Professional Documents
Culture Documents
discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276076515
CITATIONS READS
3 99
3 authors, including:
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
I am busy with a rpoject regarding to application of waste tire in Iran Railway industry View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Farid Khayyer on 25 January 2016.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. All in-text references underlined in blue are added to the original document
and are linked to publications on ResearchGate, letting you access and read them immediately.
Experimental and Numerical Study of Micropiles
to Reinforce High Railway Embankments
Morteza Esmaeili1; Morteza Gharouni Nik2; and Farid Khayyer3
Abstract: The construction of railway embankments on loose beds using reinforcing elements results in a modication of the embankments
slope, which signicantly reduces the amount of earthworks. In addition, reinforcement of both bed and embankment is essential to increase the
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of Newcastle on 11/20/13. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
load-bearing capacity and control the settlements. A solution for high railway-embankment stabilization and enhancing the operational axle
load is the use of micropiles in the embankment toe to transmit the applied loads to the rm underlying layers and avoid the deep sliding of
loose subgrade. This paper presents three experimental models of embankments of 10 m in height on a scale of 1=20 to set up a number of
loading tests: one based on a non-reinforced embankment and two others based on reinforced embankments that are stabilized with two
different arrangements of micropiles. During laboratory tests, the data, including the load-bearing capacity of embankments, displacements of
embankment crest and bed surface, and axial strain of micropiles were measured using the instrumentation tools. In the next step, three numerical
models were developed by using the PLAXIS-3D code based on the FEM. Then, a comparison was made between the experimental and numerical
data to verify the outputs of the numerical analyses. In the procedure of numerical analyses, elastoplastic behaviors of embankment material and bed
were dened based on the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, and micropiles were considered as linear elastic elements. Finally, after accomplishing
a series of sensitivity analyses on the geometric parameters of micropiles, their efciency factor was classied in the process of arrangement
optimization. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000280. 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Railroad tracks; Embankments; Soil stabilization; Micro piles; Load tests; Finite element method;
Experimentation.
Author keywords: High railway embankments; Loose beds; Soil stabilization; Micropiles; Laboratory loading test; Finite-element modeling.
treated soil can greatly reduce the settlement of the embankment and prehensive studies on the behavior of nonreticulated (individual)
mitigate the seismic response of the embankment. micropiles for the stabilization of high railway embankments on
An investigation, which presents a so-called multiphase model loose beds. This research is dedicated to investigating the behavior
for soft grounds improved by rigid vertical piles, aimed at capturing of the railway embankments resting on sandy beds using two nu-
the global constitutive behavior of the reinforced ground was done merical and experimental approaches.
by Hassen et al. (2009). First, an initial numerical study was conducted to determine the
In addition, the use of micropiles for slope stabilization was ex- best location of micropiles in the embankment slope to reinforce the
amined by Howe (2010). The main purpose of this study is to de- embankments with heights between 5 and 12 m. In this stage, using
termine fundamental design guidance for using micropiles for the the micropiles at embankment toe was conrmed, which is in ac-
in-situ stabilization of slope failures by performing a slope stability cordance with the UIC719-R code recommendation.
analysis on case studies using limit equilibrium software and nite- In the next step, laboratory models of the bed and embankment
element software. were constructed in the loading chamber of the School of Railway
Moreover, a number of laboratory projects have been performed Engineering (SRE), Narmak, Tehran in the scale of 1=20 and were
that evaluate the behavior of micropiles. The effect of micropiles on loaded statically.
seismic shear strain was examined by McManus et al. (2004). Misra It should be mentioned that the experiments were done on one
and Chen (2007) examined the relationships of load displacement non-reinforced embankment and two embankments that were rein-
for micropiles. Also, Wolosick (2009) studied the ultimate micropile forced with micropiles. It should be considered that in this study, the
bond stresses, which were observed during load testing in clays and applied load was the combination of weight and operational load,
sands. which was statically applied by a loading jack with a load capacity of
Furthermore, many practical experiences can be pointed out re- 300 kN. It is worth mentioning that the UIC719-R code (Inter-
garding to the performance of micropiles. The use of micropiles to national Union of Railways 1994) recommends different allowable
strengthen the east bay of the Rock Run Dam project, which is lo- safety factors of slope stability under various loading conditions,
cated in Pennsylvania, was accomplished by Haider et al. (2004). In which are on the order of 1.5, 1.3, and 1.1 for applications of dead
that project, the support system was designed to limit differential (self-weight), operational, and earthquake loads, respectively.
