Determining the Charge on an Electron

Contents __________________________________________
Introduction...2
Format for Lab Reports.................3
Lab 1: Determination of the Charge on an Electron

by the Method of Electrolysis.......4
Lab 2: Mapping of Electric Fields.......................................7
Lab 3: Ohms Law.................................................11
Lab 4: Resistors in Series and Parallel...................................13
Lab 5: Capacitance and Capacitor Transients........................17
Lab 6: Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying Wire..21
Lab 7: Experiments with Magnets.........................25
Lab 8: Introduction to the Oscilloscope.................28
Lab 9: LRC Circuit.............................................36
Lab 10: Reflection and Refraction of Light.......................39
Lab 11: Thin Lenses...........................................................47
Lab 12: Slit Diffraction..........................................55
! 1!
Introduction
This is the laboratory manual for General Physics II/College Physics II Lab at
Florida A&M University. In each experiment, the student will be required to use
measuring instruments, gather and organize data and perform analyses of that data.
Students should read the instructions in the manual before coming to class. It is
important that students be able to work and follow these instructions independently.
The role of the instructor is to give general guidance on the use of the apparatus and
not to perform the experiment for you. The class will be divided into several
cooperative laboratory groups.
Each lab class will involve performing or observing an experiment and then writing
a laboratory report. There are twelve experiments and each requires the student to
write a laboratory report. A typical format for the laboratory report is provided on
the next page. However, always check with your instructor for her/his specific
requirements.
! 2!
FORMAT FOR LAB REPORTS
Lab reports have to be written in accordance with the following format:
1. TITLE PAGE: This should include the title, the number and the date of the
experiment, your name as well as the names of your lab partners.
2. INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE OF EXPERIMENT: Explain what is to be

measured and investigated in the experiment (i.e. what physical law are you trying
to verify, or what physical quantity are you trying to determine experimentally,
etc.).
3. DIAGRAM: A simple, neat diagram of your experimental setup.
4. DATA: Include all appropriate data such as completed data tables required by the
lab manual.
5. CALCULATIONS: Show all calculations or at least one sample calculation. You

MUST include units with your answers whenever there are units associated with the
quantity you are calculating. Otherwise the quantity is meaningless.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES: Always report your answers to the correct number of
significant figures.
6. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS AND ERROR ANALYSES: This is a very important

part of the lab report. List as many relevant sources of errors which may affect your
results. Indicate whether they are human, systematic or random errors. State how
these errors affect your experimental values (i.e. would they tend to make your
values too large or too small?)
7. CONCLUSIONS: State what you conclude from your experimental

measurements. (Do your results support a particular law? Does your experimental
value for a physical quantity agree with the theoretically predicted value? etc..).
8. ANSWER ALL ASSIGNED QUESTIONS: (Body and the end-of-lab questions)

and submit them with your lab report.
ORGANIZATION AND NEATNESS COUNT

SLOPPY, DISORGANIZED LAB REPORTS THAT ARE DIFFICULT TO
FOLLOW OR UNDERSTAND WILL RECEIVE A POOR GRADE.
LAB REPORTS HAVE TO BE TYPED.
THEY ARE DUE THE FOLLOWING WEEK.
! 3!
Lab 1: Determination of the Charge on an Electron by the
Method of Electrolysis
!
Introduction
!
In! this! experiment! we! wish! to! use! Faradays! laws! of! electrolysis! and! the!
concept! of! Avogadro's! number! (NA)! to! determine! the! amount! of! electrical!
charge!on!an!electron.!
In! 1833! Faraday! first! performed! a! number! of! experiments! on! the!
conduction! of! electricity! by! solutions.! In! experiments! of! this! kind,! one!
introduces! two! metallic! plates! called! electrodes! into! a! conduction! solution!
called!an!electrolyte.!The!combination!of!the!two!electrodes!and!the!electrolyte!
is!called!an!electrolytic!cell.!When!current!is!passed!through!the!cell,!chemical!
reactions! occur! at! the! electrodes;! and! in! the! process! positive! as! well! as!
negative!ions!are!deposited.!
In! this! experiment! the! electrolyte! cell! (shown! in! Figure! 1)! consists! of!
two! copper! electrodes! immersed! in! a! solution! of! copper! sulfate! (CuSO4).! The!
solution!of!copper!sulfate!in!water!is!strongly!ionized!into!Cu++!and!SO4))!ions.!
The!electrodes!are!connected!to!a!battery.!This!sets!up!an!electric!field!in!the!
solution!which!causes!the!Cu++!ions!to!drift!toward!the!negative!electrode!and!
the!SO4JJ!ions!to!drift!toward!the!positive!electrode.!
The! Cu++! ions! that! reach! the! negative! electrode! combine! with! two!
electrons! from! the! metal! and! are! deposited! as! metallic! copper! in! accordance!
with!the!equation:!
!
! Cu++*+*2e)*=*Cumetal* ! ! ! ! ! ! (1)!
!
The!SO4!ions,!on!contacting!the!positive!electrode,!give!up!their!two!electrons!
to!the!metal!and!combine!with!a!Cu!atom!to!form!a!molecule!of!CuSO4!which,!
being!readily!soluble,!goes!into!solution:!
!
! SO4))*+*Cumetal*=*2e)*+*CuSO4! ! ! ! ! ! (2)!
!
The!net!effect!of!the!pair!of!reactions!at!the!electrodes!is!the!removal!of!
a! copper! atom! from! the! (+)! electrode! and! its! deposition! on! the! (J)! electrode.!
There! is! no! change! in! concentration! of! the! CuSO4* in! the! solution.! Both!
electrodes! are! copper,! since! even! if! copper! is! being! plated! on! an! electrode! of!
some! other! metal,! the! electrode! becomes! effectively! copper! as! soon! as! the!
process!is!under!way!and!a!thin!layer!of!copper!has!been!deposited.!
!
!Background,,Theory,and,Application,
,
Knowledge!of!the!mass!deposited!on!the!cathode!will!enable!us!to!calculate!the!
number! of! atoms! which! were! used! to! obtain! the! mass.! Realizing! that! the!
! 4!
deposit!of!one!atom!of!copper!requires!the!transfer!of!two!electrons!from!the!
external! circuit! to! neutralize! the! positive! charge! of! the! deposited! ion,! we! can!
calculate!the!total!charge!transferred.!This!charge!is!a!function!of!the!electronic!
charge!(e).!
In! order! to! derive! a! formula! for! the! electronic! charge! (e)! in! terms! of! the!
quantities!of!the!experiment!we!need!to!state!Faradays!Laws!of!electrolysis:!
!
Faradays!Law:!
!
1. The! mass! of! an! element! deposited! at! an! electrode! is! directly!
proportional!to!the!quantity!of!electrical!charge!that!passes!through!
the!cell.!
2. The!mass!of!the!element!deposited!by!a!given!quantity!of!charge!is!
directly! proportional! to! the! chemical! equivalent! (atomic! weight!
divided!by!valence)!of!the!element.!
!
Q!=!the!total!charge!through!the!cell!
m!=!mass!of!each!Cu!atom!and!
2e!=!charge!carried!by!each!Cu*atom!
!
m m
Then!! = ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (3)!
Q 2e
!
But,!the!mass!m!of!an!atom!equals!its!atomic!weight!(M)!divided!by!Avogadro!
number!(NA).!Therefore!by!substituting!m*=*M/NA,!!equation!(1)!becomes!
!
m M / N A
= ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (4)!
Q 2e
! !
MQ
! e= ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (5)!
2mN A
!
But!Q*=*It,!where!I*=!current!in!amperes!and!t!=!time!in!seconds.!Therefore,!
! !
M It
! e= ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (6)!
2mN A
!
Equipment,
Ammeter,! rheostat,! switch,! electrolytic! cell,! power! supply,! clock,! beaker! (500!
to!1000!mL)!and!balance.!
!
Experimental,Procedure!
1. Make!the!circuit!shown!in!figure!1!and!ask!your!instructor!to!check!
the!circuit.!
! 5!
2! Connect! the! terminal! leads! to! your! circuit! and! open! the! switch! before!
plugging! the! leads! into! the! power! supply.! With! the! rheostat! adjusted! so! that!
the!maximum!resistance!is!in!the!circuit,!close!the!switch.!Adjust!the!rheostat!
resistor! until! a! suitable! current! is! obtained.! Keep! the! current! less! than! about!
0.25!ampere.!See!that!the!rheostat!is!so!set!that!it!will!be!possible!later!either!
to!increase!or!decrease!the!current.!
3.! After! the! above! preliminary! observation,! open! the! switch,! remove! the!
cathode! plate! and! clean! it.! Scrape! off! any! loosely! adhering! granules! of! metal!
with!sand!paper.!Rinse!in!clean!water!and!carefully!dry!completely!by!twirling!
gently!in!the!air.!Then!carefully!weigh!the!plate.!
4.!Replace!the!plate,!and!at!an!accurately!noted!time,!close!the!switch!and!start!
the!current.!One!observer!should!constantly!watch!the!ammeter!and!adjust!the!
resistance! so! as! to! keep! the! current! constant.! Using! a! current! of! about! 0.5!
Ampere,! let! the! current! flow! for! about! 40! minutes.! This! will! give! an! evenly!
distributed! and! wellJattached! layer! of! copper! on! the! cathode.! Note! carefully!
the!time!when!the!switch!is!opened.!
5.!Remove!the!cathode!plate,!rinse!it!in!a!glass!of!clean!water!(not!under!direct!
faucet!flow),!and!then!carefully!dry!it!completely!by!twirling!gently!in!the!air.!
Be!careful!not!to!jar!off!any!of!the!loose!granules!of!copper!from!the!cathode.!
Weigh!it!carefully!and!compute!the!gain!in!mass!(m)!of!the!cathode.!
6.! Determine! the! charge! on! the! electron! from! your! measurements.! The!
experimental!value!of!the!charge!on!the!electron!is!currently!given!as!(1.60206!
+! 0.00003)! x! 10J19! coulombs.! Compare! your! result! with! this! and! discuss! any!
discrepancy!in!terms!of!your!calculated!estimate!of!uncertainty.!
!
Rh
A
+
_
+ _
SO4-- Cu++
CuSO4
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Figure!1!
! 6!
!
Lab!2:!Mapping!of!Electric!Fields!
!
!
Introduction,
!
The! purpose! of! this! experiment! is! to! examine! the! nature! of! electric! fields! by!
mapping!the!equipotential!lines,!sketching!in!the!lines!of!force,!and!calculating!
the!electric!field.!
!
Background,,Theory,and,Application*
!
An! electric! field! is! a! region! in! which! forces! of! electrical! origin! are! exerted! on!
any! electric! charges! that! may! be! present.! ! If! a! force,! F,! acts! on! a! charge,! q,! at!
some!particular!point!in!the!field,!the!electric!field!strength,,E,!at!that!point!is!
defined!as!the!force!per!unit!charge!and!the!magnitude!is!given!by!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
F
! ! E = !! ! ! ! ! ! ! (1)!
q
!
Since!E!is!a!vector!quantity,!it!also!has!direction,!and!we!arbitrarily!define!the!
direction! of! an! electric! field! as! the! direction! of! the! force! on! a! positive! test!!
charge!placed!at!the!point!in!the!field.!
The!English!scientist!Michael!Faraday!introduced!the!concept!of!lines!of!force!
as!an!aid!in!visualizing!the!magnitude!and!direction!of!an!electric!field.!A!line!of!
force!is!defined!as!the!path!traversed!by!a!free!test!charge!as!it!moves!from!one!
point!to!another!in!the!field.!
Fig.1!shows!several!possible!paths!that!a!test!charge!might!take!in!going!from!
the! positively! charged! body! to! the! negatively! charged! body.! The! relative!
magnitude!of!the!field!intensity!is!indicated!by!the!spacing!of!the!lines!of!force!
and!the!arrows!indicate!the!direction.!
!
Electric*Potential! ! ! ! ! ! Since! a! free! test! charge! would! move! in! an! electric! field!
under! the! action! of! the! forces! present,! work! is! done! by! the! field! in! moving!
charges! from! one! point! to! another.! If! external! forces! act! to! move! a! charge!
against!the!electric!field,!then!work!is!done!on!the!charge!by!the!external!force.!
If!the!charge,!q0,!Fig.!2,!is!placed!at!a!point!very!far!from!the!charge,!q,!where!
the!repulsion!is!essentially!zero,!the!work!per!unit!charge!to!move!it!from!this!
point!to!the!point!P!is!called!the!absolute!potential!at!P.!The!ratio!of!the!work,!
W,! to! the! charge! q0! is! called! the! potential! difference! between! the! two! end!
points!of!the!path!traversed.!Hence!we!may!write!
!
! 7!
W
! V = ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (2)!
q0
!
where!V!is!the!difference!in!potential.!
However,!if!the!charge!is!moved!along!a!path!at!all!times!perpendicular!to!the!
lines!of!force,!there!is!no!force!component!along!the!path,!and!hence,!there!is!
no!work!done.!Then!points!are!said!to!be!at!the!same!potential,!and!the!path!
traveled!is!called!an!equipotential!line.!!
One!can!readily!see!that!many!equipotential!lines,!or!surfaces,!are!possible!in!
an! electric! field.! Experimentally,! it! is! much! easier! to! trace! the! path! of!
equipotential! lines! than! to! trace! the! line! of! force.! When! a! network! of!
equipotential!lines!have!been!mapped!out,!the!lines!of!force,!being!everywhere!
normal!to!!the!equipotential!lines,!can!be!readily!plotted.!
!
Equipment,
!
Switch,! connecting! wires,! voltmeter,! field! mapping! board,! two! probes,!
conducting!sheet!with!electrode!configuration,!power!supply.!
!
Experimental,Procedure,
!
1. Connect!the!assembly!as!shown!in!Fig.3!leaving!the!switch!open,!until!you!
are!ready!to!operate!the!equipment.!
2. Place! the! stationary! probe! on! the! conducting! sheet! near! the! edge! of! the!
paper!in!the!region!between!the!electrodes.!The!potential!at!this!point!will!
serve!as!your!reference!potential!in!the!location!of!a!series!of!other!points!
with!the!same!potential.!
3. On! a! sheet! of! a! graph! paper! draw! the! electrode! configuration! that!
corresponds! with! the! electrode! configuration! on! the! conducting! sheet.! As!
the!points!are!located!for!the!field!mapping,!their!positions!can!be!plotted!
directly!on!the!graph!paper.!
4. With! the! switch! closed! move! the! probe! until! the! voltmeter! shows! zero!
deflection!thus!indicating!that!the!two!points!located!in!the!electric!field!are!
at!the!same!potential.!Now!locate!the!series!of!other!points!with!this!same!
potential!until!you!have!ten!points!reaching!across!the!central!region!of!the!
field.!Draw!a!smooth!curve!through!these!points.!!
5. Choose! a! new! location! for! your! reference! probe,! say! 1! or! 2! cm! from! the!
previous! position! and! locate! another! series! of! equipotential! points.!
Continue!this!process!until!you!have!mapped!all!of!the!electric!field!region.!
Measure! and! record! the! potential! difference! between! the! separate!
equipotential!lines.!
6. Remember! that! the! lines! of! force! are! everywhere! perpendicular! to! the!
equipotential!lines,!draw!in!an!arbitrary!number!of!smooth!uninterrupted!
lines!to!represent!the!lines!of!force,!and!to!indicate!direction!place!arrows!
on!them.!Consider!the!positive!electrode!as!a!positively!charged!body.!This!
! 8!
system! of! lines! of! force! gives! a! graphical! representation! of! the! general!
nature!of!the!electric!field!for!this!one!configuration!of!electrodes.!
7. You!will!note!that!the!lines!of!force!are!closer!together!in!some!regions!than!
in!others.!It!is!also!true!for!the!equipotential!lines?! Place!both!probes!at!a!
point!on!the!coordinate!grid!that!corresponds!to!a!point!on!a!line!of!force!
where!the!spacings!of!the!lines!of!force!are!large.!Now!examine!the!change!
in!potential!along!the!line!of!force,!in!both!directions,!as!the!hand!probe!is!
slowly! moved! away! from! the! reference! probe.! Repeat! this! procedure! for!
other!points!on!the!same!line!of!force,!some!of!which!are!in!regions!where!
the!lines!are!closely!spaced.!What!is!the!nature!of!your!observation?!
8. In!analyzing!your!observations!try!to!correlate!them!with!the!definition!of!
absolute! potential,! Va! at! a! distance*S*from! a! charge! Q,! ! and! recall! that! the!
value! is! given! by! ! Va* * Q/S.! ! It! will! be! helpful! to! also! correlate! your!
observation! with! the! definition! of! electric! field! intensity! in! terms! of! the!
potential!gradient,!given!by!the!relation!
!
!!!!
V
!!!!!!!!!!!!! E = !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! !!!!!!!! ! ! (3)!
S
!
!
Results*
!
Using! your! plots,! and! knowing! the! difference! in! potential! between! the!
equipotential! lines! calculate! the! magnitude! of! the! electric! field! at! four!
different! points.! Choose! two! points! in! the! central! region! between!
electrodes!and!two!points!not!between!the!electrodes.!You!will!want!to!use!
the! above! formula.! Compare! the! electric! fields! at! the! two! points! in! the!
central!region.!Are!they!equal?!Comment!on!your!results.!
!
For! each! electric! field! calculation,! estimate! the! error! in! E! due! to!
uncertainties! in! measuring! the! voltage! and! the! distance! S.! Discuss! the!
systematic!error!caused!by!the!finite!size!of!the!conducting!paper.!
!
Questions*
!
Answer! these! questions! in! discussion! form! as! if! the! answers! are! conclusions!
which!you!draw!from!an!analysis!of!your!observations.!
!
1. If! the! space! on! the! conducting! sheet! surrounding! the! electrode!
configuration! were! completely! nonconducting,! explain! how! your!
observation!with!the!charged!probes!would!be!affected.!
2. If! the! space! on! the! sheet! surrounding! the! electrode! configuration! were!
highly!conducting,!explain!how!your!observations!with!the!charged!probes!
would!be!affected.!
! 9!
3. What!is!the!nature!of!the!path!by!which!the!electric!current!flows!from!one!
electrode! to! the! other! on! the! conducting! sheet?! How! does! your! pattern!
support!your!answer?!
4. !How!much!work!would!be!required!to!move!a!charge!q!across!the!central!
portion!of!your!electric!field!from!one!side!of!the!sheet!to!the!other!if!the!
charge!follows!an!equipotential!line.!
!
! ! ! ! !
!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
!
Figure!1! ! ! ! ! Figure!2!
! ! !
! ! !
!
Figure!3!
! 10!
Lab!3:!Ohms!Law!
!
Introduction,
The purpose of this laboratory activity is to investigate the relationship between
current and voltage in Ohmic and non-Ohmic materials.
Background, Theory and Application

