
strip section involved in measuring arrive at the matrix of photo-sites.
A reference lamp projects, in a part of sensor matrix unconcerned about measure, a steady radiation which
has the purpose to preserve calibration, avoiding possible errors caused by CCD sensor drifts, for example
at varying of sensor temperature.
The instrument determines the thermal profile across the strip feed exploiting only few lines of all the
matrix photo-sites whit a spatial resolution of 768 pixel corresponding to the elements of a matrix
sensor line at a scan speed of 25 profiles per second.
76
A optical filter reference lamp air inlet
Linear slot
CCD sensor
Signal
water cooled
housing
A Sez A-A
Figure 5.2 : Sensor for thermal profile measure at the furnace exit
Black body
Air
Reference
lamp
Linear slot
CCD camera
Figure 5.3 : Furnace exit sensor
77
5.1.3. Temperature system at the end of first cooling section
The system is composed of a commercial short wavelength pyrometer and a motor driven oscillating
mirror that scans the strip. The measuring range is 300C to 750C, the sensor wavelength is 1.3m,
the scanning speed is two profiles per second and scan angle is 60.
Fig. 5.4 shows the sensing head schematics. The motor moves the rod connected with the mirror
disposed inside a protection box. An angle transducer measures mirror inclination. A glass window is
disposed on the box side facing the strip. An air-purging inlet provides to maintain the instrument
window clean.
Angular
Glass window transducer
Pyrometer Rod
Mirror
Motor
Air purging inlet

Water cooled support
5.1.4. Temperature system at the end second cooling section
Strip comes out from the air-cooling area at a temperature lower than 300C. It is impossible to use, for
this range of temperatures, the same measurement system like at furnace exit, but it is necessary to
utilize sensors for heat radiation emitted at longer wavelengths. An infrared scanning system marketed
by Land infrared is used in this plant position. The measuring range is between 0C and 800C and
sensor wavelength is 814m.
The instrument scans the strip by means of an oscillating mirror, which covers an angle of 60 at a
scanning speed of two profiles per second.
78
A suitable protection case was arranged to protect the system from plant environment.
Fig.5.5 and fig. 5.6 show the drawing and sensor assembling. An air jet for cleaning the view window
protects the optical system and the whole device is kept in an airtight protection box. A current signal
proportional to strip temperature and a current signal proportional to the scanning angle come out from
this device.
Protection box
scanning system
air inlet for optical

infrared sensor cleaning
field of view
Figure 5.5 : Sensor for thermal profile measure at the exit of second cooling
Scanning system
Air inlet
Infrared sensor
Protection case
Figure 5.6 : Sensor assembling
79
5.1.5. On line geometrical profile measure system
The system carried out by CSM is specific to the use with reflecting material strips (cold-rolled
stainless steel), and it exploits the phenomenon of linear source light reflection, observing deflections
produced by strip, at the passing of non-flatness regions, through a camera (fig. 5.7). Strip non-
flatness causes a reflected image deflection, because strip surface assumes angles which are different
from that of flat strip. The reflection point of view permits to be particularly sensitive even to small
strip deformations.
The system measures directly the angle assumed by strip in the crossing region of the scanning line.
The value of strip relative elongations is obtained directly from angles detection, because non planar
strip zones produce elongations due to the deviation from the straight line.
Thus an elongation profile all along the whole strip surface can be obtained, that is not limited to a
reduced number of fibres, edges included.
Linear light
CCD Camera
Figure 5.7 : Flatness measuring system
The available space on plant does not permit to place camera at a distance such as to frame all strip
width, even though it uses lenses of short focal distance (6.5 mm).
This problem was solved using two mirrors which, increasing the optical path, permit to place camera
at the right measuring distance. Fig. 5.8 and fig. 5.9 show the drawing and a photo of system.
Mirrors and camera must be housed to avoid the progressive dirtying of optical surfaces. For the above
reason, they were kept in an airtight protection box, on which a window protected by a glass was cut, to
make strip surface visible.
The camera image is acquired and processed by means of an algorithm which basing on the relative
positions of light, camera, and strip, permits to calculate optical strip angles respect to flat surface and
therefore to evaluate fibre relative elongations. The relative elongation is expressed as I-Unit.
80
mirror
window
strip
mirror
CCD
camera
lamp
Figure 5.8 : Design of flatness measure
mirror
Window
mirror
Cover
Protectio CCD camera

n case
Sliding
supports
Figure 5.9 : Flatness system assembling
81
It is also necessary, for flatness calculation, to measure the strip length during a calculation cycle. The
measure of strip length is supplied by an encoder signal, which is connected to the same computer
dedicated to this system. The graphic window available on computer, which is devoted to the
instrument, is presented in fig. 5.10.
I-Unit graph on strip