movement relative to the existing structure. A micropile system was The use of instrumentation tools on the embankment surface and
selected and was designed to have minimal impact on the existing the reinforcing bar of micropiles made it possible to measure the
structure. The piling system included both vertical and battered piles failure load of embankment, displacements of the bed and em-
to accommodate variable hydrostatic loading. bankment, and axial strains of micropiles. Subsequently, the failure
In another case study, Bruce et al. (2004) proposed a non- mechanism of the embankments could be investigated and the exact
reticulated micropile array for stabilization of the south side of the sliding surface during the loading tests perceived.
Grimsby railway embankment in Ontario, Canada. Furthermore, Furthermore, three numerical models of non-reinforced and
a detailed FLAC analysis was completed, using multiple iterations reinforced embankments were established using the PLAXIS-3D
to eventually arrive at the optimum micropile depth and spacing. code. Additionally, we checked the generated outputs by experi-
The analysis predicted an 18% increase in safety and short-term mental data and veried the accuracy of the numerical models.
inclinometer monitoring, and performance evaluations in the Finally, a series of sensitivity analyses were performed on the
months following the construction so far corroborate the prediction. geometric parameters of micropiles including diameter, length,
The applications of micropiles and permanent anchors to re- number, and spacing. Hereby, it was possible to determine the ef-
inforce loose earth in three different projects were reported by ciency factor of each parameter and present the optimum arrange-
Schwarz et al. (2004). The rst example shows the production of ment of micropiles.
micropiles and permanent anchors in a tidal zone and the im-
provement of the load transfer zone to guarantee the load-bearing
capacity through a jetting foot. In the second example, the protection Scaling Laws
of permanent anchors against lime-attacking carbon dioxide in
the groundwater in rock is discussed. The last example explains the In this project the material behavior is nonlinear and the geotechnical
concept for the postfoundation under organic soil conditions of the structure to be studied contains several materials that interact with
Berlin State Library Unter den Linden. each other. This issue leads to greater difculty in investigating the
Additionally, the main highway embankment in Mendocino, behavior of the components in the underlying theoretical model.
California, the Missouri road embankment, and the embankment of One of the methods for studying load-deformation behavior of
State Road No. 4023 located in Pennsylvania, were all were stabilized geotechnical structures is a manufacture of a laboratory model,
by micropiles either individually or in group form (Bruce 2008). which should represent the behavior of the prototype. In this regard,
Length nL L 1=N 20.00 0.05 2006). Moreover, the exact values of the mechanical properties of
Stiffness nG G 1=N a 4.47 0.22 materials were obtained using standard laboratory tests that will be
Displacement nr nG n2L D 1=N 22a 89.44 1:1 3 1022 discussed in the Construction of Bed and Embankment section.
Micropile nE nI 5 nG n4L 1=N 41a 715,541.75 1:40 3 1026 The numerical analysis procedure on the full-scale embankment
concluded that there is a safety factor of 2.35 under the embankment
self-weight, which is greater than the minimum recommendation
Table 2. Geometry of Prototype Embankment 1.5 [UIC719 Code (International Union of Railways 1994)]. How-
ever, a displacement of 45 cm led the embankment to collapse. In
Parameter (m) Value
this condition, using the micropiles in a group form with arrange-
Embankment length 50 ments presented in Table 4 could increase the safety factor to 1.3
Embankment height 10 as minimum recommended safety factor under operational load
Slope length 18 [UIC719 Code (International Union of Railways 1994)]. Youngs
Embankment crest 6 modulus of micropiles materials in the full-scale model are selected
Bed depth 16 as ES 5 210,000 MPa, EG 5 31,000 MPa, and EGS 5 200 MPa.