Ohm discovered that when the voltage (potential difference) across a resistor
changes, the current through the resistor changes. He expressed this as I = V/R
(current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance).
In other words, as the voltage increases, so does the current. The proportionality
constant is the value of the resistance. The current is inversely proportional to the
resistance. As the resistance increases, the current decreases.
!
If the voltage across an Ohmic resistor is increased, a graph of voltage versus
current shows a straight line (indicating a constant resistance). The slope of the line
is the value of the resistance. However, if the resistance changes (that is, if the
resistor is non-Ohmic), the graph of voltage versus current will not be a straight
line. Instead, it will show a curve with a changing slope.
!
For a typical resistor, the value of its resistance does not change appreciably.
However, for a light bulb, the resistance of the filament will change as it heats up
and cools down.
At high AC frequencies, the filament doesnt have time to cool down, so it remains
at a nearly constant temperature and the resistance stays relatively constant. At low
AC frequencies (e.g., less than one Hertz), the filament has time to change
temperature.
As a consequence, the resistance of the filament changes dramatically and the
resulting change in current through the filament is interesting to watch.
!
In the first part of this activity, you will investigate a constant resistance, Rx (). In
the second part, you will investigate the resistance of the filament of a small light
bulb.
!
Equipment,
Ammeter,! voltmeter,! resistance! box,! rheostat! (Rh),! connecting! wires,! power!
supply.!
_ +
A
Rx
Rh
V
! ! ! !
! 11!
!
1. Connect!the!assembly!as!shown!in!the!circuit!diagram!above.!
2. Adjust!the!rheostat!so!that!the!current!in!the!ammeter!is!at!a!minimum.!
Record!the!voltage!and!the!current.!
3. Adjust!the!rheostat!so!that!the!current!increases!by!50!mA.!Record!the!
voltage!and!the!current.!
4. Repeat!step!3!until!you!have!eight!readings.!Turn!off!the!power!supply!
and!disassemble!the!circuit.!
5. Calculate!Rx*=*V/I!for!each!trial!(with!error!estimate).!Find!the!average!
value!of!Rx!for!all!the!trials.!
6. Plot!V!vs.!I!and!!!find!Rx!!(with!an!error!estimate)!from!the!slope!of!the!
graph.!
!
!
Data$Table$
!
Trial!#! Current!(A)! Voltage!(V)! Rx!()!
1! ! ! !
2! ! ! !
3! ! ! !
4! ! ! !
5! ! ! !
6! ! ! !
7! ! ! !
8! ! ! !
!
Average*Rx*=______________________****Rx*from!slope!=*_______________________!
,
Questions*
!
1. Compare!the!resistance,!Rx,!found!as!an!average!value!to!the!Rx!from!the!
slope!of!the!graph.!
2. Does!the!resistor!have!a!constant!resistance?!Why!or!why!not?!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
! 12!
!
Lab!4:!!Resistors!in!Series!and!Parallel!
!
Introduction*
!
In!a!previous!experiment!you!have!experimentally!verified!Ohms!law!!(V*=*IR).!!
Now! we! will! use! Ohms! law! to! study! electrical! circuits.! The! components! of!
simple! circuits! are! connected! in! series! and/or! parallel.! Each! component! may!
be! represented! as! a! resistance! to! the! flow! of! current! in! the! circuit.! In!
computing! the! voltage! and! current! in! the! circuit! (or! part! of! the! circuit),! it! is!
necessary! to! know! the! equivalent! resistances! of! the! series! and! parallel!
arrangements.!!!!!
In!this!experiment,!the!circuit!characteristics!of!resistors!in!series!and!parallel!
will!be!investigated.!After!performing!this!experiment!and!analyzing!the!data,!
you!should!be!able!to:!
1.!Describe!the!currentJvoltage!relationships!for!resistances!in!series.!!
2.!Describe!the!currentJvoltage!relationships!for!resistances!in!parallel.!!
!
Background,,Theory,and,Applications*
!
A.*Resistances*in*Series**
_ +
A
R1 R 3
V R2
!
!
Figure!1.!!Series!circuit!!
!
Resistors! are! said! to! be! connected! in! series! when! they! are! connected! as! in!
Fig.1.! (The! resistors! are! connected! in! line! or! "head! to! tail").! ! When! they! are!
connected!to!a!voltage!source!V!and!the!switch!is!closed,!the!source!supplies!a!
current! I* * to! the! circuit.! ! By! the! conservation! of! charge,! this! current! I* * flows!
through! each! resistor.! However,! the! voltage! drop! across! each! resistor! is! not!
equal!to!V,!but!the!sum!of!the!voltage!drops!is.!!
!
!!!!!!!!!! V*=*Vl*+*V2*+*V3******* ! ! ! ! ! ! (1)!
!
The!voltage!drop!across!each!resistor!is!given!by!Ohm's!law!!!(V*=*IR)!and!the!
Eq.!l!may!be!written!!as!
!
!!!!!!!!!! V*=*Vl*+*V2*+*V3*!=*IR1*+*IR2*+*IR3*=*I(R1*+R2*+*R3)*=*I*Rs! ! (2)!
! 13!
!
where! Rs* ! is! the! equivalent! resistance! of! the! resistors! in! series.! That! is,! the!
three!resistors!in!series!could!be!replaced!by!a!single!resistor!with!a!value!of!
Rs,!and!the!same!current!!I*would!flow!from!the!source:!
!
! Rs*=*R1**+**R2**+*R3*!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!(3)!
!
!
B.*Resistances*in*Parallel!
!
Resistors!are!said!to!be!connected!in!parallel!when!connected!as!in!Fig.!2.!!
(In! this! arrangement,! all! the! heads"! are! connected! together,! as! are! all! of! the!
"tails'').!
- +
A
R1
A
R2
A
Junction 1 Junction 2
R3
A
!
!
! ! ! Figure!2.!!Parallel!circuit!!
!
!
The!voltage!drops!across!all!the!resistors!are!the!same!and!equal!to!the!voltage!
V* of! the! source.! However,! the! current! I! from! the! source! divides! among! the!
resistors!such!that!!
!
* I*=*I1*+*I2*+*I3!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!(4)!
!
The!current!in!an!electrical!parallel!circuit!divides!according!to!the!magnitudes!
of! the! resistances! in! the! parallel! branches,! i.e.! the! smaller! the! resistance! of! a!
given!branch,!the!greater!the!current!through!that!branch.!The!current!through!
each!resistor!is!given!by!Ohm's!law!(*I*=**V/R,),!and!Eq.4!may!be!written!as!!
!
V V V 1 1 1 V
! I = I1 + I 2 + I 3 = + + = V ( + + ) = ! !!!!!!!!(5)!
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 RP
!
where* Rp! is! the! equivalent! resistance! of! the! resistors! in! parallel.! That! is,! the!
three!resistors!in!parallel!could!be!replaced!by!a!single!resistor!with!a!value!of!!
Rp,!and!the!same!current!I!!would!flow!from!the!source:!
!
! 14!
1 1 1 1
! = + + ! ! ! ! ! ! ! (6)!
RP R1 R2 R3
!
Equipment***************** !
! !
Power!supply,!ammeter,!!voltmeter,!resistors!box,!connecting!wires,!switch.!
!
!
A.!Resistors*in*Series*
*
1. Set!up!a!series!circuit!with!R1,!R2*and!R3*!as!in!!Fig.1.!!!Check!the!circuit!to!see!
if! it! is! properly! connected! by! tracing! the! path! of! the! current! through! the!
circuit.!Make!sure!that!the!current!goes!through!each!circuit!component!in!
series.! Remember,! an! ammeter! is! always! connected! in! series,! and! a!
voltmeter! is! always! connected! in! parallel! or! "across''! a! circuit! element! to!
measure!the!voltage!drop!across!that!element.!
2. After! having! the! circuit! checked! by! the! instructor,! close! the! switch.! If! you!
are! using! a! variable! power! supply,! adjust! the! voltage/current! to! the!
suggested!value!(0.1!A).!!Connect!the!voltmeter!across!(i.e.!in!parallel!with)!
the!combination!of!!!R1,!R2,!R3*!and!record!the!voltage!as!Vtotal*in!!Table!1!as!
Trial!#!1.!Read!and!record!the!current!I.!
3. Connect! the! voltmeter! across! each! individual! resistor! in! turn! and! record!
the!voltages!as!V1,!V2!and!V3!(same!Table,!same!trial).!!Record!the!currents!
I1=I2=I3=Itotal!(recall!that!this!is!the!characteristic!of!a!series!circuit).!
4. Adjust!the!power!supply!so!that!the!current!increases!by!0.1!A.!Record!the!
current!and!voltages!as!in!steps!2!and!3!above.!!Continue!this!process!for!
0.3,!0.4!and!0.5!A.!
5. In! Table! 2,! compute! the! values! Ri! =! Vi/Ii.! Find! the! measured! value! of! Rs*
given!by!Vtotal/Itotal!(Column!5).!Compute!the!equivalent!resistance!Rs!of!the!
circuit!using!Eq.!3.!(Column!6).!Compare!the!two!values!by!calculating!the!
%!difference.!
!
Table!1:!Series!Circuit:!Measurements!of!voltage,!V!and!current,!I.!
!
Trial! potential!difference!across!Ri!(Volts)! current!through!Ri!(Amperes):!
! V1! V2! V3! Vtotal! I1! I2! I3 ! Itotal!
1! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
2! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
3! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
4! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
5! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
!
!
! 15!
Table! 2.! Series! Circuit:! ! Resistance! calculations! using! V! &! I! data! from!
Table!1.!
!
Trial! V calculated!equivalent!
R= !
I resistance!
! R1! R2! R3! Rs! Rs!=!R1!+!R2!+!R3!
1! ! ! ! ! !
2! ! ! ! ! !
3! ! ! ! ! !
4! ! ! ! ! !
5! ! ! ! ! !
!
B.!Resistors*in*Parallel!
!
1. Set! up! a! parallel! circuit! as! in! Fig.! 2.! ! Close! the! circuit! (after! it's! been!
checked)! and! record! the! current,! Itotal,! supplied! by! the! power! supply.!
Measure!the!voltage,!V,!across!all!three!resistors!as!a!group!!(i.e.!between!
junctions!1!and!2)!and!record!this!in!Table!3!as!Vtotal.!
2.!!Measure!and!record!the!voltage!drops!across!each!resistor!in!turn.!Measure!
the! current! through! each! resistor! as! I1,! I2! and! I3.! Finally,! complete! Table! 4! as!
you!did!Table!2.!
!
Table!3:!Parallel!Circuit:!Measurements!of!voltage,!V!and!current,!I!
!
Trial! potential!difference!across!Ri!(Volts)! current!through!Ri!(Amperes):!
! V1! V2! V3! Vtotal! I1! I2! I3 ! Itotal!
1! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
2! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
3! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
4! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
5! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
!
Table! 4.! Parallel! Circuit:! ! Resistance! calculations! using! V! &! I! data! from!
Table!3!
!
Trial! V calculated!equivalent!
R= !
I resistance!
! R1! R2! R3! Rp! Rp!using!eq.!
1 1 1 1 !
= + +
Rp R1 R2 R3
1! ! ! ! ! !
2! ! ! ! ! !
3! ! ! ! ! !
4! ! ! ! ! !
5! ! ! ! ! !
! 16!
Lab!5:!!Capacitor!
!
Introduction
The purpose of this experiment is to investigate the effects of capacitors in DC
(direct current) circuits on a time dependence of current and to find the capacitive
time constant.
!
Background, Theory and Applications
The combination of two conductors separated by a nonconductor is called a
capacitor.
In contrast to a resistor which dissipates electrical energy in the form of heat, a
capacitor stores electrical energy in the electric field between the conductors. This
electric field is maintained by the equal and opposite charges stored on the
conducting plates of the capacitor.
When the charge on a fixed capacitor is increased, the potential difference between
its plates increases. The ratio of the total charge on one of the-conductors-divided
by the voltage between the plates is always a constant called the capacitance. If q
is the charge in coulombs and V is the potential difference in volts, then the
capacitance, C, is in farads and is given by
!
q
C= (5.1)
V
!
The capacitance of a capacitor is determined by the geometry of the conductors
and the material separating them.
When a DC voltage source is connected across an uncharged capacitor, the rate at