width
Light reflected
row image
Centre and edges

flatness trend
Flatness map in false

colour
Figure 5.10 : Computer screen of thermal profile measure at the exit of heating
On the top left side, the row image of light source reflected by strip is presented.
The screen half right side shows three diagrams, dedicated to, from top to bottom:
1) the graph showing the flatness measure in I-Unit, on the whole strip width, in real time
2) flatness trend measured on left edge, at centre and right edge of strip,
3) flatness map in false colours.
Centre and borders flatness values are shown in three coloured field boxes
82
5.2. Calibration
5.2.1. Temperature systems
The signals of the three thermal profile systems are connected to the same computer. Three
applications, each for every system, work simultaneously on the computer.
The application software for the exit furnace system gathers the instrument signals and converts them
into a series of temperature values, each of them depending on strip position. It also contains facilities
for inserting parameters for system calibration.
Radiation that is incident on every photo-element of the line causes a voltage level, which is
proportional to the same radiation.
Voltage level is adjusted considering the dark voltage level of photo-elements in absence of light (level
0) and that produced by lamplight (reference level).
The radiation coming from a calibration furnace with a black body was used for calibrating the thermal
profile measuring instruments to state the relationship between source temperature and photo-element
electric response.
At first, an iris was chosen and a camera exposure time was set, in order to obtain an electric signal, close
to full range, in correspondence with the temperature full range of calibration source (fig. 5.11). The
reference lamp was powered to produce a light intensity close to that of the external calibration source.
Once the reference lamp current is set, it is regulated to be kept constant and represents a reference point
to compensate camera signal drifts. Afterwards, photo-element response was calculated in function of the
angle of incidence of radiation, in order to hold the optical system angular non-linearity in to
consideration.
Set diaphragm aperture and Correction of angular CCD output reference

reference lamp radiation irregularity of optical temperature [Scale construction]
system
Black body
image CCD
response
Lamp
image
CCD area Field of view Black body Temperature
Figure 5.11 : Thermal profile system calibration
83
The relationship was obtained rotating the instrument around the optical system centre and carrying out
a series of readings with the same source temperature, in relation to different view angles of the
camera. Then, adjustment factors of the optical system, in function of view angle, were calculated.
Finally, the relationship between electric signal and black body temperature was carried out, fixing the
two coefficients Ca and Cb, which have to be introduced into the law relating temperature to signal.
1
= Ca lg(Cb L )
T
Such relationship is the Planks law relating black body monochromatic radiation L with absolute
temperature T.
The pyrometers, in the cooling sections, provide an electric output, directly proportional to the
temperature of scanned body. For calibration test, the oscillating mirror was stopped and aligned with the
calibration black body, and the electric response was checked to match the temperature of the calibration
source. The same check control was carried out for different mirror rotation angles.
In all system, a correction factor to take in account the error produced on temperature reading by strip
surface emissivity is available and must be selected before operating.
5.2.2. Flatness measure system
As regards flatness measurement, the need to keep small the on line instrument overall dimensions, led to
choose short focal length (6.5mm) for camera lens.
Therefore, as it can be noticed in fig. 5.12a, the image shows an optical aberration, which consists of the
bending of a reference plane grid, set up in laboratory for the purpose. To eliminate this, a first software
module was implemented for correcting aberration; it operates accomplishing the necessary deformations,
in order to cancel out any image deformation (fig. 5.12b).
Thus, it is still possible to use short focal lenses to place the camera near the strip, fully exploiting the
available path up to a working field 1600mm wide.
The strip angle values are obtained from light reflected image by triangulation relations based on the
knowledge of relative position of strip, light source, and camera. It is assumed that for small angles of
inclination, strip surface can be approximated to an inclined flat surface.
84
a) - Without correction
b - With software correction
Figure 5.12 : Software correction of optical aberration
85
5.3. On-line systems installation
The profile measure system at the furnace exit was installed under the strip because the furnace upper part
is made up of refractory roof.
The instrument was placed close to the floor, displaced from the centreline in order to facilitate
maintenance operations and to frame all the strip width (fig. 5.13). Air purging and water-cooling
supply was arranged to protect the sensor.
SIDE VIEW
Air purging
Cooling
chamber
Furnace View Thermal profile
Strip roll direction meter
Signal
connection
Termal Water
profile sensor cooling
Figure 5.13 : Thermal profile measure system at the furnace exit
Regarding the thermal profile measure systems, between the two cooling sections, a plant modification
was realized to permit system installation.
The cover between the two cooling zones was removed and a new covering was made so that system
can be positioned at adequate distance to scan the whole strip width.
A water cooling support was also prepared to protect the sensing head from heat radiation coming from
the strip.
86
Fig. 5.14 shows the sensor head placed on the plant.
Signal connection
Shield
Temperature
measuring device
Air purging
Water
cooling
Fig. 5.15 shows the thermal profile measuring system arrangement at the end of cooling section. In
this position only air purging was necessary in order to maintain the optic clean. The three temperature
measuring systems are connected to the same computer placed in a rack near the cooling zones (fig.
5.16).
Shield
Temperature
measuring system
Air purging
Signal
connection
View
direction
Figure 5.15 : Thermal profile measure system at the end of second cooling section
87
Figure 5.16 : Rack dedicated to thermal profile systems
To localize the position of the measured point on the strip the software must be able to determine the
borders when the strip width changes.
The borders are sought exploiting the change in radiation emitted from the strip and the surrounding.
In the case of temperature measuring system at the furnace exit some difficulties in border
determination can arise because the temperature difference of the strip and refractory roof is small and
changes with process parameters. It was necessary to implement a more sophisticated algorithm to
determine the strip border more reliably.
In order to obtain correct temperature measurement the emissivity correction factor has to be preset on
three systems.
The strip emissivity depends on material kind and surface oxidation level due to furnace atmosphere.
At the furnace exit a value of =0.75 was estimated by the comparison whit the temperature measured
whit the fixed plant pyrometer positioned just before the furnace exit.
The system at the furnace exit has short wavelength infrared sensor and the error due to emissivity
uncertainty is reduced because of its direct proportionality to wavelength.
The error on temperature reading is calculated by following approximate relation:

T 2
T =
C2
T = temperature in K, = emissivity C2=second Planck constant (14388mK) =0.9 m
Considering an emissivity error =0.1 and a temperature of T=1050C the temperature error is
T=15C.
The same consideration can be done for the measuring system at the end of first cooling section where
emissivity factor was assumed =0.75, =1.3 m and T=6.3C.
Greater error can occur at the end of the second cooling zone because the sensor is sensible to
wavelength as high as 814 1 m.
88
In this case the emissivity value was estimated =0,5 by the comparison whit a contact thermometer.
Flatness measurement system was placed at the exit of the second looper, in a vertical segment, where
strip is far enough from rolls, which can affect the measure. In fig. 5.17 a photo of the system
arrangement on plant is shown.
It can be distinguished the light source and the protection box of CCD camera. The protection box is
fixed on a sliding support and can be shifted to facilitate positioning and maintenance operation.
The measuring system computer is enclosed in a rack placed under the control room (fig. 5.18).
Monitor, mouse and keyboard are placed inside the control room.
CCD Camera
Protection box
Strip
Light source
Figure 5.17 : Flatness measuring system on plant
89
Computer Rack
Figure 5.18 : Computer rack

ii
5.4. On-line experimental test and data analysis

In order to correlate data of thermal profiles and strip flatness, it needs to refer the data to the same
strip section considering that the three measuring systems are positioned in different places of plant, far
each other.
To this aim data that are acquired and are available on LAN network at definite times have to be
synchronized and linked with other process data as strip speed and dimensions.
It is so possible to collect synchronized data, which are available at every defined strip length.
In order to decrease the data amount for every strip section, only few values of temperature and flatness
profile are stored.
From the analysis of measured profile it was observed that thermal and flatness variations were
principally localized on strip edges.
So only nine values are stored every profile, namely one value at the centre of the strip, and three
values for both strip sides so distributed: on the edge, 100mm, 200mm and 300mm from the edges (fig.
5.19)
A campaign was carried out on plant during which experimental data of 119 strips were collected.
The strips material was always austenitic steel grade.
90
Thermal profile and map of strip at furnace exit
Thermal profile and map of strip at the end of first cooling zone
Thermal profile and map of strip at the end of second cooling zone
Flatness profile and strip image
Figure 5.19 : Thermal profile and flatness of 1500 mm wide strip.

Dots marker indicate the sampling points
91
Fig. 5.20 shows the trend along the strip length of some collected data referred to the same strip 1270mm
width and 1,5mm thick.
The graphics represent the strip speed in the furnace, the furnace temperatures, the strip temperature at
the furnace exit, in the cooling sections and flatness.
In the case of cooling sections the data were stored on periods as long as 360 sec so that less data are
collected per strip length unit.
Strip speed Furnace temperature
1200
100
1180
80 1160
1140
speed (%)
60 1120
(C)
1100
40 1080
1060
20 1040
1020
0
1000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 0 500 1000 1500
Strip lenght (m) Strip length (m)
Strip temperature Flatness
100
1140 90
80
Left edge
1120
70
1100
60
(I-Unit)
(C)
1080 50 right edge

1060 40
1040 30
1020 20
10
1000
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Strip length (m) Strip length (m)
First cooling zone strip temperature Second cooling zone strip temperature
500
First cooling section 100
second cooling section
480 90
460 80
440 70
420 60
(C )
(C )
400 50
380 40
360 30
340 20
320 10
300 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Strip le ngth (m ) Strip length (m )
Figure 5.20 : Temperature and flatness trend on the strip
92
Typical flatness and temperature profiles on the strip width in correspondence of every measuring section
are represented in fig. 5.21.
From graphics observation, it is evident that flatness trend is influenced by strip temperature variation.
It can be observed that when strip speed changes a temperature variation in the furnace occurs and
sensible temperature variation on strip is produced.
Flatness Furnace exit
12 1100
1090
10 1080
1070
T em p eratu re (C )
8
1060
(i-Un it)
6 1050
1040
4
1030
1020
2
1010
0 1000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Strip Width (mm) Strip width (m)
First cooling zone Second cooling zone
500 80
480 70
460
60
440
Temperature (C )
Temperature (C )
420 50
400 40
380
30
360
20
340
320 10
300
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Strip width(m) Strip w idth (m m )
Figure 5.21 : Temperature and flatness on the strip width
In fig. 5.22 the portion referred to first 500m of strip length is enlarged. The strip flatness on the edges
follows the trend of strip temperature.
This occurrence is not always so evident because there are other examples that show as strip flatness
can change without a sensible strip temperature change is observed.
93
Strip temperature and flatness
1160 120
1140
Left edge flatness 100
1120 Right edge flatness 80
(I-Unit)
(C)
1100 Temperature 60
1080 40
1060 20
1040 0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Strip
Striplength (m) (m)
lendth
Figure 5.22 : Strip flatness on the edges follows the trend of strip temperature
To evaluate if a proportional relation from strip flatness and temperatures can exist, a statistical
analysis on data collected was carried out.
The following variables are considered:
Dependent variables Independent variables

left edge right edge
left edge flatness - Strip speed - Strip speed
right edge flatness - Strip thickness - Strip thickness
- Strip width - Strip width
Furnace exit Furnace exit

