Scientific investigation of the

1 environment

By the end of this chapter you will be competent to...

w investigate the phenomena in the environment using the scientific method.

w solve the problems encountered in day to day life using the scientific method.

w identify the parts of the optical microscope and handle it properly.

w investigate the importance of micro organisms.

w identify the laboratory equipment and handle them appropriately.

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 1.1 Scientific method

Damith, Akil, Kadir and Manjula are school

friends. One day in the morning on their way to
school they saw a heap of garbage getting burnt
by the side of the road. (Fig 1.1.1)

Everyone paid the attention towards the

movement of the leaves and the branches of the
trees that were lying above the fire. They
observed how the pieces of burnt leaves moved
up from the fire. The leaves and the branches of
near by trees, however were still, suggesting that
there was no wind at that time.
Fig 1.1.1

Do you know ?
Gathering information from the external environment through the sense organs
such as eye, ear, nose, tongue and skin, with a special attention is called observation.

How can the leaves and the branches above the fire move without any trace of
wind? Damith came out with a problem.

Manjula forwarded her assumption saying I, of course think that there is wind
blowing up, above the fire which is caused by convectional currents.

I think the leaves and the branches move because of the heat radiation that
comes directly from the fire that was Kadirs assumption.

I think the leaves and the branches are moving because of the light rays that
come from the fire said Akil.

The trees and their leaves on either side of the fire at a similar distance away also
get, heat radiation and light from the fire. However, leaves and branches of those on
either side do not move. Therefore, it cannot be the heat radiations or the light rays
responsible for the movement of the leaves and the branches above the fire, said
Damith. All the others approved his idea.
If so, we shall test Manjulas assumption said Kadir.
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 Having thought of it further, they came up with the following problems.
How can we find out whether there is a wind blowing above the fire? Akil
questioned.

We know that wind can rotate a toy wind propeller, therefore we can hold a toy
wind propeller above the fire proposed Damith.

They decided to carry out an experiment with the necessary precautions in the
class - room. They bought a wire, a clay pot, some pieces of papers and a box of
matches. Having made a toy wind propellar out of a square shaped piece of bristol
board they conducted the experiment (Fig 1.1.2).

Step 1
Make a toy wind 1
propeller with a square 2
shaped piece of bristol ts wire
Cu
board, and make a hole 4 3
at the centre. (b)
(a)
Step 2
Make a loop at the Piece of
colocasia
end of the wire, and fix
(d) (c)
the wind propeller with its
Making the propeller by folding the
folded side facing corners 1, 2, 3, 4 Experiment
downwards. Fig 1.1.2

Place the pieces of papers inside the clay pot and light them. (Fig 1.1.2).
Observing how the toy wind propeller rotates when held above the fire Manjula
woke up her voice saying My assumption has being proved experimentally, isnt it?

Yes, we can come to a conclusion that there is a wind blowing up, above the
fire, said Damith.
Kadir opposed, the decision saying, It is too early to come to a conclusion, the
rotation of the wind propeller may be due to the clay pot with the pieces of papers or
due to the fire.

Manjula suggested then shall we hold the toy wind propeller above a clay pot.
containing unlit pieces of papers.

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 In order to test Kadirs idea they took a clay pot and pieces of papers similar to
those used in the first experiment and hold a toy wind propeller above, without lighting
the pieces of papers. They observed that the toy wind propeller did not rotate.
Everybody agreed saying now we can conclude without any doubt , that there is a
current of air moving upwards above a fire.

By doing the activity 1.1.1 you will be able to get a simlar experience.

Activity - 1.1.1
Try to do the activity done by the students to prove that there is a current of
air moving upwards above a fire.

Do you know? hot air

The air above the flame gets heated and as a result the
density of air decreases. Hence, the hot air rises up and a
cold air cold air
space is created. The cold air from the surrounding flows
towards the flame to fill the space created. As a result a
current of air moving upwards is developed near a flame.
This is known as a convection current.

The steps followed by the students to solve the problem that arose, due to an
observed incident can be summariszed as follows:-

step 1 - Observation of the movement of the leaves and the

branches of trees above a fire.
step 2 - The problem arose was how can the leaves and the
branches of the trees above the fire show movement
without wind.
step 3 - Developing assumptions or hypotheses based on the
problem.
step 4 - Planning and carrying out suitable experiments to test
the hypotheses.
step 5 - Analysing the experimental data and get a conclusion.

The above method adopted by the students to solve the problem is known as
the scientific method. Scientific method can be represented by a flow chart as follows.

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 Observation

Identification of the problem

Formulation of hypotheses

Testing the hypotheses

Arriving at a conclusions

In order to increase the validity of a conclusion gained by analysing the experi-

mental data, you should collect data for several times by repeating the experiment
under the same conditions. Hence, the experiment which was planned by the students
had to be repeated for several times, to get the same observation.

Now let us futher discuss on the scientific method.

Lets pay our attention to the experiment which was planned by the students.
According to the experimental design, the students suspected whether the reason for
the rotation of the wind propeller is the clay pot with pieces of papers. Therefore, they
carried out a second experiment by holding the same toy wind propeller above the
clay pot with pieces of papers, but without a flame. The second experiment assisted
the students to conclude that the exact reason for the rotation is the flame, not the clay
pot with pieces of papers.

Therefore, when designing an experiment to test a hypothesis it is necessary to do

a second test in addition to the first experiment. In the second experiment all the
factors except the variable factor that is under investigation are kept constant.

This second test is called the control experiment.