which the capacitor charges up decreases as time passes. At first, the capacitor is
easy to charge because there is very little charge on the plates. But as charge
accumulates on the plates, the voltage source must do more work to move
additional charges onto the plates because the plates already have charge of the
same sign on them. As a result, the capacitor charges exponentially, quickly at the
beginning and more slowly as the capacitor becomes fully charged. The charge on
the plates at any time is given by:
!
t /
! ! ! ! q = q 0 (1 e ) ! ! ! ! (5.2)!
!
where! q0! is! the! maximum! charge! on! the! plates! and! ! is! the! capacitive! time!
constant!!
(!=!RC!,!where!R!is!resistance!and!C*is!capacitance).!!
! 17!
Taking! the! extreme! limits,! notice! when! t*=*0,*q*=*0! which! means! there! is! not!
any!charge!on!the!plates!initially.!Also!notice!that!when!t!goes!to!infinity,!q!goes!
to!q0!which!means!it!takes!an!infinite!amount!of!time!to!completely!charge!the!
capacitor.!
The expression for current flow, while charging or discharging a capacitor, is an
exponential function given by:
t / RC
! ! ! I = I me !! ! ! ! ! 5.3!
!
I!is!the!current!at!time!t,!Im!is!the!maximum!current.!
!
Equipment:, RC! Circuit:! PASCO! SE! 9791! board! (2! identical! capacitors!
connected!in!parallel!Ctotal!=!1.00!mF!+!1.00!mF!=!2.00!mF),!resistor!(15!k),!
battery!1.5!V,!galvanometer,!wires!and!a!timer.,
*
!
!
Charge
R
V
Discharge C
A
!
! 18!
Procedure
!
Connect!the!circuit!as!directed!by!the!instructor.!Connect!the!galvanometer!
across!spring!contacts!A!and!B!to!measure!the!charge/discharge!current.!
Maximum!current!for!a!1.5V!battery!is!100!microamperes,!so!you!need!to!start!
on!the!500!microamp!setting!on!the!galvanometer!and!go!to!the!50!microamp!
setting!during!the!measurement.!
!
Charging:!
!
1.!Set!switches!S2!to!external,!and!S1!to!charge!
2.!Make!sure!the!capacitors!are!fully!discharged!(ie.!short!circuit!contacts!5!and!
6).!
3.!When!ready!to!start,!switch!S2!to!Battery!and!start!the!stopwatch!
simultaneously.!
4.!Record!the!current!every!5!seconds!for!up!to!3!minutes!(180!s).!Switch!the!
galvanometer!leads!to!the!50!microamp!setting!when!the!current!is!below!50!
microamp.!
!
Discharging:!
!
1.!With!S1!set!to!Charge!and!S2!set!to!Battery,!ensure!the!capacitors!are!fully!
charged.!!(You!can!do!this!by!shorting!between!contacts!3!and!4,!but!be!aware!
that!there!is!a!fuse!in!the!circuit!that!will!blow!at!0.31A,!so!if!you!are!using!an!
external!power!supply,!dont!have!V!set!higher!than!5!volts)!
2.!When!ready!to!start,!switch!S1!to!discharge!and!start!the!stopwatch!
simultaneously.!!This!effectively!removes!the!battery!from!the!circuit.!
3.!Record!the!current!every!5!seconds!for!up!to!3!minutes!(180!s).!Switch!the!
galvanometer!leads!to!the!50!microamp!setting!when!the!current!is!below!50!
microamp.!
!
Data!and!Analysis!
1. Plot! a! graph! of! the! current! versus! time! for! the! data! obtained! when!
charging!the!capacitor.!Plot!a!second!graph!for!the!data!obtained!when!
discharging!the!capacitor!(i.e.!from!Tables!1!&!2).!!
2. On!each!graph!pick!any!current,!I1,! and!note!the!time,!t1,!at!which!I1!is!
attained.! Determine! the! current! I2! =! 0.368I1.! Find! the! time,! t2,! on! the!
graph!at!which!I2!is!attained.!The!difference!t2!J!t1!should!equal! !=!RC.!!
Using! the! known! value! of! the! resistance,! determine! the! circuit!
capacitance!C!by!using!equation:!!=!RC.!!
3. Compare!this!computed!value!with!Ctotal!by!finding!the!percentage!error.!
4. The!natural!logarithms!of!both!sides!of!Equation!5.3!gives:!!!
!
t
ln I = ln I m ! ! ! ! ! 5.4!
RC
! 19!
Since!this!has!the!form!of!a!linear!equation,!a!plot!of!ln*I**versus!t!would!result!
in!a!straight!line!with!a!!negative!slope!of!1/RC.!!Plot!ln*I**vs!t,!!then!find!the!
slope!of!!your!two!graphs!(charging!and!discharging!capacitor)!and!determine!
the! capacitance! of! the! capacitor.! Compare! this! to! Ctotal! by! computing! the!
percentage!error.!
!
Table!!1!&!2!Charging!/Discharging!Capacitor!
!
! 1.!!charging!current!! ! ! 2.!!discharging!
current!
Time! I!(A)! ln!I! ! Time!(s)! I!(A)! ln!I!
(s)!
! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! !
! ! ! ! ! ! !
!
!
R!=!_________! ! ! ! C!=!_________!
!
!=!_________!from!I!vs!t!(charging)! !=!_________!from!I!vs!t!(discharging)!
!
Questions
!
1. How! are! the! voltages! across! the! resistor! and! capacitor! related! to! the!
voltage!supplied!by!the!power!supply?!
2. When!the!switch!was!first!closed!to!charge!the!capacitor,!what!was!the!
effective!resistance!of!the!capacitor?!What!was!the!effective!resistance!
of!the!capacitor!when!it!was!fully!charged?!
3. If!the!15,000!!resistor!were!removed!from!the!circuit!and!the!switch!
closed!to!charge!the!capacitor,!it!is!possible!that!the!ammeter!might!be!
destroyed.!Explain.!
4. If! the! 15,000! ! ! resistor! were! connected! in! parallel! to! the! capacitor!
instead! of! in! series,! it! is! possible! that! the! ammeter! might! be! ruined.!
Explain.!
5. What! would! the! decay! constant! be! if! a! 100! ! resistor! had! been! used!
instead! of! a! 15,000! ! resistor?! Explain! any! difficulties! you! might!
encounter!in!collecting!data!for!this!case.!
6. What! would! be! the! maximum! current! in! the! circuit! if! the! 15,000! !
resistor!were!replaced!by!a!100!!resistor?!
7. In!the!equation! !=!RC,*substitute!the!appropriate!electrical!units!for!R*
and!C,*and!show!that!the!product!RC*wil1!have!units!of!seconds.!
! 20!
Lab 6: Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying Wire
!
Introduction
A current-carrying wire in a magnetic field experiences a force acting on it. The
magnitude and direction of this force depend on the magnitude of the current (I),
the length of the wire (L), the strength of the magnetic field (B), and the angle
between the field and the wire ().
The magnetic force is given by:

FB = I L B or in scalar terms, FB = ILBsin
Setup
!
Figure 1: Setting up the Current Balance
1. Mount the Main Unit on a lab stand as shown in Fig. 1.

2. Select a Current Loop card and plug it into the ends of the arms of
the Main Unit.
3. Place the Magnet Assembly on a balance with at least 0.01 gram
sensitivity.
4. Position the lab stand so the horizontal portion of the conductive
foil on the Current Loop passes through the pole region of the
magnets. The Current Loop should not touch the magnets.
5. Connect the power supply and ammeter to the Main Unit as shown
in Fig.2.
!
!
Figure 2: Current Loop connected to a power supply and an ammeter
! 21!
Measuring the Force
!
1. Measure the weight of the Magnet Assembly with no current flowing (F0
= mg).
2. Turn on the current and adjust it to desired level. Measure the new weight
with the current flowing. The value will be higher or lower than before.
The difference in weight (F-F0) is equal to the force exerted on the
Magnet Assembly by the current-carrying wire.
!
Varying the Current, Wire Length, Angle
!
To change the Current Loop Board, turn off the power supply and swing the arm
of the Main Unit up, raising the present Current Loop board out of the magnetic
field gap. Pull the Current Loop Board gently from the arms of the Main Unit
and replace with a new board. Carefully lower the arm back into position. The
wire lengths for different boards are:
Table A: Wire Lengths
Current Loop Board length (0.1

(part number) cm)
SF 40 1.2
SF 37 2.2
SF 39 3.2
SF 38 4.2
SF 41 6.4
SF 42 8.4
!
To change the Current, put a rheostat in the circuit between the power supply
and the ammeter. Move the rheostat slider to minimum resistance. Turn on DC
power and adjust voltage to a setting which raises the current to about 4A. As
you move the rheostat slider towards the other end, the current should decrease.
To use the Accessory Unit, install the dial of the Accessory Unit in the arms of
the Main Unit. Remove the magnet holder with the slit opening and replace with
the magnet holder with the box opening.
!
Experimental Procedure
!
Experiment!1:!Force!vs.!Current!
!
1. Set!up!the!apparatus!shown!in!Fig.1,!but!include!a!rheostat!between!
the! power! supply! and! the! Main! Unit! of! the! Current! Balance.! Use!
Current!Loop!Board!SF39.!
! 22!
2. Determine the mass of the magnet holder and magnets with no current
flowing. Record in Table 1 in the row for current equals 0.0 amps.
3. Set the current to 0.5A by adjusting the voltage setting on the power
supply or the setting of the rheostat. Determine the new mass
measurement of the magnet assembly and record this in Table 1. The
magnetic force of attraction is equal to the mass difference (in kg) times
g = 9.8 m/s2. Calculate the magnetic force of attraction and record in
Table 1.
4. Increase the current in 0.5A increments to a maximum of 3.0 Amps.
Record all data in Table 1.
5. Plot a graph of force (vertical axis) vs. current (horizontal axis).
Table!1:!Force!vs.!Current!Data!
!
current, mass, m m!=!m(0)!! FB!=!!mg!
I (grams)! m(I)! g!=!9.8!m/s2!
(amperes) (kg)! (N)!
0.0! 0! 0!
0.5!
1.0!
1.5!
2.0!
2.5!
3.0!
!
!
!
Experiment!2:!Force!vs.!Length!of!Wire!
!
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig.1 but include a rheostat between the
power supply and the Main Unit of the Current Balance.
2. Begin with Current Loop Board SF 40 installed. With no current flowing,
determine the mass of the magnet holder and record in Table 2 in the row
for current equals zero. Table A gives the wire lengths for each Current
Loop Board.
3. Set the current to 2.0 A and find the new mass of the magnet assembly.
Record in Table 2.
4. Determine the force of attraction (i.e. the mass difference (in kg) times g
= 9.8 m/s2) and record this in Table 2.
5. Replace the Current Loop Board with the next longer wire. Determine the
new force of attraction at a current of 2.0A and record in Table 2. Do
this for all Current Loop Boards.
6. Plot a graph of force (vertical axis) vs. wire length (horizontal axis).
!
! 23!
!
!
Table!2:!Force!vs.!Wire!Length!Data!
!
Mass at zero current, m (0) = _______________
!
length! m!(2.0A)! m!=!m(0)!!m(2.0A)! FB!=!!mg!
(cm)! (grams)! (kg)! g!=!9.8!m/s2!
(N)!
1.2! ! ! !
2.2!
3.2!
4.2!
6.4!
8.4!
!
!
!
!
!
Questions:,
1. What is the dependence of magnetic force on current? Determine this
from your graph.
2. What is the dependence of magnetic force on wire length? Determine this
from your graph.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
! 24!
Lab 7: Experiments with Magnets
Introduction
In this lab, the student will investigate magnetic field direction and magnitude for a
permanent magnet and a solenoid. The student will be introduced to the concept of
magnetic induction and will demonstrate Faradays Law and Lenzs Law. The
student will demonstrate the magnetic field accompanying an electric current in a
wire.
Theory
The field of a magnet may be described in terms of magnetic poles. The magnet has
a north pole and a south pole at either end. Opposite poles will attract each other
while like poles will repel each other.
If a magnet were to be cut into pieces, each piece would have both a north and
south pole. The magnetic field may be represented by lines, just as with electric
fields. The lines go between the north and south magnetic poles and their direction
is, by convention, pointing from north to south. Unlike electric fields, magnetic
field lines do not point in the direction of the force on a charge. Also unlike electric
fields, there is no experimental evidence for the existence of a magnetic monopole.
The SI unit for measuring the strength of a magnetic field, B is Tesla (T):
1T = 104 Gauss.
The needle of a compass is a small permanent magnet. If the compass is out of the
immediate vicinity of local sources of magnetic fields, its needle will align itself
with the Earths magnetic field pointing to the south of magnetic pole of the Earth
(and the geographic North).
When electric charge is in motion, a magnetic field is established in the
space surrounding it.
The relation between the magnetic field and current is given by Amperes
law:

dl = 0 I
B
where l is the direction of the loop and 0 is the magnetic permeability of free
space.
To determine the direction of the magnetic field lines surrounding a wire, point the
thumb of your right hand in the direction that the current travels. Your fingers curl
around the wire in the direction of the magnetic field. The field lines circle the wire.
Magnetic flux () through a surface is defined as the integral over the
surface of the component of the magnetic field that is perpendicular to that surface.

= B dA
Faradays Law of Induction states that a changing magnetic flux will induce an emf
in a conductor, proportional to the time rate of change of the flux, .
! 25!
= d
dt
If the conductor is part of a closed circuit, a current is induced in the conductor.