- t centre-t left edge - t centre-t right edge
- t edge - t edge
- t centre - t centre
End first cooling section End first cooling section

- t centre-t left edge - t centre-t right edge
- t left edge - t edge
End second cooling section End second cooling section

- tcentre-t left edge - tcentre-t right edge
- t edge - t right edge
For every strip one single mean value of every variable was calculated.
94
Three values for every measuring system position are considered on strip width, and precisely the central
value and the mean value of the two points nearer to the edges. This because no sensible data variation
were observed in the other measured points (See fig. 5.23).
Edge values
Second cooling section
Left side
First cooling section
Center values
Rigth side
Figure 5.23 : Variable values considered in statistical analysis
Global representations of collected data referred to the strips monitored in the trials are so available.
Fig 5.24, 5.25 and 5.26 show the temperature difference distributions (centre-edge) on the two strip
sides at the end of the two cooling sections and at the furnace exit.
It can be observed that the right side of strip is colder, on average, than its left side at the cooling
sections, while the temperature difference is lightly higher on left side at the furnace exit.
95
Mean 8.6
The edges are colder

than the centre
tcentre-tedge (C )
Mean 4.6
Strip left side
Strip right side
tcentre-tedge (C )
Figure 5.24 : Temperature difference at the furnace exit
Mean -5.2 C
Standard deviation
Right side is colder than the left
tcentre-tedge (C ) Mean 4.4 C

Strip left side Standard deviation
Strip right
tcenter tedge (C)
Figure 5.25 : Temperature difference at the end of first cooling
96
Mean 1.3
Standard deviation 1.2
Right edge is colder than the left one
tcentre-tedge (C )
Strip left side
Strip right side
t -t d (C )
Figure 5. 26 : Temperature difference at the end of second cooling section
In fig. 5.27 the flatness on the left edge is higher and more oscillating than right edge. The average
value is 12 I-Unit and 9 I-Unit respectively.
Mean 1.9
Standard deviation 1.8
Mean 12.3 I-Unit
Standard deviation
Left edge flatness is higher

than the right edge
I-Unit Mean 9.1 I-Unit

Standard deviation
Flatness left edge
Flatness right edge
I-Unit
Figure 5.27 : Flatness on the two strip edge
97
Fig. 5.28 shows the Pearson correlation coefficients that evaluates if there is a joint contribution of
independent variables to flatness variation at the same time. Only thickness and speed are strictly
correlated, hence only speed will be considered in the statistical elaboration.
The statistical elaboration shows a good correlation between flatness and some independent variables
on the right edge (fig. 5.29). The correlation factor is 0.76. It can observe that the most influent
independent variable is strip speed followed by temperature difference on the edge at furnace exit.
The graphic on the left represent the correspondence of experimental data of flatness with data
predicted by the statistical model.
As strip speed is strictly correlated to thickness due to physical constraints, the most influencing
correlation parameter is thickness.
It is reasonable to expect that flatness defect increases as strip thickness decreases (inverse correlation).
If in the statistical elaboration the strip speed is excluded, the correlation coefficient is as lower as 0.56
and the most correlated independent variable is temperature difference at furnace exit on the right edge
(tcentre-tright edge). The correlation between flatness and temperature difference is weak.
On the left edge the correlation results lower than the right one also if strip speed is considered.
The different correlation on the two edges, is probably due to the strip incoming flatness which is
unfortunately unknown and could overwhelm the effect due to the process.
98
Correlations
Pearson Correlation Coefficients, N = 119
Plan_d tuf_C_Tuf_S Pla_s TM_d Tfin_d TUF_c TM_c Tfin_c velocita larghe zza TuF_C_TUF_d TM_s Tfin_S TUF_s spessore
Plan_d 1.00000 0.48554 0.51211 -0.53847 -0.47637 0.15800 -0.45733 -0.51912 0.73977 -0.10378 0.56254 -0.52842 -0.48944 -0.04675 -0.69000
tuf_C_Tuf_S 0.48554 1.00000 0.17668 -0.32754 -0.16813 0.07068 -0.25271 -0.16639 0.44130 -0.10887 0.48683 -0.33458 -0.17630 -0.33675 -0.49912
Pla_s 0.51211 0.17668 1.00000 -0.62681 -0.61268 0.26099 -0.53019 -0.55584 0.63421 -0.35121 0.36788 -0.60565 -0.56444 0.17508 -0.56005
TM_d -0.53847 -0.32754 -0.62681 1.00000 0.77043 -0.04362 0.86957 0.75011 -0.55515 0.15909 -0.33426 0.98871 0.78409 0.09098 0.51526
Tfin_d -0.47637 -0.16813 -0.61268 0.77043 1.00000 0.04614 0.64596 0.92243 -0.47671 0.26125 -0.31022 0.76130 0.90724 0.11139 0.40331
TUF_c 0.15800 0.07068 0.26099 -0.04362 0.04614 1.00000 -0.05542 0.08805 0.28927 -0.17617 0.07713 -0.00627 0.06683 0.91544 -0.27693
TM_c -0.45733 -0.25271 -0.53019 0.86957 0.64596 -0.05542 1.00000 0.61575 -0.50220 0.16932 -0.24149 0.86775 0.65645 0.04965 0.47509
Tfin_c -0.51912 -0.16639 -0.55584 0.75011 0.92243 0.08805 0.61575 1.00000 -0.44020 0.16431 -0.30595 0.76116 0.95837 0.15025 0.38513
velocita 0.73977 0.44130 0.63421 -0.55515 -0.47671 0.28927 -0.50220 -0.44020 1.00000 -0.29029 0.36524 -0.51384 -0.43352 0.09501 -0.95046
larghe zza -0.10378 -0.10887 -0.35121 0.15909 0.26125 -0.17617 0.16932 0.16431 -0.29029 1.00000 -0.54669 0.13659 0.19836 -0.12237 0.18793
TuF_C_TUF_d 0.56254 0.48683 0.36788 -0.33426 -0.31022 0.07713 -0.24149 -0.30595 0.36524 -0.54669 1.00000 -0.33391 -0.30703 -0.12362 -0.31645
99
TM_s -0.52842 -0.33458 -0.60565 0.98871 0.76130 -0.00627 0.86775 0.76116 -0.51384 0.13659 -0.33391 1.00000 0.80411 0.12907 0.48107
Tfin_S -0.48944 -0.17630 -0.56444 0.78409 0.90724 0.06683 0.65645 0.95837 -0.43352 0.19836 -0.30703 0.80411 1.00000 0.13422 0.37783
TUF_s -0.04675 -0.33675 0.17508 0.09098 0.11139 0.91544 0.04965 0.15025 0.09501 -0.12237 -0.12362 0.12907 0.13422 1.00000 -0.06002
spessore -0.69000 -0.49912 -0.56005 0.51526 0.40331 -0.27693 0.47509 0.38513 -0.95046 0.18793 -0.31645 0.48107 0.37783 -0.06002 1.00000
There is no high correlation coefficient between flatness and any of independent variables.
The Model evaluates if there is a joint contribution of independent variables to flatness variation at the same
time. Only thickness and speed are strictly correlated, hence only speed will be considered in the following.
Figure 5.28 : Pearson correlation coefficients

