Semiconductor Basics

N Pérez
SM Olaizola
2004
Structure

Atoms in semiconductors are arranged in crystals periodic structures

Two important structures are:

Diamond structure (Si) Zinc-Blende structure (GaAs)

Advanced Semiconductor Fundamentals, Second Edition (Robert F. Pierret). Prentice Hall

Structure

Effect of periodicity: existence of allowed and

forbidden energy states for electrons
CONDUCTION BAND

VALENCE BAND
Conduction Band: mostly

empty of electrons
(Totally empty at T~0)

Valence Band: mostly filled

with electrons
(Totally filled at T~0)
Band structure of a semiconductor
(Allowed electron energies vs. distance
along any crystalline direction )
Material Classification

Electrically speaking, materials can be classified into:

↑R METAL
If ↑T
↓R SEMICONDUCTOR

Band gap values for some Ge Si GaAs GaN

semiconductors Eg (eV) 0,66 1,12 1,42 3,44
Carriers

Atom of Si: 4 electrons in the last band:

When a bond is broken:

• Electron freed: it can move into the lattice carrier

e- EC
Creation of an electron (e-) in the
conduction band
EV

EC
Creation of a hole (h+) in the
valence band
EV

Electrons and holes are created in pairs

Carriers: properties

Charge: e- = -q ; h+ = +q

Effective mass m*:

Function of the semiconductor (SC) material

Kmass of the e- within vacuum, mo

Movement of an e- under an electric field ξ: Movement of an e- inside a crystal:

dv dv dv
F = −q ⋅ ξ = mo ⋅ F = − q ⋅ ξ = mn* ⋅ F = − q ⋅ ξ = m*p ⋅
dt dt dt
Quantum mechanical formulations

m n* mp*

The constants and are known values and they are different for
mo mo
every semiconductor.
Carrier number and doping

Pure semiconductor ≡ intrinsic semiconductor n = p = ni

Insignificant amount of impurity atoms Si Ge GaAs

ni: intrinsic carrier concentration ni (cm-3) 1010 2·1013 2·106

Carrier concentration inside a SC can be manipulated by adding

impurity atoms: doping.

Three types of dopants: ● ACCEPTORS (B, Al, Ga, In) p-type doping
● DONORS (P, N ) n-type doping
● AMPHOTERIC (Si in GaAs)
p-type doping n-type doping

e-

Boron Atom Phosphorous Atom

Carrier number and doping

Energetically, doping introduction of a permitted
energy level in the forbidden gap.

p-type doping
EC EC EC

EV EV EV

T=0K ↑T Room T

n-type doping
EC EC EC

EV EV EV

T=0K ↑T Room T
Carrier Distribution: Density of states and
Fermi level (I)

Density of states: Is the energy distribution of allowed states inside a

sc
gC(E) m n* 2 ⋅ m n* ( E − E C )
gC (E ) =
π 2h 3 E ≥ EC
EC
E
EV m *p 2 ⋅ m *p ( E V − E )
gV (E ) = E ≤ EV
gV(E) π 2h 3

Fermi level function: specifies,

under equilibrium, the probability of
occupation of an available state at an
energy E
1
f (E) = ( E − EF ) / kT
E : energy of the Fermi level
1 + e
F
k: Boltzmann constant
T: temperature in Kelvin

Advanced Semiconductor Fundamentals, Second Edition (Robert F. Pierret). Prentice Hall

Carrier Distribution: Fermi level (II) and
Equilibrium carrier concentrations (I)

EF: Fermi level position

EC EC EC
EF
Ei ≡ EF Ei EF Ei
EV EV EV
Intrinsic semiconductor n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor

3kT EC

Equilibrium carrier concentrations EF: non degenerate

Non-degenerate situation: EV + 3kT ≤ EF ≤ EC - 3kT 3kT
EV
E F − EC
n = NC ⋅ e kT
Concentrations of electrons (n) and holes (p)
EV − E F
3
p = NV ⋅ e kT
 2 ⋅π ⋅ m ⋅ k ⋅ T 
* 2
where: N C ,V = 2 ⋅  n, p
2 
 h 
NC,V: effective density of conduction (valence) band states
Carrier Distribution: Equilibrium carrier
concentrations (II) and Fermi level determination