Depth of the modied part of the bed 2
Width of the bed sides 7
Scaling the Bed and Embankment
Table 3. Material Properties of Bed and Embankment Classication According to scale factors, as given in Table 1, the geometry of the
Classication (USCS) laboratory model of the embankment are presented in Table 5;
moreover, the mechanical properties of materials have the same
ASTM SP (material SC (material of values as those of full scale. It should be mentioned that the fol-
standard Parameters of bed) embankment) lowing parameters between a prototype and model were compared to
D422 D10 (mm) 0.85 0.06 prove the accuracy of the scaling methodology:
D422 D30 (mm) 1.66 0.35 1. The settlement of the non-reinforced embankment crest at the
D422 D60 (mm) 3.51 1.26 moment of failure is equal to 5.3 mm, as given in Table 13,
CU 4.13 21 which is about 1=90 of the settlement applied on the embank-
CC 0.92 1.62 ment crest of prototype (Table 1); and
D854 GS 2.6 2.69 2. The safety factor of the embankments reinforced with the
D3080 w (degree) 30 32 proposed arrangements of micropiles is on the order of 1.25, as
D3080 c kN=m2 1 25 given in Table 15, which is almost identical to the actual one.
D1194 ESoil (MPa) 17.01 49.891
D698 wopt (percentage) 14 11
D2049 g dmax kN=m2 15 17.5 Scaling the Micropiles
D1556 g kN=m2 15.6 18.1
Note: c 5 soil cohesion; CC 5 curvature coefcient; CU 5 uniformity According to Wood (2004), the scaling method of micropile prop-
coefcient; GS 5 specic gravity of soil; wopt 5 optimum moisture content erties consists of the following steps:
of soil; g 5 soil unit weight; g dmax 5 maximum dry soil unit weight; 1. Scaling down the micropiles length: as shown in Table 1, to
w 5 angle of internal friction. determine the length of micropiles in a laboratory model, the
Slope length 18 on the values presented in Tables 6 and 7. It should be noted that
Embankment crest 6 these selected specications exactly satisfy Eq. (1).
Bed depth 16 It is worth mentioning that all of the values presented in Table 7
Depth of the modied part of the bed 2 were obtained using standard laboratory tests, which will be
Width of the bed sides 7
explained in the Micropiles Installation section.
clayey sand (SC) were, respectively selected to model the bed and compaction, it was constructed in 10-cm layers with optimum
moisture contents, which are equal to 14 and 11% for soil materials
of bed and embankment, respectively. The condensing process was
achieved by passing a 50 kg roller over it until it reached maximum
possible compaction. In this way, 91 and 93% of Proctor standard
compaction, respectively, resulted in the construction process of
both the bed and embankment.
Micropiles Installation
As mentioned previously, the geometrical properties of model mi-
cropiles were determined according to the scaling laws discussed in
the previous section, and as provided in Table 6. Moreover, the
mechanical properties, which are required for experimental and nu-
merical modeling, including the water-to-cement ratio of grout, the
injection pressure required for grouting and the elastic Youngs
modulus of reinforcing bar, hardened cement grout and grouted sand
(Table 7), were obtained based on experimental tests. They included
performing tensile tests on reinforcing steel bar [ASTM A400
(ASTM 2011a)], a compressive test on 50-mm cube specimens of
hardened cement grout [ASTM C109 (ASTM 2009)], and an un-
conned compressive strength on grouted sand [ASTM D2166
(ASTM 2010a)].
Fig. 1 shows the cross section of the model micropile. Further-
more, Figs. 2(a and b) illustrate the micropile arrangement Nos. 1
and 2, respectively.To install each micropile, its location was rst
determined, and then a perforated rubber casing was rammed and
placed into the bed soil. Then, the injection operation was made and
the reinforcing bar was readily placed inside the micropile. Fig. 3
shows that the veins of grout properly strengthened the surrounding
soil of micropiles.
After installing all of the micropiles, two cap beams on either side
of the embankment toe, with sectional dimensions of 7 3 10 cm2 ,
Fig. 2. Micropile arrangements: (a) arrangement of micropiles in
were constructed parallel to the embankment to integrate the micro-
loading test No. 2; (b) arrangement of micropiles in loading test No. 3
piles (FHWA 2000).