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Hence
A, is the experiment

B, is the control experiment

A and B together will be a controlled
experiment.(Fig. 1.13)
A B
Let us consider a controlled experiment to identify the
Fig 1.1.3
experiment and the control experiment.
Given below is a controlled experiment designed to prove that there is carbon
dioxide in air. As shown in the figure below two similar petri-dishes were filled with
lime water with same composition.
Polythene membrane
Rubber band
lime water Petridishes lime water

(A) (B)
Lime water is kept exposed to the air Lime water is kept covered with polythene
membrane to prevent contact with air.
Fig 1.1.4
(A) - Experiment (B) - Control
A thin milky layer was observed The lime water did not
above the lime water. show any milkiness.
Now, let us study some historical scientific investigations where the scientific
method was used.

1. Disproving the theory of spontaneous generation

From a long period of time people believed that living organisms originated
spontaneously from non - living matter. Some of those beliefs were that, rats were
created from old clothes or rags, weevils from wood, centepedes from fish skeletons
and maggots from decaying rotten meat. This was known as the theory of spontaneous
generation.
Biologist Francisco Reddi in 1668 B:C experimentally proved that the above
listed beliefs were conclusions based on incomplete observations.
Reddi observed that flies gather around rotten meat, and after few days, there
were some maggots on the peice of meat. Later they become flies and leave. Hence,
he designed an experiment to test the hypothesis Maggots are formed on rotten meat
from something brought by the flies. (Fig 1.1.5).
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 He used two sets of vessels with Porous fine
meat. One of the vessels was left open net
for flies to come in, while the other
vessel was covered with a fine net so
that flies could not get in. The vessels
experiment here is the vesel that
flies could get in and the control is
meat
the vessel covered with a fine net.
Reddi observed that the meat in Experiment Control Experiment
both vessels had got rottened. In the Fig 1.1.5
experiment - set up he observerd how the flies got in, to the vessel, maggots formed
on meat and after a few days they become flies and flew away. In the control set up,
covered with the net no files got in to the vessel. They stayed around the net, maggots
formed on the net but not on the meat inside. Accordingly, Reddi came to the conclusion
that maggots found on the rotten meat were from the eggs laid by the flies.
By this experiment, Reddi was able to disprove the existing theory of spontaneous
generation.
Now, let us arrange the steps in the process followed by Reddi according to the
scientific method.

Observing the flies staying around rotten meat, maggot formation

and maggots becoming flies and leaving after a few days.

The problem, How do the maggots form on rotten meat

Formulate the hypothesis Maggots are formed on rotten

meat, from something dropped by flies.

Test the hypothesis by a controlled experiment

Arriving at a conclusion

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1. Discovery of Penicillin
Alexander Fleming, a doctor by profession, involved in an experiment on disease
causing bacteria. During the experiment, he observed that the bacteria has got
destroyed in some of the bacterial cultures prepared by him. Fleming developed a
hypothesis on the above observation, carried out several experiments to test the hy-
pothesis and finally came up with a ground braking discovery. His discovery was that
a fungus that has entered the bacterial culture accidentally, secreted a chemical sub-
stance that destroyed the bacteria. This secretion is the antibiotic Penicillin secreted by
the fungus Penicillium. Today it is an essential antibiotic in the field of medicine.

Do you know?

What could be the hypothesis developed by Alexander Fleming after observing

the bacteria being destroyed in culture media and the growth of fungus in its place.

Assignment - 1
Prepare a report after finding out the process related to the historical event
about the discovery of Vitamin C. Make use of suitable resources or internet.

For further knowledge

A few historic discoveries made through the scientific method are,
Scientist Issac Newton having observed an apple falling from a tree towards
the earth and based on this observation he introduced the concept of the
gravitational force.

Astronomer Galilio Galili observed the swinging of a pendulous hanging,

Chandelliar lamp and the time of motion and he introduced the pendulum clock
to the world.

A good scientist is always a good observer and observes the environment around
carefully. Being a careful observer, you too can become a good scientist. Based on
observations, you are able to develop hypothesis, carry out experiments and arrive at
important conclusions, concepts or inventions.
Now carry out the activity 1.1.2.

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 Activity - 1.1.2
Observe the environment carefully.
Identify the problems related to your observations.
Develop hypotheses that will help to find solutions for the problems.
Tabulate the observations, the problems and the hypotheses.
Select one problem and prepare a suitable controlled experiment to test the
hypothesis relevant to it.

Compare your observations, problems identified and the relevant hypothesis with
the facts given in the Table 1.1.1.
Observation Problem Hypotheses
1. Iron objects left outside Why does iron rust With the availability of plenty
get rusted quickly. quickly when kept of air and moisture outside,
outside? rusting occurs quickly.
Rate of rusting is increased
when iron is exposed to the
sunlight.
2. In drawing water from Why is the bucket When an object is immersed
a well it is felt that the weighs less under the in water there is an upward
bucket weighs less water? force acting on it by water.
under the water than
when it is outside the
water.
Table 1.1.1

By following the scientific method introduced by philosopher Francis Bacon we

can find out whether most of the hypotheses we have developed from research carried
out are true or false.
Think!
In day to day life, scientific method is followed by criminal investigation
officers to identify a crime, doctors to diagnose disease, scientists to discover scientific
answers to the problems. These people develop hypothesis through observation,
then test the validity, to get a conclusion on the problem.
The scientific method helps to solve problems arise in day today life and gives
competency to arrive at correct conclusions. It also allows to acquire the ability to
think analytically and grasp the correct information on what you hear, what you see
and what the media presents to you.
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 1.2 Observe minute objects

Are you able to see everything on your body or in the environment around you
with your naked eye? You have millions of cells in your body but you cannot see them
with your naked eye. Tiny plants and animals made of one cell or a few cells, as well as
disease causing bacteria or viruses cannot be seen with our naked eye. Apart from the
living things there are non living things in the environment that are not visible to the
naked eye.