In equilibrium: n ⋅ p = n i2

Charge neutrality relationship:
uniformly doped semiconductor
+ every section of the sc is charge-neutral
equilibrium conditions

q ⋅ p − q ⋅ n + q ⋅ N D+ − q ⋅ N A− = 0 p − n + ND − N A = 0

Fermi level determination  m*p 

EC + EV 3

Position of the intrinsic level: Ei = + kT ⋅ ln * 
2 4 m 
 n

EF: two different cases:
N  if ND >> NA and ND >> ni
EF − Ei = kT ⋅ ln D 
 ni 
N 
EF − Ei = −kT ⋅ ln A  if NA >> ND and NA >> ni
 ni 
Energy band theory

Study the relationship
r of the energy of the bands vs.
the wave vector, k .
r Allowed E-k states for a one dimensional
• There are two permitted values of k for crystal

reach value of energy. 2π

• k hasr a periodicity of a
• The k vector inside a crystal is limited to
a space called the Brillouin zone

Γ: zone center (k = 0)
Χ: zone end along <100> direction
L: zone end along <111> direction

Advanced Semiconductor Fundamentals, Second Edition (Robert F. Pierret). Prentice Hall

Energy band theory
r

In 3D, we consider k values along the <100> and <111> directions
(high-symmetry directions)

Band edges of the allowed bands generally occur at Γ, Χ and L.
r

Minimum of the conduction band: can happen at any k C value along
the Γ-Χ-L axis.
r

Maximum of the rvalence band:
r always happens at kV = 0

DIRECT SC: kC ,min = 0 = kV ,max
r r r

INDIRECT SC: kC ,min ≠ 0 kV ,max ≠ kC ,min

If e- and h+r have the same momentum: “jump” between bands is
allowed ( k conservation)

Indirect semiconductor: more than a minimum in the conduction
band
Effective mass and E-k diagrams

More accurate definition of the effective mass: 1
m* =

m* is inversely proportional to the curvature of the bands 1 d 2E

m* of holes are negative ⋅
h 2 dk 2

m* greater in indirect semiconductors (slower)

E-k diagrams

Advanced Semiconductor Fundamentals, Second Edition (Robert F. Pierret). Prentice Hall

Effective mass and E-k diagrams

Valence band: 3 sub-bands

2 degenerate (same E at k = 0) heavy holes and light holes

Split-off band

Conduction band

Composed of some sub-bands

GaAs

Advanced Semiconductor Fundamentals, Second Edition (Robert F. Pierret). Prentice Hall

Effective mass and E-k diagrams:
GaAs

Direct SC

Minimum EC in k = 0

Only one minimum

Allowed k values associated with an energy ≥ EC

(Constant energy surfaces)

Advanced Semiconductor Fundamentals, Second Edition (Robert F. Pierret). Prentice Hall

Effective mass and E-k diagrams:
Si

Minimum EC in the <100> direction

6 equivalent directions in the Brillouin zone

Allowed k values associated with an energy ≥ EC

Advanced Semiconductor Fundamentals, Second Edition (Robert F. Pierret). Prentice Hall

Effective mass and E-k diagrams:
Ge

Minimum EC in the <111> direction

8 equivalent directions in the Brillouin zone

Allowed k values associated with an energy ≥ EC

Advanced Semiconductor Fundamentals, Second Edition (Robert F. Pierret). Prentice Hall

Effective mass and E-k diagrams

Two effective masses associated with the shape of
the constant energy surfaces:

ml* longitudinal effective mass

mt* transversal effective mass

[ ( )]
1
Electron effective mass m = N ⋅ m ⋅m
*
n
2
el
*
l
*
t
3

Nel: number of ellipsoid surfaces in the first Brillouin zone

2
 *
( ) + (m ) 
3 3 3
Hole effective mass m*p =  mhh 2 * 2
lh
 
Band gap Energy

The Energy of the band gap is temperature

dependent
αT 2
E g (T ) = E g (0) −
T +β

Material Eg (300K) Eg (0) α β

Ge 0.663 0.7437 4.774 x 10-4 235
Si 1.125 1.170 4.730 x 10-4 636
GaAs 1.422 1.519 5.405 x 10-4 204
Band Bending
E1 = Eg
EC
 Pair e--h+ created
EC EV
 Motionless carriers

EV E2 > Eg K. E.
EC  Pair e--h+ created
 Ehole = E - EC
EV  Eelectron = EV - E
K. E.