This current creates its own magnetic field. The direction of the induced current is
such as to oppose the cause producing it. This relationship is Lenzs Law.
A demonstration of a Lenzs Law involves a tube through which two pellets are
dropped. One is magnetic, the other is not. Note in your report which pellet took
the longer time to pass through. As the magnetized pellet falls, a current is induced
in the walls of the tube. The direction of the current may be determined by applying
Lenzs law. The magnetic field that accompanies the induced current will oppose
the change in the magnetic flux as the pellet passes through. Make a sketch of the
pellet passing through a section of tube. Draw the field lines surrounding the pellet
and determine the direction of the induced current below the pellet and also above
the pellet (they will be opposite). The current induced below the pellet will have an
accompanying magnetic field which opposes the increase in the magnetic flux
brought about by the approaching pellet. The current above the pellet will have an
accompanying magnetic field which opposes the decreasing magnetic flux as the
pellet moves away from this part of the tube.
1. On the ends of your variable gap magnet are two small magnetic disks.
Carefully unscrew one arm of the magnet from its housing and remove.
Place a meter stick on the lab table and put the arm on its side at one end of
the meter stick, parallel to the meter stick. Use the Gauss-Tesla meter to
measure the field strength of the magnet (in G or mG). Read on the back of
the meter how to calibrate and use this instrument. Hold the probe attached
to the meter so that the tip of the probe is perpendicular to the length of the
meter stick.
(a) First measure the field strength with the probe flat against the
disk.
(b) Move the probe one centimeter away from the disk and measure
the field strength. Continue to move the probe away from the disk and
measure the field strength at one centimeter intervals to a maximum distance
of 20 cm away from the disk.
(c) Record the distance (r) and field strength (B) data in a table, not
neglecting to include an error estimate for each reading and to include the
correct units. (4) Plot the square root of the field strength vs. the distance
from the disk.
Question 1: What is the functional relationship between B and r?
const.
B(r) =
r2
! 26!
2. Return the magnetic disk to the arm of the variable gap magnet. Be certain
that the north end of both magnetic disks points in the same direction. You can do
this by confirming the field direction with your compass. Set the variable gap
magnet beside a rod stand with wooden crosspiece. Take the aluminum paddle
with no slits in it and connect the small end to one of the slots at the end of the
wooden crosspiece. Adjust the height of the crosspiece so that the paddle hangs
directly between the poles of the variable gap magnet. Adjust the gap spacing so
that there is about one centimeter between poles - just enough space for the paddle
to swing between them. Try to swing the paddle through the gap in the magnet.
The motion of the paddle should be immediately damped out as it passes through
the gap. Try this experiment again with the two slotted paddles. Which paddle
swings through the gap the most freely? The least freely? Are the paddles attracted
to magnets? As the paddies passed through the gap of the magnet, the field at any
point on the paddle is rapidly changing. Eddy currents are induced in the paddle
which travel in closed loops around the metal. These currents create their own
magnetic fields, which are opposite in direction to that of the variable gap magnet.
Since these fields are opposite, the poles attract each other and the motion of the
paddle is damped.
Question 2: Why do some of the paddles swing more freely than others? What
does this demonstration have to do with Lenzs Law?
3. Remove the paddles from the crosspiece and attach the wire swing. Connect
the ends of the wire swing with two wires to the DC output of a power supply.
With the supply turned off, adjust the voltage control knob to 1V. Put a metal plate
on each arm of the variable gap magnet. Adjust the arms of the magnet so that the
magnet will stand up on one end and so that it has about a one centimeter gap
between the plates. Adjust the height of the swing so that it sits between the plates
of the magnet but has enough space to swing freely. Turn on the switch of the
power supply, only for a few seconds. Which way does the wire swing incline
itself? Turn off the power supply and reverse the ends of the wires going to the
power supply. Turn on the power supply again for a few seconds. Which way does
the wire swing incline itself this time? The torque on the wire swing is given by

= IA B where I is the current in the wire, A is the area in the middle of the wire
and B is the magnetic field of the variable gap magnet. A magnetic field around the
wire was established when the current was switched on. This field interacts with
the field of the variable gap magnet. Draw a picture of the variable gap magnet,
wire swing, and field lines. Question 3: Since opposite magnetic poles attract each
other, which direction do you expect the wire swing to incline when the current
flows?
4. Connect the square-shaped coil of wire to a galvanometer with two wires.

The wires should connect to the lowest possible current input on the galvanometer.
Push the button on the galvanometer and drop the bar magnet through the hole in
the coil. As the magnet passes through the coil, the galvanometer will register a
small current. Question 4: Why is there current in the coil?
! 27!
Lab 8: Introduction to the Oscilloscope
Introduction
The cathode-ray oscilloscope is used to display a graph of voltage versus time on its
screen. The signal may be the voltage across a component in an electrical circuit. In
this experiment, an introduction to the basic principles of the oscilloscope is
presented and you will operate an oscilloscope so as to become familiar with its
controls and characteristics.
Equipment
Cathode-ray oscilloscope
Audio-signal function generator (sine and square waves)
Second audio-signal generator
Connecting cables
Figure 1. The basic components of an oscilloscope cathode ray tube (CRT).
Background, Theory and Application
The basic components of an oscilloscope (or "scope") are a cathode-ray tube (CRT)
or electron-beam tube and a set of vertical and horizontal deflection plates (Fig. 1).
The electrons, thermally emitted from a cathode filament, are accelerated through a
potential difference of several thousand volts and focused into a beam. The electron
beam strikes a fluorescent screen that emits visible light, and a spot of light is seen
on the screen. If no voltages are applied to the plates, the beam strikes the center of
the screen. If a voltage signal is applied to the vertical (deflection) plates, the
! 28!
electron beam is deflected vertically. A constant dc voltage deflects the beam spot
on the screen a fixed distance. An ac voltage deflects the beam back and forth, since
the polarity is continually changing. The beam spot traces out an observable
continuous vertical line.
The magnitude of the deflection of the beam spot from the center of the screen
is proportional to the magnitude of the voltage applied to the plates.
In ac voltage applications the voltage on the screen is displayed as a function of

time (i.e. a graph of voltage versus time). The signal to be studied is applied to the
vertical deflection plates. An internal amplifier (gain) amplifies vertical input
signals. A horizontal linear time axis is obtained by moving the beam spot
horizontally (left to right) with a constant speed.
The oscilloscope is equipped with an internal generator. The voltage
applied to the horizontal plates increases linearly with time (a saw-tooth
waveform, shown in Fig. 2). As the voltage increases uniformly, the spot sweeps
with constant speed across the screen from left to right. When the voltage drops to
zero, the beam flies back to its initial position and begins another horizontal sweep
with the "triggering of the next saw-tooth. With a fast sweep rate, a continuous
trace is observed, as the eye cannot follow the motion. to supply such horizontal
signals with no signal on the horizontal plates.
When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the vertical plates, the beam moves
up and down, as well as from left to right. The combined motions of the beam spot
will trace out a graph of the applied voltage versus time.
Fig. 2: Saw-tooth voltage functions that supply different oscilloscope sweep

rates.
A. Time and Frequency Measurements
The sweep rate is given in time per division (one division = 1 cm). To make time
measurements on the signal, (a) count the number of divisions between two
points and (b) multiply by the sweep time or rate (time per division). The sweep
controls must be in a calibrated position. To measure frequency (f), measure the
time of one wavelength, which is the period, T. Then calculate the frequency: f =
1/T.
! 29!
B. Voltage Measurements
The oscilloscope can be used as a voltmeter to read the peak-to-peak voltages of ac

signals as well as dc voltages. The peak-to-peak height of the trace of an ac input
signal is then measured and the peak-to-peak voltage computed from the
calibration. Dividing by two (2) gives the peak voltage V0 and multiplying by
1/2 = 0.707 gives the root-mean-square (rms) value of the voltage.
C. Lissajous Figures
The frequency of a sinusoidal voltage can also be determined by comparing it with

another calibrated sinusoidal signal. The pattern of the two sinusoidal signals
having the same frequency and in phase is a diagonal line (Fig. 3 left).
The pattern observed when the frequency of the y signal is three times that of the x
signal is also shown in Fig.3 - right. Such patterns are called Lissajous figures.
When the two sinusoidal signals have the same frequency but different phases, for
example,
x = A sin 2ft and y = A sin (2ft - ) (1)
where is the phase angle or phase difference an ellipse will be traced out on the
screen (Fig 4). If the phase difference is 90, the pattern is a circle.
Figure 3. Lissajous figures for different x and y signals.
Figure 4. The Lissajous figure for signals having the same frequency but
different phases is an ellipse.
! 30!
There is a large variety of oscilloscopes but all have most of the operating controls
in common. Locate and familiarize yourself with the following general controls and
connections on your oscilloscope.
Display controls
1. POWER SWITCH (OFF-ON) - turns the oscilloscope on and off.

2. INTENSITY - adjusts the brightness of the spot. Center the position of this
knob. WARNING: If the intensity is set too high, the oscilloscope screen will
be damaged!
3. FOCUS - adjusts the sharpness of the spot. Again, center this knob, and adjust
until the figure looks clear.
4. TRIGGER LEVEL: selects which part of the voltage signal the scope will
trigger by selecting the input voltage at which to trigger. Set this knob in the
center of its range for now.
5. COUPLE or SYNC: tells the oscilloscope approximately what wave function to
expect. AC coupling is the most appropriate setting for this experiment.
6. SOURCE: tells the oscilloscope which channel to take the trigger signal from.
You can choose from Channel 1, Channel 2, ALT (which alternates between
the two).
7. X-Y: tells the oscilloscope to plot voltage versus time when the button is out, or
channel 1 versus channel 2 when the button is pushed in. For the first part of
this experiment, the button should be out.
8. VERTICAL MODE: The buttons tell the oscilloscope which signal to put on
the y-axis of the plot. CH1/CH2 selects between channels 1 and 2. For the first
part of this experiment all of these buttons should be released (out).
Position Controls
9. HORIZONTAL POSITION (<> X-POS) - adjusts the horizontal position

of the spot or trace on the screen. This can be moved to align the signal with
grid lines, and make it easier to measure the period of the waveform.
10. VERTICAL POSITION (V-POS) - adjusts the vertical position of the spot or
trace on the screen. This can be moved to align the signal with grid lines, and
make it easier to measure peak-to-peak voltage height.
11. VOLTS/DIV or VERTICAL ATTENUATOR - provides step adjustment of
vertical sensitivity in calibrations of volts per grid division or V/cm. Set this
to 5V/cm initially. Note that on this scale, this means that every large division
on the screen in the Y-direction only is 5V. The small divisions are one-fifth
this size and represent 1V.
12. VERTICAL GAIN - provides continuous adjustment of the gain of the vertical
amplifier (i.e., amplifies or "magnifies" the trace). If you pull the button out,
the signal is magnified 5 times in the vertical direction. This is useful when
! 31!
measuring very small signal. WARNING: The scale determined by knob 12,
the VOLTS/DIV is ONLY VALID when knob 13 is set to CAL. Twist knob
13 all the way over until it clicks to the CAL setting.
13. COUPLING for vertical channel. Flip this to the GND setting. You should see
a horizontal line on the screen. This line is at zero volts, or ground. Use the
vertical position knob to center this line vertically. If you now flip the lever to
AC coupling, a small capacitor is inserted in the line, and the incoming signal is
centered about where the GND line was. ON DC, the signal is absolute with
respect to the GND line.
Sweep Time and Triggering Mode
14. SWEEP TIME/DIV or SWEEP (HOR) SELECTOR - selects calibrated

horizontal sweep rates in terms of time per grid division. Set this knob to 1
mS/division to start with.
15. VARIABLE TIME/DIV (X or HORIZONTAL GAIN or SWEEP VERNIER) -
provides fine sweep time adjustment. In CAL (calibrated) position, the sweep
time is calibrated in time/div steps. (On uncalibrated scopes, horizontal gain
adjustment is provided by a HORIZONTAL GAIN control.)
External Connections
16. Channel 1 INPUT - applies an external signal to the vertical amplifier. The
lower terminal is usually grounded to the instrument case.
17. Ground: This terminal can be hooked up to a part of the circuit to serve as a
reference to ground. All voltages are then measured with respect to that
ground voltage.
18. Channel 2 INPUT: see 17
Measurements
Make the appropriate control adjustments. Turn on oscilloscope. A trace should