Even though we are able to identify the tiny sand particles, the naked eye finds it
difficult to identify dust particles or the tiny letters on a currency note. All the objects
that cannot be seen with the naked eye are very small in size. Microscopes are used to
observe such objects that cannot be seen with our naked eye.

Among the celestial bodies, large objects like the sun, the moon and the stars are
visible to the naked eye but are unable to see the craters and the precipices of the
moon clearly. Our eye cannot identify those objects because they are situated far
away from us. Hence, telescopes are used to observe celestial bodies.

1.2.1 Use of the optical microscope

What are the methods you would adopt if you have to read small letters on a
currency note or a printed medicinal label? Do the activity 1.2.1.

Activity - 1.2.1
Get a paper printed with very small letters, a perspex ruler with thinner edges
than in the middle, colourless transparent bottle, water, small piece of glass,
ball point pen.
Fill the bottle with water, close it well and keep it horizontally on the printed
paper and observe the letters through it.
Observe the letters on the paper with the perspex ruler and the piece of glass
as above.

The above activity explains, how small objects can be enlarged several times of
its actual size when observed through certain transparent objects. An object when

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enlarged several times of its actual size, it is referred to as magnification. All the
implements used for the enlargement are transparent and the middle of them are
thicker than the edges.

Simple microscope (Convex lens/Magnifying lens)

An implement made of transparent materials such as
glass or perspex with convex surface ( middle thicker and
curved outward ) is referred to as a convex lens. As
objects are magnified when looked through a convex lens
it is also called as a magnifying lens. When this convex lens
is fixed with a handle for easy handling, it is known as a
hand lens. This magnifying lens is also referred to as the
simple microscope. (Fig 1.2.1)
Fig 1.2.1 - A hand lens Do the activity 1.2.2 to obtain a clear image using a
convex lens.
Activity - 1.2.2

Get a hand lens, metal or wooden stand, a currency note or a paper with very
small printed letters.
Fix the hand lens to the stand at its lowest level and keep the currency note /
paper with small letters underneath the lens and observe.
Then move the lens up away from the paper gradually while observing through
the lens.
When you see the most clear image with its maximum magnification, fix the
lens to the stand at that level.

As the lens is moved upwards, at a certain level you would be able to see clear
letters enlarged to its maximum. If the lens is moved further up, first the letter become
blurred and then disappear. Then by moving the lens downwards you would be able
to reach the exact level at which the most clear image with its maximum magnification
is obtained.

According to the above abservation, it is concluded that the distance be-

tween the convex lens and the object is an important parameter to get a clear
image with maximum magnification. In practice, when convex lenses are used, the
lens is kept closer to the eye and the position of the object is adjusted to get a clear
image at the maximum magnification.

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Compound Microscope
You are aware that by using a single convex lens you can observe a small object
magnified several times of its actual size. Therefore, dont you think that by using a set
up with two convex lenses you are able to get higher magnification. Do the activity
1.2.3 to support the above idea.
Activity - 1.2.3
Get a board with small printed letters, 2 convex lenses with two different
curvatures and 2 lens-stands.
Draw a straight line on a flat table and keep the board with printed letters
perpendicularly and vertically at one end of the line. Then keep the lens on a
stand in front of the board perpendicular to the line drawn.
Adjust the lens looking through it to get a magnified image of the printed letters
as shown in figure (a)

(a) (b)
To get a highly magnified image, keep the other lens perpendicular to the line as
before in between the eye and the first lens and adjust, to get a clear image.

If you cannot see a magnified clear image repeat the activity exchanging the
places of the lenses. At a certain adjustment clear image with maximum
magnification could be seen.

When could you see the highly magnified clear image? Is it by keeping the lens
with the higher curvature near the eye or near the board with letters?
The lens kept closer to the eye is called the eye piece, and the lens kept close to
the object is called the objective.
To obtain a highly magnified image using two lenses with different curvatures, you
should use the lens with the lesser curvature as the eye piece and the lens with the
greater curvature as the objective.
You may have experienced the problems given below in doing activity 1.2.3.
Difficulty in placing the two lenses on the same line.
Image get curved and appear coloured near the edges of the mirror.
Difficulty in getting the fine adjustment of the lenses
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 The instrument shown in the picture 1.2.2 is made to overcome the above
difficulties. This instrument is named as the compound microscope because it is made
with two lenses. It is also referred to as the optical microscope or light microscope
because it uses light rays to obtain the image.

Optical Microscope / Light Microscope

We are able to observe many objects with the optical microscope which we
cannot see with our naked eye. For example, we are able to observe magnified
images of plant cells, animal cells, microscopic plants and animals, bacteria, fungi and
crystalline substances and identify them. Particularly, the shape and the structure of
the above objects can be observed clearly. Hence, the optical microscope, is made
use in school laboratories, medical research institutions, pathology laboratories in
hospitals to identify a variety of objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye. (Fig
1.2.2)

Parts of an optical microscope and manipulation

eye piece
optical tube

coarse adjustment body tube

knob
fine adjustment
knob nose piece
arm objectives

aperture
stage clips stage

diaphragm

mirror

base

Fig 1.2.2 - Optical Microscope

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In handling an optical microscope it is important to follow the instructions given below:

Before observing any object under the the microscope, place the microscope on
a flat table or surface and adjust the objective with the lowest magnification in line
with the optical tube.