K. E.
EC
Etotal r
V ( x ) = − (EC − Eref )
P. E. 1 1 dEC
EV and ξ = ⋅
Eref
q q dx
Band Bending

Shape of the Energy – band

diagram of a SC:
The shape of
the energy
band diagram
gives us
Potential inside the SC:
information
about the V (x ) = −
1
(EC − Eref )
q
potential and
the electric
field inside a
Electric field inside the SC:
semiconductor r 1 dEC
ξ = ⋅
q dx
Carrier actions: Drift
Electric field
Change in T
Change in doping

SC perturbed carrier action in response

Drift

Difussion

Recombination -Generation

DRIFT: Charged particle motion in response to an electric field. r r
vd ,n = − µ n ⋅rξ
Motion described in terms of the (average) drift velocity: r
vd , p = µ p ⋅ ξ

ξ
Drift current density:
+ - r r
+ - J P = q ⋅ µ p ⋅ p ⋅ε for holes
µn,p: e-, h+ mobilities
r r
r
J P,N
J N = q ⋅ µn ⋅ p ⋅ε for electrons n, p: e-, h+ concentrations
Carrier actions: Diffusion

DIFFUSION: Particles distributing from regions of high concentrations to

regions of low concentrations.

Diffusion current: depends on the gradients of concentrations of carriers

Diffusion current density:

JPldiff JNldiff
J Pldiffusio n = − q ⋅ D p ⋅ ∇p
+ + - - J Nldiffusion = q ⋅ Dn ⋅ ∇n
+ + + - - -
+ + + + - - - - Dn, p: Diffusion coefficients for e- and h+
x x

Diffusion current is opposite of the derivative of carrier concentrations

Carrier actions:
Recombination – Generation (I)

GENERATION: process whereby electrons and holes (carriers) are created.

RECOMBINATION: process whereby electrons and holes are annihilated or
destroyed.

- EC Photogeneration process
Light hν
hν > Eg
EV

Heat - EC Direct thermal generation

EV

- EC
Heat
+ X Direct thermal recombination

X EV
Carrier actions:
Recombination – Generation (II)

Indirect thermal R-G processes more common than
direct band to band processes

Indirect thermal R-G processes R-G centres

EC • Impurities or defects
ET • R-G centre concentration normally << ni
EV • Introduce allowed electronic levels near the
Recombination Generation centre of the gap: ET
P-N Junctions

P-type material N-type material

Diffusion
diffusion Static charges build up
drift
Built-in potential
- Drift current
+
W

Space charge region

When Drift current = Diffusion current ⇒ Equilibrium

P-N Junctions

Carrier concentrations

Carrier density
nno
pno

pno
nno

W x
P-N Junctions
Built-in potential

K BT  N A N D 
Vbi = ln 2

Charge density (ρ) q n
 i 

Depletion region width (W)

Electric field (ε)

1
 2k sε oVbi  N A + N D  2
W =  
V(x)  q  N N
A D 

The PN Junction Diode, Second Edition (G. W. Neudeck). Addison Wesley

P-N Junctions

Energy band diagram of a PN junction under equilibrium

V (x ) = −
1
(EC − Eref )
q

1 dEi
ξ= ⋅
q dx

 k sε o  d 2 Ei
ρ =   2
 q  dx

http://ece-www.colorado.edu/~bart/book/book/
P-N Junctions: Forward Bias
- Vj +

Forward bias +
P N
-

VA

• VA > 0
• Junction Voltage: Vj
• At equilibrium: Vj = Vbi
• Forward bias: Vj = Vbi - VA

1
 2k ε  N + N D  2
Depletion region width (W) W =  s o (Vbi − VA ) A 
 q  N A N D 

http://ece-www.colorado.edu/~bart/book/book/
P-N Junctions: Reverse Bias
- Vj +

Reverse bias + -
P N

VA

• VA < 0
• Reverse bias: Vj = Vbi – VA

1
 2k s ε o  N A + N D  2
Depletion region width (W) W = ( )
Vbi − VA   VA < 0 !!
 q  N A N D 

http://ece-www.colorado.edu/~bart/book/book/
P-N Junctions

Ideal Diode equation
Diode reverse saturation current

D 
 qV A
 D
I o = qA N n po + P pno 
I = I o  e − 1
 KT where
 LN Lp 
 
DN,P: e-, h+ diffusion constant
LN,P: e-, h+ minority carrier diffusion length

Reverse bias depletion Capacitance

1
A  qK sε o N A N D  2
CJ =  
 2( N A + N D ) 
1
(Vbi − VA ) 2