Right Paramete Standardize
Model edge Variabl r Estimat dEstimat
description e e e
Fitting R-Square Adj. -Sq 1) spee 0.46841
estimators: 0.7652 R 0.7569 d
Test: OK al 95% confidence 2 t centr -t righ edg 0.95462
e t
level ) furnac
(a exite
Independent correlated t3) e )
widt 0.02393
variables: h
4) centr -0.2084 -0.1391
(second
t e cooling )
section
Intercep -33.37634
t
100
Residual
Predicted model value

Predicted value
Flatness experimental value
Figure 5.29 : Statistical model results

The trend of flatness vs thickness on the two strip edges is shown in fig 5.30.
Right edge flatness
100
90
80
70
Flatness (I-Unit)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Min Max
Strip thickness
Left edge flatness
100
90
80
70
Flatness (I-Unit)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Min Strip thickne ss Max
Figure 5.30 : Strip flatness distribution vs strip thickness on the two edges
By statistical analysis a weak correlation between strip flatness and temperature difference at the
furnace exit results. No correlation between strip flatness and strip temperature distribution in the
cooling section is emerged. This fact occurs because, in the cooling sections the strips are processed
with temperature difference between centre and edges lower than the limit at which permanent
deformation can occur.
In fact, the principal reason of strip flatness defect is the thermal rate along the profile producing
permanent deformation of strip.
The critical temperature difference in strip section at which a permanent deformation can occur is
[Howaq the Hot Water Quenching Process. Paulus, P A - Steel Tecnol. Int. 310-314 1988]:
t = Sn / (E)
where Sn is the yield strength, is the thermal expansion coefficient and E is the Youngs modulus
Fig. 5.31 represents the theoretical trend of t as a function of strip temperature obtained assuming the
value for Sn and E corresponding to the processed steel grade.
101
In the diagram also the temperature difference between centre and edges of monitored strips are
represented.
In the cooling zone it is possible to observe that the measured temperature differences are lower than
critical t and it is reasonable not expecting a contribution on strip flatness. The flow distribution in
the cooling section cannot be changed and tests with different flow setting were not possible.
At the furnace exit the strip temperature difference is very near to the critical value and the possibility
that permanent deformations can occur is high.
As shown in fig. 5.31, values signed by a circle are above or near to the critical value. These values
correspond to strips on which flatness values are relatively high respect to the mean value of strip
processed.
Right edge
Second cooling section
120
100 First cooling section Furnace exit

80 In cooling sections temperature
Critical point difference (tcentre-tedge) is lower than
60
T (C)
critical t.
40
At furnace exit temperature
20 difference (tcentre-tedge) is near to
0
critical t.
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
-20
Temperature (C )
Second cooling section Left edge
120
First cooling section Furnace exit
Critical temperature difference for 100
permanent deformations occurrence 80
t Sn/( E) Critical points
60
T (C)
Sn = yield stress
= thermal expansion coefficient 40
E=Youngs modulus 20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
-20
Temperature (C )
Figure 5.31 : Comparison between strip temperature difference and critical