Place the microscope in a place having strong sunlight or an artificial source of

light. (Ensure that direct sunlight does not fall on the mirror.)

Observe through the eyepiece and adjust the lens to get maximum light.

Mount the specimen on a glass slide and cover it with a coverslip.

Place the prepared slide over the aperture on the stage of the microscope and fix
it with the clips.

Observe through the eyepiece and adjust the optical tube carefully till an image is
seen.

Make use of the fine adjustment and get a clear image. (When observing it is
better to use the fine adjustment. The right hand can be used to make adjustments
while the specimen can be observed through the left eye. It is important to keep
both eyes open when you observe.)

After observing, take the optical tube upwards using the coarse adjustment.

Remove the specimen, and wipe the lenses and stage with a dry cotton cloth.

When carrying the microscope from one place to another, keep its base on the
palm of the hand, and handle it firmly at its arm.

To provide a dust free environment, cover the microscope with a plastic cover
and keep inside a wooden box.

If the microscope has to be stored for a long time without using , the objective
lenses and eye pieces shoud be removed and place them in a decsicator containing
a dehydrant such as calcium chloride or silica gel.

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Activity - 1.2.4
With the help of your teacher mount the following specimens on glass slides
and observe under the optical microscope.
An onion epidermal peel.
A thin film of blood.
Water from a fresh water pond.
Identify the shape, structure and the special features of the specimen.
(Draw sketches to illustrate the structure).

Assignment 1
Prepare a standard operation procedure to be displayed in the school
laboratory giving instructions on handling a optical microscope

For your knowledge....

The magnification power of a developed optical microscope does not exceed
2000. An electron microscope is used to observe detailed images of
micro - organisms like viruses and miniature objects.

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 1.3 Importance of micro-organisms.

Have you observed the

organisms shown in the figure 1.3.1
before? If so you would have
observed them using a microscope or
an electronic media or a book.
Fig 1.3.1 - variety of micro-organisms
Organisms that we cannot see
with our naked eye are called micro - organisms. Microsized animals and plants,
bacteria, fungi and viruses belong to this group of organisms. These organisms can be
identified by using a simple or compound microscope.
There are many instances where these micro-organisms are useful in our day to
day life.

1.3.1 Applications of microbial activity.

Compost Production
You may have seen a compost barrel or a compost basket at the backyard of
most of the houses or within the home garden. Compost can be made from the leaves
and debris collected as sweepings in the courtyard and the home garden and also from
the decaying waste matter thrown away from the kitchen. Therefore, compost is a
nutrient rich organic fertilizer

Fig 1.3.2 - Compost barrel Fig 1.3.3 - Compost basket

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 When compost is produced bacteria and fungi are allowed to grow on moist
leaves and debris under normal temperature. These microorganisms feed on the
garbage and decay it. In this process the garbage is broken down to simple
substances.

Compost is produced in two main ways.

1. House hold production on small scale.
2. Industrial production on large scale.

Different methods of compost production

Pit method
Land method
Barrel method
Basket method

Out of the above methods, the most popular method for agricultural lands is the
land method. Here, the degradable matter is heaped on the ground and necessary
conditions are provided to decay them into compost. In the pit method, degradable
matter is collected into a pit, dug on the ground. Then suitable conditions are provided
to decay it. However, today, the barrel method or the basket method is used for house
hold compost production in urban and sub urban areas. (Fig. 1.3.2 and 1.3.3)

Assignment : 1
Gather scientific information about the different methods of compost production
and prepare a small booklet.

Activity of micro-organisms becomes important in the production of compost as

well as in reduction of environmental pollution caused by degradable garbage.

Points to ponder
Assume that all the micro-organisms eliminate from our environment due to
some catastrophic effect. If so what are the adverse effects to our environment and
to living beings?
Can the environment maintain a balanced state without micro-organisms?

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Coir industry
Recall the different fibrous articles you
have learnt in grade 8 under the lesson plant
products. Did you ever think that the origin of
some of these finished articles in your list, is
from a soaked pit of coconut husks? Coconut
husks are soaked in water and allowed to get
stale, then beaten to seperate out coir. Fig 1.3.4 - beating of Coconut husks
Usually the coconut husks are immersed
in water and left for about three months for rotting. There the micro-organisms digest
the paste like meterials found in between the fibres. Hence, the fibres can be easily
separated by beating the husks. Then, the fibres are cleaned and used to produce
different articles.

Do you know?
The compound, that keep the fibres bound together is called, pectate. The
enzyme pectinase secreted by the micro-organisms on to the fibres digest the
pectate, hence the fibres can be separated out easily.

Production of dairy products

What can you observe if you keep some fresh milk or some curd in a vessel and
leave it exposed to the open air for a few hours? Is the milk left exposed, suitable for
our consumption? When milk is exposed to the air, micro-organisms grow on it and
as a result of the microbial activity the sour taste, coagulation and the discolouration of
the milk occur. Now lets consider some applications of microbial activity under
controlled conditions. Some of the applications are, Preserve milk and produce
different desserts.

Curd

Buffalo milk is used to make curd. After filtering and boiling milk, the scum is
removed and cooled to room temperure. Then few spoons of curd sample (which is
previously prepared) is added to the above cooled milk and mixed, thoroughly. This
mixture is poured into pots and kept for 12 hours for setting.

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 Dirt particles are removed by filtering and micro-organisms are killed by boiling.
Addition of previously prepared curd initialy supply the bacteria required for
converting milk to curd.
The lactic acid produced in curd retard the growth of other microorganisms.