appear on the screen.
Adjust the INTENSITY and FOCUS. Never advance the intensity control to the
point where an excessively bright spot or trace appears on the screen. A bright spot
can burn the screen and decrease its useful life. Adjust the HORIZONTAL
POSITION and VERTICAL POSITION controls so that the spot is in the center of
the screen. If you have trouble obtaining a spot, ask the instructor for assistance.
With a low SWEEP TIME/DIV setting, adjust the VARIABLE TIME control and
note the effect.
1. Set the TRIG MODE to NORM, the SOURCE SWITCH to INT, and the
SWEEP TIME variable control to CAL. Connect the function generator sine-wave
! 32!
output to the VERTICAL (X) INPUT (Channel 2) of the scope. Turn on the
function generator and set the generator frequency at 90 Hz. Adjust the function
generator amplitude control so that the sine-wave pattern is almost full-scale on the
screen. (Switch the TRIG MODE momentarily to X-Y. What do you observe and
why?)
2. Adjust the SWEEP TIME/DIV control so that a wave pattern with two peaks
appears on the screen. Read the number of divisions for one full sine-wave cycle
and record in the Laboratory Report.
3. (a) Compute the time period (T) of one cycle of the wave pattern using the
calibrated SWEEP TIME/DIV setting and record.
(b) Compute the sine-wave frequency (f = 1/T) and compare with the function
generator setting by computing the percent difference.
4. Repeat the preceding procedures for a function generator output of 300 Hz.
5. With the generator output still at 300 Hz, adjust the SWEEP TIME/DIV control
in various steps and note the relationship of the number of wave cycles to the sweep
time/div. (Can you explain? See Question 1 at the end of the experiment.)
6. Set the SYNC (HOR)COUPLING SELECTOR (5) to LINE. Adjust the

function generator frequency to 60 Hz so a stationary pattern appears on the screen.
This matches the generator frequency to the relatively stable 60-Hz line frequency,
which is more accurate than the calibration markings on the function generator.
Compare the generator frequency setting to the line frequency by finding the
percent error.
7. Adjust the calibrated SWEEP TIME/DIV control until one or more full sine-
wave cycles appear on the screen. Then, compute the frequency of the sine wave
appearing on the scope as before.
B. Voltage Measurement
1. (a) With the full sine-wave cycle(s) on the screen record the VOLTS/DIV
control setting (with variable control at CAL).
(b) Read the number of peak-to-peak divisions for the height of the wave pattern
on the screen.
(c) Compute the rms voltage of the wave.
1. Set TRIG MODE (8) to X-Y and apply a 60-Hz sine wave to the HORIZONTAL
or X INPUT. A second function generator may be used.* (Do not exceed the
voltage limitation of the oscilloscope in any case.)
! 33!
Connect a second generator to the VERTICAL or Y INPUT and adjust frequency to
30 Hz, making a fine adjustment of this generator frequency to obtain a stationary
pattern. (If two generators are used, adjust the generator amplitude control(s) so the
signals have equal amplitudes. This is done by alternately adjusting the signal
amplitude with the other generator switched off.) Observe the pattern on the screen.
* With two function generators, it is important to have a common ground for both
generators and the oscilloscope.
2. Adjust the second generator frequency to 60 Hz and obtain a stationary wave

pattern. Note that by slight adjustment you can vary the pattern between a straight
line and a circle. (Can you explain why?)
3. Increase the second frequency to 120 Hz and observe the stationary and moving
patterns. Record your results in the Laboratory Report below.
Laboratory Report
Generator Number of Time/div Period Frequency %

freq. divisions difference
CH1
90 Hz
300 Hz
1 kHz
CH2
60 Hz
Calculations (show work; don't forget units!!!))
B. Voltage Measurement
Calculations Volts/div____________
(show work; don't forget units!!!) No.of
divisions__________
(peak to peak)
rms voltage_________
! 34!
Ch1-input frequency Ch2-input frequency Sketches of Patterns
60 Hz 30 Hz
60 Hz 60 Hz
60 Hz 120 Hz
Questions:
1. How does the number of wave cycles seen on a screen for a fixed input
frequency vary with the sweep time/div control setting? Why?
2. Explain why the 60-Hz Lissajous figure could be varied between a straight line
and a circle.
! 35!
Lab 9: LRC Circuit
Purpose
The purpose of this laboratory activity is to study resonance in an inductor-resistor-

capacitor circuit (LRC circuit) by examining the voltage across the resistor, VR as a
function of the frequency of the applied voltage.
Theory
The amplitude of the AC current (I0) in a series LRC circuit is dependent on the
amplitude of the applied voltage (V0) and the impedance (Z):
V0
I0 =
Z
Since the impedance depends on frequency, the current varies with frequency:
Z= (X L X C )2 + R 2
where XL = inductive reactance ( = L) , XC = capacitive reactance (= 1/C), R =

resistance, and = angular frequency ( = 2f, where f - linear frequency). The
current will be maximum when the circuit is driven at its resonant frequency:
1
res =
LC
One can show that, at resonance, XL = XC and thus the impedance (Z) is equal to R.
At resonance, the impedance is the lowest value possible and the current will be the
largest value possible.
Procedure
1. Set up the circuit as shown in Figure below. You will use the Function
Generator to apply a voltage to the RLC circuit and to change the frequency
of the applied voltage. Use the oscilloscope to measure the voltage across
the resistor (VR) as you vary the frequency of the applied voltage. Record
your data in Table 1.
2. Plot a graph of the voltage across the resistor, VR (vertical axis) vs.
frequency, f (horizontal axis).
3. You will also determine the inductive reactance, capacitive reactance, total
impedance and the amplitude of the current through the resistor and then
plot XL, XC and Z vs. frequency.
! 36!
Experimental Setup for L-C-R Circuits (Lab 9)
Oscilloscope
cable to scope
8 mH
10
100 F
cable from cable from

black red
Function generator
black red
Analyzing the data
1. From the graph find the linear resonant frequency, fres.

2. Using the resonant frequency fre, calculate the resonant angular frequency,
res and record the value in the Table 2.
3. Calculate the theoretical resonant angular frequency using the values of the
inductance and capacitance.
4. Compare the theoretical resonant frequency to your measured resonant
frequency.
! 37!
Table 1
Linear # of Volts/ VR (V) XL = 2fL XC=1/(2fC) Z I=VR/R
frequency divisions div () () () (A)
(Hz)
20
40
60
80
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
350
400
450
500
Table 2
Item Value
Inductance mH
Resistance
Capacitance F
Resonant Frequency (linear) Hz
Resonant Angular Frequency rad/s
Theoretical Resonant Angular Frequency rad/s
Questions
1. How does your measured value of resonant angular frequency compare to the
theoretical value of resonant angular frequency?
2. Is the plot of the current, I, versus frequency, f, symmetrical about the resonant
frequency? Explain.
3. At resonance, XL = XC so that the impedance (Z) is equal to the resistance (R).

Calculate the resistance of the circuit by using the amplitude of the current at
resonance in the equation R = V/I, where V is the amplitude of the applied voltage.
Is this resistance equal to 10 ohms? Why not?
! 38!
Lab 10: Reflection and Refraction of Light
Experiment 1: Reflection - Plane and Curved Mirrors
Purpose
To study how rays are reflected and to determine the focal length and radius of
curvature of different type of mirrors.
Equipment
Ray box (single and multiple white rays), protractor, metric rule, compass, white
paper, plane (flat) and curved mirrors.
Part I: Plane Mirror
Procedure
1. Place the ray box, label side up, on a white sheet of paper on the table.
Adjust the box so one white ray is showing.
2. Place the mirror on the table and position the plane surface of the mirror at
an angle to the ray so that the both the incident and reflected rays are clearly
seen.
3. Mark the position of the surface of the plane mirror and trace the incident
and reflected rays. Indicate the incoming and the outgoing rays with arrows
in the appropriate directions.
4. On the paper, draw the normal to the surface. See Figure 1.1.
5. Measure the angle of incidence (i) and the angle of reflection. Both of these
angles should be measured from the normal. You will never have an angle
greater than 90. If your angle IS greater, you are reading from the wrong
set of numbers on the protractor. Record the angles in Table 1.1.
6. Change the angle of incidence and measure the incident and reflected angles
again. Repeat this procedure for a total of three different incident angles.
7. Adjust the ray box so it produces the three primary color rays. Shine the
colored rays at an angle to the plane mirror. Mark the position of the surface
of the plane mirror and trace the incident and reflected rays. Indicate the
colors of the incoming and the outgoing rays and mark them with arrows in
the appropriate directions.
Table 1.1 Plane Mirror Results

Angle of incidence Angle of reflection
! 39!
Figure 1.1
Questions
1. What is the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of
reflection?
2. Are the three colored rays reversed left-to-right by the plane mirror?
Part II: Cylindrical Mirrors
Theory
A concave cylindrical mirror will focus parallel rays of light at the focal point. The
focal length is the distance from the focal point to the center of the mirror surface.
The radius of curvature of the mirror is twice the focal length. See Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2
Procedure
1. Using five white rays from the ray box, shine the rays straight into the
concave mirror so the light is reflected back toward the ray box. See Figure
1.3. Draw the surface of the mirror and trace the incident and reflected rays.
Indicate the incoming and the outgoing rays with arrows in the appropriate
directions.
2. The place where the five reflected rays cross each other is the focal point of
the mirror. Measure the focal length from the center of the concave mirror
surface to the focal point. Record the result in Table 1.2.
! 40!
3. Use the compass to draw a circle that matches the curvature of the mirror.
Measure the radius of curvature using a rule and record it in Table 1.2.
4. Repeat Steps 1 through 3 for the convex mirror. Note that in Step 2, the
reflected rays are diverging for a convex mirror and they will not cross. Use
a rule to extend the reflected rays back behind the mirrors surface. The
focal point is where these extended rays cross. Be careful-it is easy to get
the wrong answer here!
Figure 1.3
Table 1.2 Cylindrical Mirror Results
Concave mirror Convex mirror

Focal length (cm)
Radius of curvature using
compass
Questions
1. What is the relationship between the focal length of a cylindrical mirror and
its radius of curvature? Do your results confirm your answer?
2. What is the radius of curvature of a plane mirror?
! 41!
Experiment 2: SneIls Law
Purpose
To use Snells Law to determine the index of refraction of the acrylic rhombus.
Theory
Snells Law states : n1sin 1 = n2sin 2

where 1 is the angle of incidence, 2 is the angle of refraction, and n1 and n2 are
the respective indices of refraction of the materials. See Figure 2.1. This means that
light passing from a material with a low index of refraction (air) to a high index of
refraction (glass, water, plastic) will be bent toward the normal. Light passing from
a high index of refraction to a low index of refraction will be bent away from the
normal.
Figure 2.1
Procedure
1. Place the ray box, label side up, on a white sheet of paper on the table.
Slide the ray mask until only one white ray is showing.
2. Place the rhombus on the table and position it so the ray passes through the
parallel sides as shown in Figure 2.2.
3. Mark the position of the parallel surfaces of the rhombus and trace the
incident and transmitted rays. Indicate the incoming and the outgoing rays
with arrows in the appropriate directions. Mark carefully where the ray
enters and leaves the rhombus.
4. Remove the rhombus and on the paper draw a line connecting the points
where the ray entered and left the rhombus.
5. Choose either the point where the ray enters the rhombus or the point
where the ray leaves the rhombus. At this point, draw the normal to the
surface.
! 42!
6. Measure the angle of incidence (i) and the angle of refraction with a
protractor. Both these angles should be measured from the normal. Record
the angles in Table 2.1. The refracted ray is the ray which was INSIDE
the rhombus. The two rays on the outside of the rhombus should be
parallel to each other if the beam entered and exited two parallel sides
of the rhombus.
7. Change the angle of incidence and measure the incident and refracted
angles again. Repeat this procedure for a total of three different incident
angles.
Figure 2.1
Table 2.1 Data and results
Angle of incidence Angle of refraction n rhombus
Average index refraction