temperature difference
The points indicated by a circle have flatness values of 11, 17, 22 I-Unit respect to mean value of 12 I-
Unit on the left edge, and 45 I-Unit respect to a mean value of 9 I-Unit on the right edge.
However, there are some cases where strips, which are processed with temperature difference lower
than the critical value, have higher flatness value.
This could be due to the incoming unknown strip flatness that overwhelms the effect due to the
process.
As shown in fig. 5.32, fig. 5.33 and fig. 5.34, which show strip speed, strip temperature at the furnace
exit, furnace temperature and strip flatness trend along strip length, the most evident effect on strip
flatness is caused by rapid strip temperature variations. These strip temperature variations, which are
not standard events, are caused by strip speed changes. In fact, a strip speed reduction produces an
increasing of the furnace temperature and consequently an increasing of the strip temperature.
102
Strip speed Strip temperature
1120
80
1100
60
1080
S peed (% )
(C )
40 1060
1040
20
1020
0
1000
0 500 1000 1500 2000
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Strip lenght (m) Strip lenght (m)
Furnace temperature Strip flatness
1200
50
1180 45
1160 40 Right edge Left edge
1140 35
1120 (I-unit) 30
(C )
1100 25
1080 20
1060 15
1040 10
1020
5
0
1000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Figure 5.32 : Example of effect produced on flatness by strip temperature

oscillation
103
50 1140
1120
40
1100
Speed (%)
30
(C )
1080
20 1060
1040
10
1020
0
1000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Furnace temperature Strip flatness
1200 50
1180 45
1160 Right edge Left edge
40
1140 35
1120 30
(I-Unit)
(C )
1100 25
1080 20
1060 15
1040 10
5
1020
0
1000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Figure 5.33 : Example of effect produced on flatness by strip temperature

oscillation
100 1150
80
1100
Speed (% )
60
(C)
1050
40
1000
20
0 950
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Strip length (m)
Strip lenght (m)
Furnace temperature Strip flatnes
1200 50 Left Right edge