Yoghurt
Either cows milk or sheep milk is used to prepare yoghurt. Yoghurt was first
made in Europe countries. Either fresh milk or skimmed milk or a mixture of both can
be used to prepare yoghurt. First the milk is heated for 15 30 minutes at a
temperature of 88 0C 95 0C (bacteria grown during the milking process are
destroyed) After that the bacteria is added (Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Streptococ-
cus thermophilus) to ferment the milk and is kept for 3 -6 hours at 40 0C 45 0C (12
hours at 32 0C), and then is kept it in a refrigerator to stop further bacterial actions.
The Lactobacillus bacteria convert the lactose present in the milk to lactic acid. As
the yoghurt gets acidic it becomes unfavourable for other bacteria, hence it gets pre-
served. To make yoghurt from milk lactobacillus bacteria should be added to milk.
According to the scientific method, assuming the above statement as a
hypothesis, design a practical, as shown in activity 1.3.1 to find out whether the above
statement is true or not.
Activity - 1.3.1
Get a bottle of skimmed milk, thermometer, a vessel to warm milk, stop watch,
four small vessels of same size, and a yoghurt sample.You may also need a
refrigerator.
Warm the milk at 88 0C 950C for 15 30 minutes.
Allow the milk to cool and pour it into the four vessels and label them as A,
B,C and D. Add starter culture ( Previously prepared sample of yoghurt with
Lactobacillus bacteria) only to A and B.
Leave the four vessels at 40 0C 45 0C for 3 -6 hours.
After 6 hours keep them in a refrigerator
Come to a conclusion about the hypothesis, by looking at the vessels in which
yoghurt is formed.
Cheese
Production of cheese, has a history of about thousand years. The basic process
is very similar to the production of yoghurt. First the fat and protein content of the milk
is adjusted as required, stirred and pasteurized. Then Lactobacillus or
Streptococcus bacteria is added or inoculated and left for fermentation. Depending

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on the type of cheese to be produced different strains of bacteria are used for
fermentation. Then the special enzymes are added to the fermented milk and allowed
to coagulate. This semi-solid milk mixture is filtered to remove the liquid portion, and
the partially dried solid portion is pressed. Then, the cheese mixture is seasoned by
adding bacteria. During the seasoning period the enzymes present in the bacteria act
on the fat and proteins in the cheese mixture and as a result the inherent taste and the
flavours are obtained.

Do you know?
Fresh milk can be preserved by pasteurization and sterilization. During the
preparations of sterilized milk, fresh milk is heated to a high temperature of 134 0C
when most of the harmful micro-organisms get destroyed.
During pasteurization fresh milk is heated at 72 0C for 15 minutes and rapidly
cooled. Pasteurized milk is more nutritious than sterilized milk. Sterilized milk in
sealed bottles can be stored at room temperature but pasteurized milk should be
kept in a refrigerator.

Vinegar production
Coconut toddy is used to produce natural vinegar. The sweet sap that exudes out
of the cut end of an unopened flower (inflorescence) of a coconut tree is called sweet
toddy. The microbe yeast present in the air get into sweet toddy and fermentation
takes place, as a result ethyl alcohol is produced in coconut toddy. Ethyl alcohol is
convertd to acitic acid by action of bacteria.
fermentation by
Sweet toddy ethyl alcohol
yeast
bacteria
Ethyl alcohol acitic acid (vinegar)
acetobactor

The above process explains the importance of microbial activity in the production
of vinegar.

However, most of the varities of vinegar available in the market are produced
artificially. Producing of vinegar could be done at domestic level.

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Production of immunization vaccines and antibiotics

Immunization vaccines.
It is a vaccine given to a person to prevent him/her from getting infectious
diseases. These vaccines may have at least one of the antigens given below.
1. Distroyed or inactivated causative agent
e.g. Polio and rabies vaccine
2. Live causative agent whose growth is inactivated.
e.g. Measles, mumps, chicken pox and rubella vaccines.
3. Toxicity of the causative agent is inactivated chemically.
e.g. Diphtheria, Tetanus vaccines.
4. Parts of causative agent cells or viruses
(vaccine produced using genetic engineering) e.g. Hepatitis B vaccine

Antibiotics
An antibiotic is a substance produced by one micro-organism that is
capable of destroying or inhibiting the growth of another micro-organism.
The chemical substances that destroy the bacteria are called antibiotics. Antibiotics
are used to cure diseases infected by bacteria and some fungi. (Antibiotics do not
harm human body cells)

Microbes such as bactericidal fungi are important in the production of antibiotics.

Soil bacteria and fungi are used to produce most antibiotics. Penicillim is a well known
antibiotic and is produced from the fungus penicillium.

Penicillium fungus is grown in a special culture medium under special conditions.

As the supply of nutrients decrease fungus starts secreting antibiotics. Penicillin types
are chemically altered within the laboratories, to produce more efficient antibiotics to
control a variety of diseases. Ampicillin, methicillin and oxacillin are some of the more
efficient antibiotics.

These antibiotics are used to control infectious diseases in humans and also in
animals useful to them. Eventhough antibiotics are not harmful to human body cells,
side effects such as allergies can occur.Antibiotics are not effective against viruses.

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1.3.2 Harmful effects of micro-organisms.

In processes such as production of milk food and making compost fertilizer

micro-organisms are advantageous, (beneficial) like wise, there are instances in our
day to day life where micro-organisms become harmful. The major varieties of harmful
micro-organisms are bacteria, fungi, viruses and unicellular organisms.