% difference
Analysis
1. Using Snells Law and your data, calculate the index of refraction for acrylic
rhombus, assuming the index of refraction of air is one. Record the results
for each of the three data sets in Table 2.1.
2. Average the three values of the index of refraction and compare to the
accepted value (n = 1.5) using percent difference.
Question
1. What is the angle of the ray that leaves the rhombus relative to the ray that
enters the rhombus?
! 43!
Experiment 3 : Total Internal Reflection
Purpose
To determine the critical angle at which total internal reflection occurs and to
confirm it using Snells Law.
Equipment
Ray box (single ray), protractor, white paper, rhombus.
Theory
Snells Law states :
n1sin1 = n2sin2
where 1 is the angle of incidence, 2 is the angle of refraction, and n1 and n2 are
the respective indices of refraction of the materials. See Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1
If a ray of light travels from a medium of greater index of refraction to a medium of

lesser index of refraction, the beam is bent away from the normal. If the angle of
incidence is exactly the critical angle, the angle of the refracted ray is 90 degrees
(i.e. it lies in the surface of the material. See Figure 3.2. In this case, using Snells
Law,
nsinc = (1)sin(900)
assuming the medium of lesser index of refraction is air with n2 = 1 and the medium
of greater index of refraction is the acrylic rhombus with n1 = n =1.5. Solving for
the critical angle gives:
sinc = 1/n
! 44!
If the beam is incident with an angle greater than the critical angle (c), there is no
refracted ray and total internal reflection occurs.
Figure 3.2
Procedure
1. Place the ray box, label side up, on a white sheet of paper on the table. Slide
the ray mask until only one white ray is showing.
2. Position the rhombus as shown in Figure 3.3. Do not shine the ray through
the rhombus too near the triangular tip.
Figure 3.3
3. Rotate the rhombus until the emerging ray just barely disappears. Just as it
disappears, the ray separates into colors (because the index of refraction is
different for different colors of light). The rhombus is correctly positioned if
the red has just disappeared.
! 45!
4. Mark the surfaces of the rhombus. Mark exactly the point on the surface
where the ray is internally reflected. Also mark the entrance point of the
incident ray and mark the exit point of the reflected ray.
5. Remove the rhombus and draw the rays that are incident upon and that
reflect off the inside surface of the rhombus. See Figure 3.4. Measure the
total angle between these rays using a protractor. If necessary, you may
extend these rays to make the protractor easier to use. Note that this total
angle is twice the critical angle because the angle of incidence equals the
angle of reflection. Record the critical angle
here:________________
6. Calculate the critical angle using Snells Law and the given index of
refraction for acrylic. Record the theoretical value
here:________________
7. Calculate the percent difference between the measured and theoretical values:
% difference = ________________
Figure 3.4
Questions
1. How does the brightness of the internally reflected ray change when the
incident angle changes from less than c to greater than c.
2. Is the critical angle greater for red light or violet light? What does this tell
you about the index of refraction?
! 46!
Lab 11: Thin lenses
Experiment 1 Refraction from Convex and Concave lenses
Equipment: Ray box (multiple white rays), convex lens, concave lens, metric rule,
second convex lens.
Purpose
To explore the difference between convex and concave lenses and to determine
their focal lengths.
Theory
Parallel rays of light passing through a thin convex lens cross at the focal point of
the lens. The focal length is measured from the center of the lens to the focal point.
Procedure
1. Place the ray box on a white piece of paper. Using five white rays from the
ray box shine the rays straight into the convex lens. See Figure 1.l. Trace
around the surface of the lens and trace the incident and transmitted rays.
directions.
Figure 1.1
! 47!
2. The place where the five refracted rays cross each other is the focal point of
the lens. Measure the focal length from center of the convex lens to the focal
point. Record the result in Table1.1.
Table 1.1 Results

convex lens concave lens
focal length
3. Repeat the procedure for the concave lens. Note that in Step 2, the rays
leaving the lens are diverging and they will not cross. Use a rule to extend
the outgoing rays straight back through the lens. The focal point is where
these extended rays cross.
Again, be careful extrapolating these line back-take your time!!
4. Nest the convex and concave lenses together and place them in the path of
the parallel rays. Trace the rays. What does this tell you about the
relationship between the focal length of these two lenses?
5. Slide the convex and concave lenses apart to observe the effect of a
combination of two lenses. Then reverse the order of the lenses. Trace at
least one pattern of this type.
6. Place the convex lens in the path of the five rays. Block out the center 3 rays
(the mirror on edge works well) and mark the focal pour for the outer two
rays. Next, block out the outer two rays (or slide the mask to the position
that gives 3 rays) and mark the focal point for the inner 3 rays. Are the two
focal points the same?
7. If you have a second convex lens, place both convex lenses in the path of
the five, rays. The distance between the lenses should be less than the focal
length of the lenses. Compare the quality of the focus of this two-lens
system to the focus of a single lens. Do all five rays cross in the same place?
Experiment 2: Lensmakers Equation
Equipment: Ray box (multiple while rays) concave lens, metric rule.
Purpose
To determine the focal length of a concave lens by direct measurement and by using
the lensmakers equation.
! 48!
Theory
The lensmakers equation is used to calculate the focal length of a lens based on the
radii of curvature of its surfaces and the index of refraction of the lens material.
1 & 1 1 #
= (n 1)$$ !!
f % R1 R2 "
where f is the focal length, n is the relative index of refraction of the lens material,
and R1 and R2 are the radii of curvature of the lens surfaces.
NOTE: In this notation, R is positive for a convex surface (as viewed from outside
the lens) and R is negative for a concave surface See Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1
Procedure
1. Place the ray box on a white piece of paper. Using five white rays from the
ray box, shine the rays straight into the concave lens. See Figure 2.2.Trace
around the surface of the lens and trace the incident and transmitted rays.
directions.
! 49!
Figure 2.2
2. Remove the lens. To measure the focal length, use a rule to extend the
outgoing diverging rays straight back through lens. The focal point is where
these extended rays cross. Measure the distance from the center of the lens
to the focal point. Record the result: f = _______________ (HINT: YOU
ALREADY DID THIS IN PART 1 OF THIS LAB)
3. To determine the radius of curvature, put the concave lens back in the path
of the rays and observe the faint reflected rays off the first surface of the
lens. The front of the lens can be treated as a concave mirror having a radius
of curvature equal to twice the focal length of the effective mirror. Trace
the surface of the lens and the incident rays and the faint reflected rays.
Measure the distance from the center of the front curved surface to the point
where the faint reflected rays cross. See Figure 2.3. The radius of curvature
of the surface is twice this distance. Record the radius of curvature: R =
_______________
Figure 2.3
! 50!
4. Note that the lens is symmetrical and it is not necessary to measure the
curvature of both sides of the lens because R is the same for both. Calculate
the focal length of the lens using the lensmakers equation. The index of
refraction is 1.5 for the acrylic lens. Remember that a concave surface has a
negative radius of curvature. f =__________________
5. Calculate the percent difference between the two values of the focal length
of the concave lens: % difference =______________
Questions
1. Is the focal length of a concave lens positive or negative?
2. How might the thickness of the lens affect the results of this experiment?
! 51!
Experiment 3: Focal Length of a Thin Lens
Purpose
To determine the focal length of a thin lens.
Equipment: Bench, convex lens, light source (object), screen.
Theory
1 1 1
= +
For a thin lens: f do di
where f is focal length, do is the distance between the object and the lens and di is
the distance between the image and the lens. See Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1.
Procedure
I. FOCAL LENGTH USING AN OBJECT AT INFINITY
1. Using one of the positive lenses focus a distant light source on a paper.
! 52!
2. Measure the distance from the lens to the paper. This is the image distance.
3. Take the limit as the object distance goes to infinity in the Thin Lens
1 1 1
= +
formula: f d o d i
Solve for the focal length. f = ____________
4. If you look at the label near the base of your lens, it gives you its focal length in
mm, for example, +20mm means a 20mm focal length converging lens. A negative
focal length means a diverging lens. How well does this number compare with your
result in 3? Why might it be different?
II. FOCAL LENGTH BY PLOTTING l/do vs. 1/di
a. On the optical bench, position the lens between a light source (the object) and a
screen. Be sure the object and the screen are at least 0.80 meter apart.
b. Move the lens to a position where an image of the object is formed on the
screen. Measure the image distance and the object distance. The image distance is
the distance from the screen to the center of the lens. The object distance is the
distance from the light source to the center of the lens. Record all measurements in
table 3.1.
c. Measure the object size (on the screen of the light source) and the image
size for this position of the lens.
d. Move the lens to a second position where the image is in focus (Do not
move the screen or Light Source). Measure the image distance and the object
distance.
e. Measure the image size for this position also.
f. Move the screen toward the object until you can no longer find two
positions of the lens where the image will focus. Then move the
screen a few centimeters further away from the object.
Repeat Parts b and d for this position of the screen and for 4 other intermediate
positions of the screen. This will give you 6 sets of data points (a total of 12 data
points).
g. Plot 1/do vs. 1/di using the 12 data points. This will give a straight
line and the x- and y- intercepts are each equal to 1/f. Be sure that
your axis range goes all the way down to zero, or this will not
work.
! 53!
h. Find the percent difference between the two values of the focal
length found from the intercepts. Then average these two values and
find the percent difference between this average and the focal length
found in Part I.
i. For the first two sets of data points ONLY, use image and object
distances to find the magnification at each position of the tens.
Magnification = M = di/do
Then, using your measurements of the image size and object size, find the
magnification by measuring the image size and the object size.
image size
M =
object size
Find the percent differences.
Table 3.1
Object Image Image size 1/d0 1/di