1180 45
1160 40
1140 35
(I - Unit)
1120 30
(C)
1100 25
1080 20
1060 15
1040 10
1020 5
1000
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Strip Length (m) Strip length(m)
104
5.5. Conclusion
5.5.1. Main parameters influencing the geometrical profile of strip
By the statistical analysis on the collected data, a weak correlation between flatness and strip thermal
distribution results.
A first cause of strip flatness defect is the temperature difference on the strip width.
This effect is visible at the furnace exit, whilst it is not visible in the cooling sections. The correlation
between strip flatness and temperature difference on the strip width is more visible at the furnace exit
because in this area the temperature difference is near to the critical value at which permanent
deformation can occur, and in some case higher.
Instead, in the cooling sections the strip is processed with temperature difference (between centre and
edges) lower than the critical value and so the correlation between flatness and temperature is not
visible.
The second and more evident cause of strip flatness defect is produced by strip temperature oscillation
on the strip length. Temperature variations of the furnace, caused by strip speed changes, produce this
kind of temperature oscillations on the strip length. These temperature oscillations on the strip length
have been measured at the furnace exit showing the same trend with the measured flatness defect.
5.5.2. Recommendations to have good geometrical profile
From what above said, indications for plant conduction can be obtained in order to decrease
geometrical deformation on strip profile.
Centre-edges temperature difference must be maintained lower than the critical value at which
permanent deformation can occur, especially at furnace exit because there the critical value is lower
and a relatively low temperature difference could be sufficient to create permanent deformations. In
such case burner regulation and refractory isolation must be verified. The cooling section must be also
controlled. In particular flatness troubles can occur when air-cooling flow rate is out of control.
However, during the trials performed in the present research sufficiently uniform air cooling was
measured.
Particular attention must be paid to avoid as much as possible line speed changes that causes strip
temperature oscillation and consequently increases strip flatness defects.
5.5.3. Prediction of flatness of steel strips after fast cooling sections
A weak correlation is emerged from thermal strip uniformity and geometrical defect and it is not
possible to determine deformation rate by the knowledge of thermal profiles.
Information on the strip flatness at the furnace entrance could permit a deeper knowledge on the
effective contribution of the thermal profiles to the final strip flatness.
Hence, the better knowledge of the relationship between the thermal profile and the final strip flatness
could give the possibility to predict the residual flatness and then to control them acting on the strip
cooling system.
105
Nevertheless, the on line thermal profile systems give useful information about the correct plant
operating conditions concerning strip flatness. If too high temperature difference between strip centre
and edge or sensible temperature variation are detected at the furnace exit and at the cooling sections, it
means that operating plant condition are increasing flatness defect and corrective actions are necessary.
106
6. Global results of the project
6.1. Guidelines to better predict thermal evolution of steel strips (heating, gas
cooling, water cooling) in annealing lines
The guidelines to conceive 2D/3D mathematical models to perform accurate simulations of temperature
evolution of products in industrial annealing lines are given bellow:
The main principle of such a mathematical model is to connect different models (heating by flames,
heating by radiative tubes, soaking, cooling by cylindrical gas-jets or plane gas-jets) to simulate a
complete annealing line.
radiative transfer between tubes, strip, rolls and walls of the furnace.
To perform the mathematical resolution, we use the Imaginary Planes Method which consists of the
addition of transparent planes between each individual cell of the domain. On each of these new planes,
several radiative fluxes come in from the considered cell, and an equivalent global flux come out to the
neighbour cells.
With this method, it is possible to take in account the radiative multi-reflexion effects between all the
cells of the domain, and thus to simulate the influence of all solid element on all the other part of the
furnace (tubes, walls, rolls, radiative screens).
In fine, it is possible to simulate all kind of continuous annealing furnaces by a very simple way,
just like a LEGO system where we join different cells together.
For the Modelisation of the thermal performances of cooling technologies we developed specific
models. In this case, the thermal transfer exchanged between gas and the strip (by neglecting the
thermal radiation) results from a coupling between a transverse conductive phenomenon and a
convective phenomenon in the direction of the flow. Our method consists in using the numerical
simulation to solve this coupled problem, in the case in particular of turbulent flows. To characterize
the thermal transfers, it is necessary to finely describe the structure of the gas flows in the vicinity of
the strip and particularly in the zone where the turbulent constraints are negligible.
possible to determine a local or mean convective exchange coefficient, which can express in the
form h where Tb is the strip temperature and Tjet the gas cooling temperature on the level
Tb Tjet
of the jets.
For the technology of a plane jet, we showed that a two-dimensional modelling (in the direction of the
displacement of the band) gave results very close to a three-dimensional approach. The thermal
performances in the strip width can be regarded as constant in first approach. To describe dissymmetry of
flow between two jets, related to the displacement of the strip, two half-jets in interaction must be
modelled.
We also showed that the Martin correlations give good approximations of the mean Nusselt number.
of the cooling gaz.
entire cooling box. This average value is then used in a model. Thus, the total thermal evolution of
the strip can be calculated for an industrial configuration of cooling (all boxes).
107
6.2. Prediction of mechanical properties of some special steels
Various studies show that the steel strip properties depend essentially on the chemical composition of
steel and on the quenching temperature before the secondary rapid cooling, seeing than secondary
cooling rate is rather high to induce martensitic transformation that confers high tensile strength to the
steel strip
In fact, there are few available databases reporting at one and the same time the influence of cooling
rate on mechanical or metallurgical properties.
A recent study shows that the primary cooling rate at a slight influence on the mechanical properties of
high strength steels.
As illustration, for a quenching temperature of 700C a decrease of the cooling rate from 65C/s to
25C/s induces a decrease of tensile strength of ~200 MPa.
steel grades from cooling parameters. The concept is as follow:
From the cooling simulation interface, it is possible to determine water temperature or cooling rate
for a given steel thickness.
If the line speed, the cooling section length and the cooling starting temperature are known, the
simulation interface allows determination of the exit temperature from the cooling equipment.
We can consider that this temperature corresponds to the intercritical annealing temperature. The
first cooling can be realized in water tank section and the secondary cooling can be realized in
TWICE unit as it is performed on the industrial line of Arcelor.
Experimental data connected to cooling simulation show that the secondary cooling is realized at
cooling rate as high as possible and simulations often show that the steel strip is cooled before going
out of the TWICE unit.
The study allows the determination of Tensile Strength (TS) and Yield Strength (YS) as a function of
the primary cooling rates. The secondary cooling rates are around 1000C/s.
Experimental curves reporting the influence of TS and YS as a function of intercritical annealing
temperature and primary cooling rate were fitted to integrate polynomial equations into the simulation
interface and then give mechanical properties as a function of these parameters.
The interface recalls the cooling parameters (from routines into water tank and into twice unit) and
gives corresponding steel mechanical properties.
It is possible to use the same principle to determine other metallurgical and metallurgical properties
and to investigate other steel compositions.
108
6.3. Prediction of flatness of steel strips inside fast cooling sections.
During this project, we investigeted how the distribution of fast cooling on continuous annealing line
may affect the strip geometrical characteristic. This objective was achieved by installing a strip profile
temperature measuring system at the entrance of strip cooling section and measuring thermal profile and
flatness at the exit.
This investigation will be performed on cold rolling strip annealing line for stainless steel.
To evaluate if a proportional relation from strip flatness and temperatures can exist, a statistical
analysis on data collected was carried out.
The statistical elaboration shows a good correlation between flatness and some independent variables.
It was observed that the most influent independent variable is strip speed followed by
temperature difference on the edge at furnace exit.
So, a first cause of strip flatness defect is the temperature difference on the strip width.
This effect is visible at the furnace exit, whilst it is not visible in the cooling sections. The correlation
between strip flatness and temperature difference on the strip width is more visible at the furnace exit
because in this area the temperature difference is near to the critical value at which permanent
deformation can occur, and in some case higher.
Instead, in the cooling sections the strip is processed with temperature difference (between centre and
edges) lower than the critical value and so the correlation between flatness and temperature is not
visible.
The second and more evident cause of strip flatness defect is produced by strip temperature
oscillation on the strip length. Temperature variations of the furnace, caused by strip speed changes,
produce this kind of temperature oscillations on the strip length. These temperature oscillations on the
strip length have been measured at the furnace exit showing the same trend with the measured flatness
defect.
Some recommendations to decrease geometrical deformation on strip profile:
Centre-edges temperature difference must be maintained lower than the critical value at which
permanent deformation can occur, especially at furnace exit because there the critical value is
lower and a relatively low temperature difference could be sufficient to create permanent
deformations. In such case burner regulation and refractory isolation must be verified. The
cooling section must be also controlled. In particular flatness troubles can occur when air-
cooling flow rate is out of control. However, during the trials performed in the present research
sufficiently uniform air cooling was measured.
Particular attention must be paid to avoid as much as possible line speed changes that causes
strip temperature oscillation and consequently increases strip flatness defects.
109
Bibliography
1. P. Paulus, M. Economopoulos,
Procd de traitement thermique en continu pour tles lamines, Patent LU71664
2. Short note, HOWAQ A new process for continuous heat treatment of thin sheet,
CRM n52, May 1978
3. P. Paulus, M. Economopoulos
Traitement thermique en continu par le procd HOWAQ des tles lamines froid,
Revue de Mtallurgie, Mai 1979
4. http://www.worldautosteel.org/AHSSGuidelinesDocs/1_AHSS_Intro.pdf
5. D. Bouquegneau, A. Fouarge, V. Lhoist, J. Crahay, P. Klinkenberg, P. Simon,