Experimental Results
Load-Bearing Capacity of the Embankment The geometry of the embankment and bed were discretized using
quadratic 15-node wedge elements for the evaluation of the defor-
During the loading tests, displacements of the embankment crest for mations and stresses.
each 10-kN increase in load were recorded and illustrated in Fig. 7 as Using the PLAXIS-3D code, the inputs of soil layers, micropiles,
a load-deformation diagram. Furthermore, the load-bearing capacity stages of construction, loads, and boundary conditions were dened
of the embankment for each test is given in Table 9. using convenient CAD drawing procedures, which allowed for
a detailed and accurate modeling of main geometry cross section,
from which a 3D nite-element mesh was generated (Brinkgreve
Displacements of Bed and Embankment
et al. 2002). The standard xities option was used to dene the
The uplift movements of the bed sides and settlements of the em- boundary conditions. In addition, the number of elements, nodes,
bankment crest are given for each of the loading tests in Table 10. and stress points were 2,425, 7,424, and 14,550, respectively.
Table 9. Load-Bearing Capacity of Model Embankments Accordingly, the method of incremental loading was dened
Test number Load-bearing capacity (kN=m2 ) by the PLAXIS-3D code in a way that it increased until it reached
the embankment failure threshold and then remained constant.
1 254.16 As a result, the numerical failure loads are calculated as 258.3,
2 402.78 404.17, and 404:17 kN=m2 for model Nos. 1, 2, and 3, respectively.
3 401.39
Displacement 1a In this section, the outputs of the numerical analysis were veried by
Laboratory D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 DMS comparing them with the laboratory data. To this end, the load-
test number (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) bearing capacity of the embankments, displacements of different
points of bed and embankment, and axial strains of the micropiles
1 21 5.5 21:5 21:5 5.2 20:85 3.81 were evaluated as follows.
2 20:6 5.7 20:5 20:5 5.7 20:54 2.9
3 20:4 5.6 20:45 20:45 5.55 20:47 2.75
Load-Bearing Capacity of the Embankments
Note: See Fig. 4 for location of instrumented points.
a
Downward displacement is positive. The load-bearing capacities of the embankments that resulted from
the experimental and numerical studies are given in Table 12.
The geometrical model, mesh generation, and boundary con- Considering the excellent agreement of the load-bearing capacity
ditions are illustrated in Fig. 10. results in Table 12 with a percentage difference of 0.89%, the re-
liability of the numerical modeling can be proved.
Material Properties
Displacements of Bed and Embankment
To simulate the numerical models using PLAXIS-3D code, the soil
material model was assumed to be elastic-plastic Mohr-Coulomb The displacements resulted from the experimental and numerical
involving ve parameters: E and n 5 soil elasticity; w and c 5 soil analyses were compared in Table 13. As it can be seen, the existing
plasticity, and c 5 an angle of dilatancy. All input parameters were percentage difference of 16% between the experimental and nu-
dened according to Tables 1 and 2. merical deformation shows a fairly good correlation and conse-
quently proves the accuracy of the numerical models.
Loading Method and Analysis
Axial Strains of the Micropiles
The load-bearing capacity of embankments obtained from the lab-
oratory tests made it possible to predict the approximate value of The positions of the strain gauges installed on each micropile were
the embankment failure load for numerical modeling. determined in accordance with Fig. 4 and Table 8.
Fig. 8. Displacement time of points 16 [output of TMR-7200 software (Tokyo Sokki Kenkyujo 2011) in loading test No. 2]
Fig. 9. Strain time of points 13 on MP8245 located in right side of embankment [output of TMR-7200 software (Tokyo Sokki Kenkyujo 2011)
in loading test No. 3]
Savailable
Safety factor (2)
In this section, it is necessary to determine safety factor of the slope Sneeded for equilibirium
stability for the proposed arrangements, Nos. 1 and 2, in order to
where S 5 shear strength of the soil.
Table 12. Load-Bearing Capacity of Model Embankments Numerically
and Experimentally Determined
The ratio between the available strength and the computed
minimum strength, which is needed for equilibrium, is the safety
Test Numerical load-bearing Experimental load-bearing factor that is conventionally used in soil mechanics. This principle is
number capacity (kN=m2 ) capacity (kN=m2 ) the basis of the method of phi-c reduction that can be used in the
1 258.3 254.16 PLAXIS-3D code to calculate a safety factor.