Two main harmful effects that are caused by micro-organisms,

1. Infectious diseases
2. Food spoilage

Infections
Micro-organisms are the major cause of most of the diseases. Generally, we
refer to these causative agents as pathogens. These pathogens belong to either
bacteria, viruses, fungi or unicellular organisms.

Bacteria
Most of the diseases causing bacteria, after having exerted into our body, causes
damage only to certain tissues and organs of the body.
e.g.
Causative bacteria for tuberculosis, damages the lungs or bones in the early
stages.
Causative bacteria for syphilis damages reproductive organs in the early stages.
Causative bacteria for pneumonia damages lungs.

The diseases may spread to other parts of the body due to the improper
treatment. Some bacteria secrete digestive enzymes which digest parts of some
organs in the body while some species of bacteria secrete toxic substances causing
diseases.

Viruses
Disease causing viruses after entering the body, reach target cells within the host
and take over the control of the cells and get the host cell to produce its virus.

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e.g.
Target cells of the common cold virus are the epithelial cells of the lining of the
nasal passage.
Target cells of the rabies virus are the nerve cells of the brain.
Target cells of HIV is a type of white blood cells. (T4 - limphocyte)

Fungi
Saprophytic, disease causing fungi secretes enzymes to the outside or on to the
host which destroy the tissues and the organs of the host causing irritation and
inflammation.
e.g. Aluham - Pityriasis versicolor
Infections in the mouth or organs of reproductive system (candidiasis)
Candida fungi

Unicellular organisms.
Disease causing protozoans (unicellular organisms) usually live in the blood system,
lymphatic system or digestive system.
e.g. The organism Plasmodium that causes malaria lives in the blood system and
harms the liver, and the brain.
Filaria worm lives in the lymphatic system and blocks the lymph vessels.
The causative agent of amoebic dysentery (Entamoeba) lives in the large
intestine destroying the cells of its inner lining resulting bleeding, pain and
defaecation quite often.
Methods by which the causative agents enter the body are given below in
table1.3.1.
Disease Place of entry of the causative agents

Eye disease Eye

Diseases in the digestive tract Mouth
Diseases in the reproductive system Reproductive openings
Malaria, filaria, Dengue Insect bites on the skin
Rabies Carrier dog bite or saliva of a rabied dog
through a wound

Table 1.3.1
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Spread of causative agents

By means of air
Causative agents for diseases like common cold, tuberculosis, leprosy and
meningitis are spread by air. Tubercular bacteria spreads by saliva, flem and dust and
as well as by air. One could be infected with the above listed diseases by inhaling air
contaminated with causative agents.

By means of water
Causative organisms for diseases like amoebic dysentery, cholera and typhoid
are spread by water. Above listed diseases could be resulted by drinking water
contaminated with faecal matter of such patients.

By means of food
Food may be contaminated with causative agents, by depositing dust with
such agents on uncovered food, by washing food with contaminated water, by flies
who deposit causative agents on food or by cooks who do not follow hygenic practices.
Those who consume food contaminated with causative agents may infect with diseases
like typhoid, amoebic dysentery.

By means of contact
Most of the skin diseases are spread by getting contact with infected patients
or with their clothes. The causative agent (fungus) of dermatitis and syphilis bacteria
are some of such agents spread by contact.

By means of vectors
Here the causative organism migrates from one host to another by means of
an intermediate organism, which is known as a vector.
Examples of such migrations are as follows:
Malaria parasite by Anopheles mosquito
Filaria parasite by Culex mosquito
Dengue causative agent by Aedes mosquito
Rabies causative agent by mammals like dogs, cats, monkeys etc.

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Food spoilage
Food spoilage is the change of physical and chemical nature of the food and as a
result food become unsuitable for consumption. That is, the nutritional value, the
texture, the flavour, the appearance and the odour of the food. may change.

There are three ways of food spoilage.

Protein - Putrefaction
Carbohydrate - Fermentation
Lipids and oil - Rancidification

Commonly, food spoilage occurs due to bacteria and fungi. If fully ripen fruits or
cooked food is kept uncovered, spoilage occurs more quickly. The fruits and food get
spoiled due to the action of the digestive enzymes secreted by the micro-organisms.
Spoiled food is not suitable for consumption.

If fresh meat or fish is kept uncovered flies will bring different types of bacteria
and deposit on them and due to the activity of these bacteria food get spoiled.

Bacteria and fungi grow very fast under warm conditions. Hence, food is
subjected to spoilage at room temperature (25oc - 32oc). You can minimize this spoil-
age by keeping food in a refrigerator (4oc) or a freezer(-20oc).
Examples : milk, meat, fish

Activity of the microorganisms can be controlled by adding chemicals that preserve

food, e.g. fruit juice, cordials. Microbial activity can be prevented by adding salt or
keeping food dipped in thick honey. (fruits stored in syrup, lime pickle, jadi and
dried fish are some examples).

Another way of preserving food is minimising the water content by drying.

(prevent the action of microbes) e.g. Dry fish, dried jak, bread fruit, manioc, bittergourd.

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 1.4 Using laboratory equipment appropriately

b d

c
e
a

f
g

Fig 1.4.1 - A set-up to produce and collect a sample of oxygen gas

The figure 1.4.1 above shows an equipment set up to collect a sample of oxygen
gas in the laboratory.

Can you identify the equipment given above?

a - Bunson burner d - Delivery tube

b - Boiling tube e - Gas jar
c - Laboratary stand f - Trough
g - Beehive shelf

There are many more equipment in the laboratory that are used for various
purposes in addition to the shown above. Let us investigate some of the equipment
which are constantly used by us.