distance distance
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Questions
1. Is the image formed by the lens erect or inverted?
2. Is the image real or virtual? How do you know?
3. Explain why, for a given screenobject distance, there are two positions
where the image is in focus.
4. Why is the magnification negative?
! 54!
Lab 12: Slit Diffraction
In this lab, the student will investigate the diffraction of light on a single and double
narrow slits.
Equipment
Track and screen, Diode Laser, single-slit and double-slit, white paper to cover
screen, metric rule.
Experiment 1: Diffraction from a Single Slit
Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to examine the diffraction pattern formed by laser
light passing through a single slit and verify that the positions of the minima in the
diffraction pattern match the positions predicted by theory.
Theory
When diffraction of light occurs as it passes through a slit, the angle to the minima
in the diffraction pattern is given by
asin =m (m=1,2,3,...)
where a is the slit width, is the angle from the center of the pattern to the mth
minimum, is the wavelength of the light, and m is the order (1 for the first
minimum, 2 for the second minimum, ...counting from the center out).
Since the angles are usually small, it can be assumed that:
sin tan
y
tan =
From trigonometry, D
where y is the distance on the screen from the center of the pattern to the mth
minimum and D is the distance from the slit to the screen as shown in Figure 1.1.
Using this, the diffraction equation can be solved for the slit width
m D
a= (m = 1,2,3,....)
y
! 55!
Figure 1.1 Single-Slit Diffraction Pattern
Setup
1. Set up the laser at one end of the optics bench and place the single-slit disk in its
holder about 3 cm in front of the laser. See Figure 1.2.
2. Cover the screen with a sheet of paper and attach it to the other end of the bench so
that the paper faces the laser.
3. Select the 0.04 mm slit by rotating the slit disk until the 0.04 mm slit is centered in
the slit holder. Adjust the position of the laser beam from left-to-right and up-and-
down until the beam is centered on the slit.
Figure 1.2 Optics Bench Setup
Procedure
1. Determine the distance from the slit to the screen. Note that the slit is actually offset
from the center line of the slit holder. Record the screen position, slit position, and
the difference between these (the slit-to-screen distance) in Table 1.1.
! 56!
2. Turn off the room lights and mark the positions of the minima in the diffraction
pattern on the screen.
3. Turn on the room lights and measure the distance between the first order (m = 1)
marks and record this distance in Table 1.1. Also measure the distance between the
second order (m = 2) marks and record in Table 1.1.
4. Make a sketch of the diffraction pattern to scale.
5. Change the slit width to 0.02 mm and 0.08 mm and make sketches to scale
of each of these diffraction patterns.
Table 1.1 Data and Results for the 0.04 mm Single Slit
Slit-to-screen distance (D) = __________________
First Order (m=1) Second Order (m=2)
Distance between side orders
Distance from center to side (y)
Calculated slit width
% difference
Analysis
1. Divide the distances between side orders by two to get the distances from the center
of the pattern to the first and second order minima. Record these values of y in
Table 1.1.
2. Using the average wavelength of the laser (670 nm for the Diode Laser), calculate
the slit width twice, once using first order and once using second order. Make sure
you convert your units to be consistent. Record the results in Table 1.1.
3. Calculate the percent differences between the experimental slit widths and 0.04
mm. Record in Table 1.1.
Questions
1. Does the distance between minima increase or decrease when the slit width is
increased?
! 57!
Experiment 2: Interference from a Double Slit
Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to examine the diffraction and interference
patterns formed by laser light passing through two slits and verify that the positions
of the maxima in the interference pattern match the positions predicted by theory.
Theory
When light passes through two slits, the two light rays emerging from the slits
interfere with each other and produce interference fringes. The angle to the maxima
(bright fringes) in the interference pattern is given by
dsin = m (m=0, 1,2,3,...)
where d is the slit separation, is the angle from the center of the pattern to the mth
maximum,) is the wavelength of the light, and m is the order (0 for the central
maximum, 1 for the first side maximum, 2 for the second side maximum,
...counting from the center out). See Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 Interference Fringes
Since the angles are usually small, it can be assumed that
sin tan
! 58!
y
tan =
From trigonometry, D
where y is the distance on the screen from the center of the pattern to the mth
maximum and D is the distance from the slits to the screen as shown in Figure 2.1.
Using this, the interference equation can be solved for the slit separation
m D
d= (m = 1,2,3,....)
y
Figure 2.2 Single-Slit Diffraction Envelope
While the interference fringes are created by the interference of the light coming
from the two slits, there is also a diffraction effect occurring at each slit due to
single-slit diffraction. This causes the envelope as seen in Figure 2.2.
Setup
1. Set up the laser at one end of the optics bench and place the multiple-slit disk in its
3. Select the double slit with slit width a = 0.04 mm and slit separation d = 0.25 mm
by rotating the slit disk until the desired double slit is centered in the slit holder.
Adjust the position of the laser beam from left-to-right and up-and-down until the
beam is centered on the double slit.
Procedure
1. Determine the distance from the slits to the screen.
! 59!
Note that the slits are actually offset from the center line of the slit holder. Record
the screen position, slit position, and the difference between these (the slit-to-
screen distance) in Table 2.1.
2. Turn off the room lights and mark the positions of the maxima in the interference
pattern on the screen.
3. Turn on the room lights and measure the distance between the first order (m = 1)
marks and record this distance in Table 2.1. Also measure the distance between the
second order (m =2) marks and record in Table 2.1.
4. Make a sketch of the interference pattern to scale.
5. Change to a new double slit with the same slit width (a = 0.04 mm) but different
slit separation (d = 0.50 mm) and make a sketch to scale of this new interference
pattern.
6. Change to another double slit with the same slit width (a = 0.08 mm) and the
original slit separation (d = 0.25 mm) and make a sketch to scale of this new
interference pattern.
Table 2.1 Data and Results for the 0.04 mm/0.25 mm Double Slit
Slit-to-screen distance (D) = _________________
First Order (m=1) Second Order (m=2)
Distance between side orders
Distance from center to side (y)
Calculated slits separation
% difference
Analysis
1. Divide the distances between side orders by two to get the distances from the center
of the pattern to the first and second order maxima. Record these values of y in
Table 2.1.
! 60!
2. Using the average wavelength of the laser (670 nm for the Diode Laser), calculate
the slit separation twice, once using first order and once using second order. Record
the results in Table 2.1.
3. Calculate the percent differences between the experimental slit separation and 0.25
mm. Record in Table 2.1.
Questions
1. Does the distance between maxima increase, decrease or stay the same when the slit
separation is increased?
2. Does the distance between maxima increase, decrease or stay the same when the slit
width is increased?
3. Does the distance to the first minima in the diffraction envelope increase, decrease
or stay the same when the slit separation is increased?
4. Does the distance to the first minima in the diffraction envelope increase, decrease
or stay the same when the slit width is increased?
Experiment 3: Comparisons
Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to compare the diffraction and interference
patterns formed by laser light passing through various combinations of slits.
Theory
See experiments 1 & 2.
Setup
1. Set up the laser at one end of the optics bench and place the doble-slit disk in its
3. Select the single-double slit comparison by rotating the slit disk until the desired
slit is centered in the slit holder. Adjust the position of the laser beam from left-to-
right and up-and-down until the beam is centered on the slit so that both the single
slit and double slit are illuminated simultaneously. The patterns from the single and
double slits should be vertical and side-by-side on the screen.
! 61!
Procedure
1. Sketch the two side-by-side patterns roughly to scale.
2. Rotate the slit disk to the next comparison set (2 double-slits with the same slit
width but different slit separations). Sketch the two side-by-side patterns roughly to
scale.
3. Rotate the slit disk to the next comparison set (2 double-slits with the same slit
separation but different slit width). Sketch the two side-by-side patterns roughly to
scale.
4. Rotate the slit disk to the next comparison set (2 double-slits/triple slits with the
same slit separation and same slit width). Sketch the two side-by-side patterns
roughly to scale.
5. Replace the Double-Slit Disk with the Single-Slit Disk. Select the line/slit
comparison. Sketch the two side-by-side patterns roughly to scale.
6. Select the dot pattern on the Single-Slit Disk . Sketch the resulting diffraction
pattern roughly to scale.
7. Select the hole pattern on the Single-Slit Disk . Sketch the resulting diffraction
pattern roughly to scale.
Questions
1. What are the similarities and differences between the single slit and the double slit?
2. How does the double-slit pattern change when the slit separation is increased?
3. How does the double-slit pattern change when the slit width is increased?
4. What differences are between a double-slit pattern and a triple-slit pattern?
5. How does the diffraction pattern from a slit differ from the diffraction pattern from
a line?
6. How does the diffraction pattern from the dot pattern differ from the diffraction
pattern from the hole pattern?
! 62!

Determining the Charge on an Electron

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Determining the Charge on an Electron

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Contents __________________________________________

Format for Lab Reports.................3

Lab 1: Determination of the Charge on an Electron

Lab 2: Mapping of Electric Fields.......................................7

Lab 3: Ohms Law.................................................11

Lab 4: Resistors in Series and Parallel...................................13

Lab 5: Capacitance and Capacitor Transients........................17

Lab 6: Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying Wire..21

Lab 7: Experiments with Magnets.........................25

Lab 8: Introduction to the Oscilloscope.................28

Lab 9: LRC Circuit.............................................36

Lab 10: Reflection and Refraction of Light.......................39

Lab 11: Thin Lenses...........................................................47

Lab 12: Slit Diffraction..........................................55

Lab reports have to be written in accordance with the following format:

2. INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE OF EXPERIMENT: Explain what is to be

3. DIAGRAM: A simple, neat diagram of your experimental setup.

5. CALCULATIONS: Show all calculations or at least one sample calculation. You

6. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS AND ERROR ANALYSES: This is a very important

7. CONCLUSIONS: State what you conclude from your experimental

8. ANSWER ALL ASSIGNED QUESTIONS: (Body and the end-of-lab questions)

ORGANIZATION AND NEATNESS COUNT

Background, Theory and Application

When a DC voltage source is connected across an uncharged capacitor, the rate at

1. Mount the Main Unit on a lab stand as shown in Fig. 1.

Table A: Wire Lengths

Current Loop Board length (0.1

If the conductor is part of a closed circuit, a current is induced in the conductor.

4. Connect the square-shaped coil of wire to a galvanometer with two wires.

Figure 1. The basic components of an oscilloscope cathode ray tube (CRT).

Background, Theory and Application

In ac voltage applications the voltage on the screen is displayed as a function of

Fig. 2: Saw-tooth voltage functions that supply different oscilloscope sweep

A. Time and Frequency Measurements

The oscilloscope can be used as a voltmeter to read the peak-to-peak voltages of ac

The frequency of a sinusoidal voltage can also be determined by comparing it with

x = A sin 2ft and y = A sin (2ft - ) (1)

Figure 3. Lissajous figures for different x and y signals.

1. POWER SWITCH (OFF-ON) - turns the oscilloscope on and off.

9. HORIZONTAL POSITION (<> X-POS) - adjusts the horizontal position

Sweep Time and Triggering Mode

14. SWEEP TIME/DIV or SWEEP (HOR) SELECTOR - selects calibrated

Make the appropriate control adjustments. Turn on oscilloscope. A trace should

A. Time and Frequency Measurements

6. Set the SYNC (HOR)COUPLING SELECTOR (5) to LINE. Adjust the

2. Adjust the second generator frequency to 60 Hz and obtain a stationary wave

A. Time and Frequency Measurements

Generator Number of Time/div Period Frequency %

Calculations (show work; don't forget units!!!))

Ch1-input frequency Ch2-input frequency Sketches of Patterns

The purpose of this laboratory activity is to study resonance in an inductor-resistor-

where XL = inductive reactance ( = L) , XC = capacitive reactance (= 1/C), R =

cable from cable from

Analyzing the data

1. From the graph find the linear resonant frequency, fres.

3. At resonance, XL = XC so that the impedance (Z) is equal to the resistance (R).

Part I: Plane Mirror

Table 1.1 Plane Mirror Results

Part II: Cylindrical Mirrors

Table 1.2 Cylindrical Mirror Results

Concave mirror Convex mirror

Snells Law states : n1sin 1 = n2sin 2