2 404.17 402.78 In this regard, the cohesion and the tangent of the angle of friction
3 404.17 401.39 are reduced in the same proportion as follows:
c tan w P M (3)
sf
Table 13. Displacements of Bed and Embankment at the Moment Failure cr tan wr
is Numerically and Experimentally Determined
P
Displacement 1a The incremental multiplier, Msf , controlled the reduction of the
strength parameters during the analysis procedure. This parameter
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 DMS
is increased in a step-by-step procedure until failure occurs.
P
Test number (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Then, the safety factor is dened as the value of Msf at the
1 moment of failure, providing at the time that a more or less constant
Numerical 20:7 5.28 21 21 5.28 21 3.6 value is obtained for a number of consecutive load steps (Brinkgreve
Experimental 21 5.5 21:5 21:5 5.2 20:85 3.81 et al. 2002).
2 Based on the methodology described previously, diagrams of
Numerical 20:4 5.5 20:4 20:4 5.5 20:4 2.5 the safety factor of slope stability in an embankment failure threshold
Experimental 20:6 5.7 20:5 20:5 5.7 20:54 2.9 for the three models are shown in Fig. 11. According to this gure, it
3 can be stated that both arrangements led to a safety factor that is less
Numerical 20:4 5.4 20:4 20:4 5.4 20:4 2.5 than the recommended value of 1.3, which is approximately on the
Experimental 20:4 5.6 20:45 20:45 5.55 20:47 2.75 order of 1.25.
Note: See Fig. 4 for the location of the instrumented points. In addition, the results of the numerical analyses in model Nos. 2
a
Downward displacement is positive. and 3, as given in Table 15, were compared in order to diagnose the
Table 14. Axial Strain of Micropiles at the Moment Failure is Numerically and Experimentally Determined
Test 2 Test 3
Strain of micropiles Strain of micropiles
in right side of the in left side of the
embankment section embankment section Strain of micropiles in right side Strain of micropiles in left side
(ms) (ms) of the embankment section (ms) of the embankment section (ms)
Number of
strain gauge 1245 6245 12245 1245 6245 12245 1245 120 5245 520 8245 820 1245 120 5245 520 8245 820
M 51
Numerical 1,150 1,420 1,420 1,100 1,350 1,400 1,399 710 1,821 980 1,408 710 1,378 1,280 1,901 1,650 1,180 1,270
Experimental 1,120 1,327 1,405 1,168 1,411 1,401 1,440 842 1,850 940 1,300 810 1,350 1,311 1,870 1,658 1,101 1,279
M 52
Numerical 1,420 1,780 1,720 1,400 1,770 1,800 1,609 2280 1,916 2160 1,416 2280 1,905 2690 2,702 2700 1,720 2650
Experimental 1,327 1,692 1,780 1,425 1,781 1,732 1,600 2279 2,000 2150 1,440 2275 1,960 2809 2,540 2729 1,693 2642
M 53
Numerical 850 1,050 950 850 1,040 1,000 917 2300 1,138 2240 851 2280 1,191 2460 1,206 2480 980 2410
Experimental 811 1,021 978 862 1,033 962 900 2280 1,200 2256 815 2284 1,180 2460 1,320 2489 895 2419
Note: See Fig. 4 for location of instrumented points.
Table 15. Comparison of Numerical Models 2 and 3 Reinforced with Arrangement Numbers 1 and 2
Micropile parameters
Reduction of displacements (mm)
Arrangement Increase of load-bearing
number N LMP (cm) DD2:5 DDMS DD1,3,4,6 capacity V cm3 FS
1 24 90 1.6 1.08 0.7 145.87 4,942.08 1.249
2 32 80, 90 1.63 1.1 0.7 145.87 6,589.44 1.254
Note: FS 5 safety factor; LMP 5 micropile length; N 5 number of micropiles; V 5 volume of grout consumption.
suitable arrangement for the rst step of the sensitivity analysis. It is appropriate location for a group of micropiles is the embank-
understood that although both arrangements are equal in safety ment toe (for embankments that are 512 m high); and
factor and reduction of displacements, lesser amounts of grout had 2. Because of practical limitations, it is recommended that the
been consumed in arrangement No. 1 (Model 2). Therefore, this angle between the micropile and the vertical axis not exceed
arrangement was chosen as a base to conduct a series of sensitivity 45 (because of the difculty in micropile installation); con-
analyses to achieve the optimum arrangement of micropiles. sequently, this angle is selected to be between 0 and 45. It
should be noted that resistance against sliding of underlying
layers improves with the increase of the micropiles angle to
Sensitivity Analysis on the Geometric Parameters the vertical axis. This is because of an increase in the horizontal
of Micropiles component of the micropiles axial load.