Do you Know ?
Most of the equipment used in laboratories are made up of glass. The
main reasons are glass is transparent and can be cleaned easily. The glass equipment
used in laboratories are made of pyrex glass which is made up of borosilicate
glass which can withstand at high temperatures.

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 1.4.1 Volumetric equipment
Measuring Cylinder
This is an equipment commonly
used for measuring volumes of liquids.
They are calibrated in milliliters or
cubic centimeters. There are different
sizes of measuring cylinders
depending on the volume of the liquid
to be measured (Fig. 1.4.2). Measuring
Fig 1.4.2 - Measuring cylinders of different sizes
cylinders are used to get approximate
volume measurments.
Obtaining measurements using measuring cylinders.
Pour the liquid to be measured into
the measuring cylinder and place it
on a horizontal table. Place your eye
at the same level as the meniscus of
the liquid. Take the value at level with
the concave /convex surface of the
a b meniscus (Fig. 1.4.3 - a).
Liquid meniscus mercury meniscus
Fig 1.4.3
Since the meniscus of mercury is convex, the value taken should be from the upper
surface of the meniscus. (Fig.1.4.3-b)
Beaker
Beakers are used
for heating various liquids for
making and mixing solutions to
get approximate volume
measurments. Most beakers
have a spout while there are
beakers without spouts too (Fig
Fig 1.4.4 - Beaker of different sizes
1.4.4). The level of the total
volume that can be measured or hold by the beaker is marked in millilitres. Some
beakers are calibrated too. Beakers are in different sizes, hence it is necessary to
select the appropriate beaker depending on the volume of the liquid to be measured.

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Pipettes and Burettes.
Very often in a laboratory
two kinds of pipettes can be
found. They are bulb pipettes and
the graduated pipettes
(Fig.1.4.5). Before using a
pipette, it should be washed
initially with distilled water and
secondly with the liquid to be
filled. In a bulb pipette the liquid
can be filled above the bulb up to a b c
the mark indicated in the stem. Bulb pipette Graduated pipette Burette
Graduated pipettes are Fig 1.4.5
cylindrical, and liquid can be filled
up to any mark indicated on the wall as well as empty a known volume out of the
pipette. A pipette filler should be used to fill liquids to the pipette. After emptying the
pipette a drop of liquid remains at the tip. Do not try to empty this last drop by
blowing or any other method.
The special feature in a burette (Fig 1.4.5-c) is that the zero mark is indicated at
the top of the burette. Therefore, a burette always measures the volume of liquid
driven out. The tap at the bottom can be opened and the required volume of the liquid
can be taken out.
Always wash the burette first with distilled water and secondly, with the liquid
to be filled. Fill up the burette above the zero level, and then open the tap and bring
down the level of the meniscus to a zero point.
Buretts could be used to measure an accurate volume of 0.05 ml. Hence, both
pipetts and burretts are widely used in chemical analysis. Burette, and pipettes have to
be kept vertically when taking measurements.
Activity 1.4.1
You have to measure 20.00 ml of water using a burette. Write the sequencial
steps of doing it.
Following the above steps, measure that volume of water using a burette and
empty it to a beaker.
Flasks
Flasks are found in various shapes and sizes (Fig 1.4.6). They are used to heat
liquids, mix liquids, make solutions, grow microbial cultures and various other
experimental purposes. Volumetric flasks are specially used for making solutions, of
accurate concentrations.
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 Flat bottomed flask Round bottomed flask Conical flask Volumetric flask
Fig 1.4.6

1.4.2 Instruments to measure mass / weight

Triple beam balance

Triple beam balance (Fig 1.4.7) is used to

measure the mass of materials.
First the adjusting knob has to be adjusted
and the indicator is brought to zero (0). The
Fig 1.4.7 - Triple Beam balance weighing should be done af-
ter this adjustment.
Chemical balance.
This is used to weigh the mass of solid chemicals
accurately (Fig 1.4.8). The chemical balance should always
be kept inside the glass cage and should be closed while
weighing. The chemical to be weighed should be placed on a
watch glass so that it does not come into contact with the
Fig 1.4.8 - Chemical
metal dishes. While weighing, the balance should be kept on a
balance
horizontal surface.
Spring balance.
Spring balances ( Fig 1.4.9) are available to weigh
objects of varying weight ranges. The spring
balances used in laboratories are calibrated in grams
or Newtons. Before using, check whether the indicator
is at zero (0), and also note the range over which the
divisions are made. Before taking the reading, spring
balance should be hung to stand by its ring. Fig 1.4.9 - Spring balance

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1.4.3 Instruments to measure quantities related to electricity.
Ammeter, voltmeter and multimeter.
An ammeter (Fig 1.4.10-a) is used to measure the electric current. Electric current
is measured in amperes (A). Smaller values of current can be measured using a
milliammeter or a microammeter. Voltmeter (Fig 1.4.10-b) is used to measure potential
difference. Potential difference is measured in volts.

a b c
Ammeter Voltmeter Multimeters
Fig 1.4.10
Multimeters (Fig 1.4.10-c) are used to measure all three qualities current, potential
difference and resistance at different ranges. Before using, the multimeter should be
adjusted to zero (0). When measuring resistance, appropriate dry cell should be used.

The positive terminals of ammeter, the voltmeter and the multimeter are indicated
in red while the negative terminals are indicated in black. These terminals should be
correctly connected to the circuits.