Production of ultra high strengh steels by turbulent water cooling equipment (TWICE),
Revue de Mtallurgie - CIT, juillet-aot 2003, Vol. 7-8, pp. 697.
6. L. Laquerbe, V. Lhoist, J. Neutjens, F. Ronin and P. Harlet

TWICE + HOWAQ continuous annealing line: a new facility for high strength steels production
in Arcelor group,
Material Science Forum Vols. 426-432 (2003) pp. 1289-1294
7. A. De Paepe, J.-C. Herman, S. Wilmotte ,

Development of cold-rolled dual-phase and multiphase steels by means of an ultrashort annealing
line,
Proceedings of the 41st Mechanical Working and Steel Processing Conference, Baltimore, October
1999, pp. 79-88.
8. R.O. Rocha, T.M.F. Melo, E.V. Pereloma and D.B. Santos

Microstructural evolution at the initial stages of continuous annealing of cold rolled dual-phase
steel
Materials Science and Engineering A, Volume 391, Issues 1-2, 25 January 2005, Pages 296-304
9. C. Elgoyhen, A. De Paepe, L. Laquerbe, V. Lhoist and P. Harlet

Development of Dual Phase Multiphase high strength steels using a new cooling technology: the
HOWAQ TWICE process.
2nd International Conference on Thermomechanical Processing of steels, TMP 2004 June 15-17,
2004, Liege Belgium, pp 491-498
10. B. Merci, E. Dick, Heat transfer predictions with a cubis k-e model for axisymmetric turbulents
jets impinging onto a flat plate, Int. J. of Heat and Mass transfer, 46 (2003):469-480.
110

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abstract

2. Main tasks of each partner ...... P. 9

3. Simulation of heating and gas cooling zones ... P. 11

4. Simulation of water cooling zones . P. 33

5. Control of geometrical characteristic ... P. 75

6. Global results of the project P. 107

Bibliography ..... P. 110

Figure 4.1 : Definition of the axes of the system

Figure 5.1 : measuring systems disposition on the line

Table 4.1 : General parameter values for computed examples.

The main tasks in this project are:

The main steps were:

5) Description for adaptation of models for several specific lines in Europe.

2.2. CRM contribution

The CRM activities in the framework of this joint research were:

2.3. CSM contribution

Figure 3.1 : Geometry of a typical continuous annealing line

Therm al M odels for A nnealing L ines

Interfacing w ith the different m odels to

M odel to build for cooling cham ber:

Figure 3.2 : Principle of the global model

Radiative transfer between one

Proximity of a strip element near the roll :

Figure 3.4 : Multi-reflexion effects in the furnace

Figure 3.5 : Easy simulation of the different furnace geometry

3.2. Modelisation of cooling sections (slots, holes)

Figure 3.6 : Schematisation of cooling technology by cylindrical jets

Figure 3.7 : Schematisation of cooling technology by slots

Our method for characterization of the thermal performances of cooling

Validation Elements of impacting jets modelling undertaken at IRSID

configuration jet rond turbulent (Re=30000 - H/D=6

Figure 3.8 : comparison measurement/simulation on a cooling

A plane jet with trials on a scaled-down installation:

Figure 3.9 : Schematisation of simulated technology by slots

Node Values Along J-Position = 4 Fluent 4.51

3.3. Temperature measurements on industrial lines

Description of the line

The annealing line is made with the following chambers:

a chamber where the strip is maintaining at 800C

a reheat chamber no used actually

two over-aging chambers

another gas-jet cooling

finally a water cooling chamber

Figure 3.11 : Description of 4 first chambers of the annealing line

Figure 3.12 : Visualization of the crossing on the totality of the line

Figure 3.13 : Crossing the DFF (Direct Flamme furnace)

Figure 3.14 : Zoom in the RTS and in the soaking zone

The cooling zones by gas-jet :

Figure 3.15 : Zoom in the first cooling zone with gas-jet

3.4. Comparison between measured and computed data

Validation of radiative model

Figure 3.16 : Comparison between measured and computed data

Validation in the case of plane jets on a hot model

900 T calculation (C)

Figure 3.17 : Comparison calculation/measurement on a cooling system with slots

Numerical simulation of a system with cylindrical jets matrix

Figure 3.18 : Simulated configuration of a system with cylindrical jets matrix

Figure 3.20 : experimental facility

Figure 3.21 : blowing enclosure

Figure 3.22 : Measured coefficient distribution Figure 3.23 : Measured coefficient

Figure 3.24 : Mean Nusselt numbers

Figure 3.26 : 3-D results Distribution of h for H/d = 5

Figure 3.27 : Comparison of numerical and experimental results