Therefore, the sensitivity analysis was performed on the basis of
In the case of embankment stabilization, the most important geo- parameters 36. To determine the efciency of these parameters,
metric parameters of micropiles can be summarized as follows: three or four sensible values were considered for each and the
1. The micropiles location in the embankment slope; diagrams of the safety factor versus grout consumption were drawn.
2. The micropile angle; According to the trend lines gradient in these diagrams, it was
3. The number of micropiles in the embankment section; possible to dene an efciency factor for each parameter. This means
4. Micropile spacing (longitudinal distances between micropiles); that a larger gradient equates with a more efcient parameter in
5. Micropile diameter; and raising the safety factor.
6. Micropile length. Finally, considering the lowest grout consumption, an optimal
According to the initial modeling using the PLAXIS-3D code arrangement of micropiles in which the embankment safety factor
(Khayyer 2010) and recommendations of UIC719-R code (In- equals 1.3 could be chosen.
ternational Union of Railways 1994), the most appropriate values of It should be noted that the primary reason for choosing the grout
the geometric parameters of points 1 and 2 during the sensitivity consumption as an operative parameter is that this parameter is the
analysis can be determined as follows: only one that can show the relationships between all of the geometric
1. Slip of the bed layers is the main reason for failure of the parameters of micropiles, i.e., number, spacing, diameter, and length
embankments resting on loose subgrades. As a result, the most with the embankment safety factor.
suitably reinforce the embankment. Thus, the analysis was con- was a result of the reduction of micropile spacing as calculated in
tinued by decreasing the micropile spacing to achieve the recom- Table 17. Subsequently, the effect of this parameter in the form of
mended safety factor in the following section. Considering the safety factor versus grout consumption is shown in Graph (2) of
magnitude of the safety factor and the amounts of grout con- Fig. 12.
sumption, arrangement No. 3 was selected to carry out the analysis As it can be seen from Table 17, the level of the safety factor
procedure. It should be taken into consideration that the efciency increases considerably by decreasing micropiles spacing; on the
of the micropiles. Moreover, the effect of this parameter is depicted 80 cm, and 10 cm, respectively, and the grout penetration
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University of Newcastle on 11/20/13. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
S 5 shear strength of the soil (kN=m2 ); mental techniques, 2nd Ed., CRC, Boca Raton, FL.
SMP 5 micropile spacing (cm); Hassen, G., Dias, D., and de Buhan, P. (2009). Multiphase constitutive
V 5 volume of grout consumption (cm3 ); model for the design of piled-embankments: Comparison with three-
W=C 5 water-to-cement ratio; dimensional numerical simulations. Int. J. Geomech., 9(6), 258266.
Howe, W. K. (2010). Micropiles for slope stabilization. Proc., 2010
wopt 5 optimum moisture content of soil;
Biennial Geotechnical Seminar, ASCE, New York.
a 5 an exponent of effective stress in stiffness Iai, S. (1989). Similitude for shaking table tests on soil-structure-uid
relation; model in 1g gravitational eld. Soils and Foundations, 29(1), 105118.
g 5 soil unit weight (kN=m3 ); Jenck, O., Dias, D., and Kastner, R. (2009). Three-dimensional nu-
gdmax 5 maximum dry soil unit weight (kN=m3 ); merical modelling of a piled embankment. Int. J. Geomech., 9(3),
5 strain of micropiles (mstrain ); 102112.
M
N -u 5 strain of MPN -u measured by strain gauge M; Khayyer, F. (2010). Improvement the railway embankments with micro-
u 5 angle of micropiles to vertical axis (degree); piles. M.S. thesis, School of Railway Engineering of Iran Univ. of
n 5 Poissons ratio; Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran.
r 5 material density (kg=m3 ); Krawinkler, H. (1979). Possibilities and limitations of scale-model testing
s 5 stress (kN=m2 ); in earthquake engineering. Proc., 2nd US National Conf. on Earth-
w 5 angle of internal friction (degree); and quake Engineering, Stanford Univ., 283292.