1.4.4 Other laboratory equipment

Boling tubes, test tubes and ignition tubes

These tubes are similar in shape, but are of different sizes and used for different
purposes.

a) Boiling tube b) Test tube c) Ignition tube

Fig 1.4.11

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Boiling tubes
The capacity is about 20 ml. They are larger in size. They are generally used to
heat small volumes of liquids. (Fig 1.4.11.a)

Test tubes
They are a little thinner than boiling tubes and commonly used in experimental
works. The capacity is about 10 ml. (Fig 1.4. 11.b)

Ignition tubes
Very small in size, much smaller than the above two types. Used to heat small
quantities of substances to very high temperatures (Fig 1.4.11-c).

Test tube holder

They are made up of wood or

brass. They are used to hold test
tubes or boiling tubes during
experiments (Fig 1.4.12).
Wooden holder Brass holder
Fig 1.4.12 - Test tube holder
Funnel

Funnels are used to transefer liquids

carefully from one vessel to another and to filter
solutions. Funnels are made up of glass and as
well as of plastic.Various sizes of funnels are
found in laboratories.(Fig. 1.4.13)
Fig 1.4.13 - Funnels of different sizes

Thistle funnel

Thistle funnels are used to add small volumes

of liquids to an exact position. Thistle funnels are
found with taps or without taps. (Fig 1.4.14)

Fig 1.4.14 - Thistle funnel

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Activity 1.4.1
When magnesium metal is reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid, hydrogen gas
evolves. Hydrogen is a colourless gas which is insoluble in water.
Prepare a list of equipments necessary to prepare and collect hydrogen gas
using the above reaction.
Prepare the set up using the equipment you listed.
Draw a line diagram of your set up and lable it.

Watch glass, petri dish, slide and cover slip, trough

a b c d
Watch glass Petri dish Slide and cover slip Trough
Fig 1.4.15
Watch glasses (Fig 1.4.15-a) are used to place chemicals, when they are
being weighed using balances. Watch glasses are of various sizes. Large ones are
known as clock glasses and small ones are known as watch glasses.
A set of petri dish (Fig 1.4.15-b) contains the dish and the lid. They are often
used in experiments of growing micro-organisms.
When examining a specimen under the optical microscope, it is placed on a slide,
covered with a cover slip and then observed (Fig 1.4.15-c).
Throughs (Fig 1.4.15-d) are fairy large, glass vessels which
are used to collect samples of gas in the laboratory.

Density bottle
They are used to measure the density of liquids or to
compare densities of more than one liquid. They are made up
of glass and they have a capillary tube inside the glass stopper. Fig 1.4.16 - Density
bottle
Number of sizes of density bottles are available. (Fig 1.4.16)
Bunsen burner
This is a type of a burner commonly used in
laboratories. Gaseous fuel is used to light. By coinciding the
opening at the neck and that at the body of the burner, sufficient
air can be supplied producing a blue flame with more heat.
Fig 1.4.17 - Bunsen
(Fig 1.4.17) burner

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Spirit Lamp
Spirit Lamps are made of glass with a covering cap. Fuel
used in them is wine spirit. Spirit lamp is easy to use as well as
to carry into the classrooms. A soot less flame can be
obtained, which can be put off by covering with the cap.
(Fig 1.14.18)
Fig 1.4.18 - Sprit lamp
Tripod
Tripod is made up of iron, and the upper part may be
circular or triangular. Since it has three legs it is called, a tripod.
It is used as a support to the flasks, beakers and the
containers with liquids. When beakers are being heated,
Fig 1.4.19 - Tripod
often a wire gauze is kept on the tripod for the equipment to be
heated or a clay triangle is placed over it.(Fig 1.4.19)

Mortar and pestle

They are made up of porcelain ceramic and the outer

surface has a glazed finish. It is used for grinding and
crushing various substances in the laboratory.
(Fig. 1.4.20)
Fig 1.4.20 - Mortor and pestle

Wash bottle
This is made up of plastic or glass and is used to direct a
fine flow of water on to a particular target. Usually, distilled
water is used in wash bottle. (Fg. 1.4.21)

Fig 1.4.21 - Wash bottle

Cork-borer
This consists of many parts and is made of
brass painted with nickel. It is used to bore cork,
rubber stoppers or other soft materials in different
sizes (Fig 1.4.22).
Fig 1.4.22 - Cork borer

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Filter papers
They are a special type of white colour fairly thick,
and soft circular papers. Filter papers are of various
diameters. They are used in filtering solutions.(Fig 1.4.23)
Fig 1.4.23 - Filter paper
Crucible tong and forcep.

a) Crucible tong b) Forcep

Fig 1.4.24

Crucible tongs: Used to handle ignition tubes, crucibles etc.(Fig 1.4.24a)

Forceps: used to handle soft tissues and organs of animals during dissections and in
Shifting small and miniute weights in weighing (Fig 1.4.24b).

Exercises
1) A group of students encountered the following problem.
Does a kite fly higher when it is fitted with a long tail or a short tail?
I. Write two possible hypotheses, made by the students to investigate the problem.
II. What would be the procedure followed by them to test those hypotheses?
III. What are the main experiment set up and control set-up used by them?
2) You are supplied with a prepared slide to observe the cells of an onion peel. Write
the procedure that could be followed to observe it under the low power of an
optical microscope.
3) In our day to day life, there are instances, that the micro-organisms are useful as
well as harmful to us.
Confirm this statement by giving examples.
4) Draw line diagrams of the following laboratory equipment.
I. Measuring cylinder
II. Bulb pipette
III. Round bottomed flask
IV. Boiling tube
V. Funnel

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