McManus, K. J., Charton, G., and Turner, J. P. (2004). Effect of micropiles
c 5 angle of dilatancy (degree).
on seismic shear strain. Proc., Geo Support Conf., ASCE, New York.
Misra, A., and Chen, C. H. (2007). Load displacement relationships for
micropiles. Proc., Int. Deep Foundations Congress 2002, ASCE, New
York.
References
PLAXIS-3D Tunnel 1.2 [Computer software]. Delft, Netherlands, Plaxis.
Richards, Th. D., and Rothbauer, M. J. (2004). Lateral loads on pin piles
ASTM. (1983). Test method for relative density of cohesionless soils. (micropiles). Proc., Geo Support Conf., ASCE, New York, 158174.
D2049, West Conshohocken, PA. Schoeld, A. N., and Steedman, R. S. (1988). State-of-the-art report: Re-
ASTM. (2003). Standard test method for bearing capacity of soil for static
cent developments on dynamic model testing in geotechnical engi-
load and spread footings. D1194, West Conshohocken, PA.
neering. Proc., 9th World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo/
ASTM. (2006). Test method for direct shear test of soils under consolidated
drained conditions. D3080, West Conshohocken, PA. Kyoto, 813824.
ASTM. (2007a). Standard test method for particle-size analysis of soils. Schwarz, H., Dietz, K., Koster, H., and Grob, Th. (2004). Special use of
D422, West Conshohocken, PA. micropiles and permanent anchors. Proc., Geo Support Conf., ASCE,
ASTM. (2007b). Test method for density and unit weight of soil in place New York, 682691.
by sand-cone method. D1556, West Conshohocken, PA. Shahroudi, M. M., and Zakeri, J. A. (2006).Investigating the effect of
ASTM. (2009). Test method for compressive strength of hydraulic cement increasing axial load on the railway subgrade. M.S. thesis, School of
mortars (using 2-in. or [50-mm] cube specimens). C109, West Con- Railway Engineering of Iran Univ. of Science and Technology, Tehran,
shohocken, PA. Iran.
ASTM. (2010a). Standard test method for unconned compressive strength Tokyo Sokki Kenkyujo. (2011). Strain gauge type (TML Pam E-101S) and
of cohesive soil. D2166, West Conshohocken, PA. civil engineering transducers (TML Pam E-720R) manuals, Tokyo
ASTM. (2010b). Test methods for specic gravity of soil solids by water Sokki Kenkyujo, Tokyo, 116.
pycnometer. D854, West Conshohocken, PA. International Union of Railways. (1994). Earthworks and track-bed layers
ASTM. (2011a). Standard practice for steel bars, selection guide, com- for railway lines: UIC code, 2nd Ed., International Union of Railways,
position, and mechanical properties. A400, West Conshohocken, PA.
Paris, 85100.
ASTM. (2011b). Test methods for laboratory compaction characteristics of
Wang, Z., Met, G., Cai, G., and Yu, X. (2009). Dynamic nite element
soil using standard effort (600 kN-m/m3). D698, West Conshohocken,
PA. analysis of micropile foundation in subgrade. Proc., Selected Papers
Brinkgreve, R. B. J., Broere, W., Burd, H. J., Soltys, G., Vermeer, P. A., and from the 2009 Geo Hunan Int. Conf., ASCE, New York, 139144.
Waterman, D. (2002). PLAXIS-3D tunnel version 1.2 tutorial manual, Wolosick, J. R. (2009). Ultimate micropile bond stresses observed during
PLAXIS, Delft, Netherlands. load testing in clays and sands. Proc., Selected Papers of the 2009 Int.
Bruce, D. A. (2008). The history of micropiles in North America. Foundation Congress and Equipment Expo., ASCE, New York.
Micropile Construction and Design Seminar, Association of Drilled Wood, D. M. (2004). Geotechnical modelling, version 2.2, CRC, Boca
Shaft Contractors, Irving, TX, 110. Raton, FL, 233269.