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Shaft construction
This article was prepared for the Queen's University Mine Design Wiki Page.

For further information regarding hoisting systems please see the article Mine hoisting systems.

Portions of this article have been adapted from an article previously writting by Mining Graduating Class
of 2009

Contents
[hide]

1 Shaft construction

o 1.1 Types

o 1.2 Design

1.2.1 Circular shafts

1.2.2 Rectangular shafts

1.2.3 Lining materials

1.2.4 Guides

o 1.3 Collar

o 1.4 Development

1.4.1 Sinking drills

1.4.2 Mucking

1.4.3 Development costs

 o 1.5 Development rates

2 References

Shaft construction
A shaft is defined as a vertical or inclined permanent opening that gives access and services various
levels of a mine. Shafts are designed according to their required purpose and depending on the
demands set out.

Types
Shafts can be either vertical or inclined. Inclined shafts decrease the crosscut lengths from orebody and
are typically used in developing countries and where the ore body dips at less than 60 degrees. Vertical
shafts have the advantage of experiencing greater hoisting speeds, lower maintenance costs, and for the
purposes of pre-production are sunk more quickly in almost any ground types. In the past they have
been the most commonly considered and appear in most new mines. [1]

Design
Design begins with a cross sectional view of the compartments to suit the needs of the mine that the
shaft must provide. The shaft size is dictated by the minimum size to contain all needed conveyances
and cages as well as guides to maintain alignment. Provisions for ventilation, mine services, and
sometimes a man way must also be taken into consideration. For deeper shafts the minimum shaft size
increases to accommodate larger shaft sinking equipment and allow a greater airflow for ventilation
purposes.[1]
Circular shafts

The most commonly used shaft design in modern day mining is of circular or elliptical shape. In moderate
to high production, larger working areas are necessary to provide adequate support. Circular shaft
designs are typically chosen when the shaft diameter exceeds 15 feet. The circular nature of the design
provides redistribution around the excavation due to the lateral pressures exhibited by the host rock.
Although large horizontal stresses are uncommon at shallower depths, once development deepens, a
circular design becomes advantageous. A cross sectional view of a typical circular shaft layout can be
seen below.
Numerous advantages to a circular design are also seen in the construction of the development opening.
Most mechanized equipment used in shaft sinking is more suited to a round shape rather than a
rectangular because all points on the periphery are along the same radius for the axis of the shaft due to
the symmetrical work area. [2]. The shape can also be drilled and blasted more accurately due to better
blasting practice.
Rectangular shafts
For shafts with short life-span expectancies in competent rock, rectangular shafts using timber supports
were still commonly used in the early 1990s [3]. Timber supports, bricks, and concrete blocks are
commonly used as shaft liners. However, in rocks exhibiting high lateral pressures, these liners do not
withstand forces well due to the bending moments created along the length of the excavation. Due to the
geometric nature of the shape, the design allows for greater utilization of the cross-sectional area. A
typical horizontal shaft layout can be seen below.
Lining materials

Shafts are generally lined with concrete though wood can be safely used in depths up to 2000 ft. When
constructed out of concrete, the concrete is generally poured in place after being designed to the
minimum needed thickness. Engineered liners are needed when: the surrounding rock is less stiff than
the concrete, the shaft must be watertight, there is local seismicity, or freezing temperatures occur in the
shaft. Where stronger compressive strength is need the addition of steel is inefficient and it is less
expensive to employ a higher strength concrete. The substitution of roughly 30% fly ash for Portland
cement can cut the permeability of the concrete in half and extend the life of the lining significantly.[1]
Guides

Guides can take the form of rope guides suspended in the shaft or rigid guides reinforced to take the
lateral and vertical forces created by the conveyances. For conveyance speeds of 10m/s or less,
analysis of the required steel design is relatively simple. The forces exerted on the guides vary in direct
proportion to the mass of the conveyance, the square of the conveyance speed is inversely proportional
to the distance that the guide deflection takes place. [1] Extra steel thickness is added to give a factor of
safety and account for potential corrosion. At higher speed a more thorough analysis should be
undertaken by a qualified engineering firm When using fixed guides, the minimum clearance between a
conveyance and a compartment wall is 1.5 inches for small compartments or otherwise 2 inches. When
using rope guides 12 inches is required and 20 inches is needed between conveyances. [1]

Collar
Shaft collars consist of the uppermost portion of the shaft and act as a protective barrier to prevent water
and soil from entering the shaft. They typically extend from ground surface down to solid bedrock, which
the collar is anchored in to. They also provide a rigid support around the shaft to protect it from external
loading conditions caused by both the headframe which is constructed on top of the shaft, and horizontal
stresses resulting from nearby structures such as hoist housing or mills. Collar linings are constructed in
a similar manner and with the same materials that are used to construct the rest of the shaft. The
thickness of the lining is larger to accommodate for the additional stresses and loading which may be
present. The collar is constructed in a 'step down' geometry, meaning it is thickest closest to ground
surface and decreases in distinct steps as it nears bedrock. A collar usually contains a maximum of three
'steps'. The first lining step typically ranges between 1 to 1.5 m in width, but can be as high as 2m. It is
recommended that the first step occur below the limit of frost penetration. The second step ranges
between 0.6 - 1m (or approximately 2 times the thickness of the shaft lining) while the third has a
thickness somewhere between the second step and the shaft lining thickness. [4] The final step, known as
the foot, is usually a double conical shape which acts to transfer the load of the collar to the bedrock and
should be placed 3 meters below the overburden to ensure secure anchorage into bedrock. Where weak
or badly fractured rock is present, it is recommended the collar extend further into the bedrock.
Dimensions of the collar are important to ensure they can handle the loading which they are subject to.
Some factors for consideration when determining depth, cross section and thickness include the method
used to sink the shaft, overburden soil characteristics, in situ ground stresses, hydrology and additional
loading conditions. Calculations of lining thickness are done according to structural needs and stresses
which the collar will be subject to. The stresses are calculated and required Factors of Safety are
determined. From these values the necessary collar dimensions and material properties are obtained. As
a general rule of thumb a collar must have a minimum length of 28 m for a concrete lined shaft and 15 m
for a timber lined shaft.

Different Shapes of Shaft Collars(Unrug, 1992) [5]

Development
Sinking drills

Foldable jumbo drills are used for all of the drilling down at the base of the shaft. The jumbos are lowered
down to the working face and then its legs are expanded to allow for vertical drilling. They are removed
after drilling is complete to allow for blasting. Sinking buckets are used to lower personnel to the working
face of the shaft as well as remove any muck produced by drilling and blasting. During sinking the bucket
size should be at least big enough to fill size loads of each foot to be sunk. For the bucket to be stable
during the sinking process the width to height ratio should be 2:1. [1] It is a good idea to slope the much
pile so it sits on an angle from the vertical position of the bucket. The contractor developing the shaft
should be able to get 10 buckets of water per shift without compromising advance in a wet shaft.
Mucking

The excavation of any muck produced at the bottom of the shaft is done using two methods. One method
utilizes grabbing hands which are attached to the galloway. Operated from the galloway, the operator will
scoop and dump the muck into the sinking buckets to remove the waste. Multiple grabbing arms can be
used for quicker excavation rates. Mucking is also done using an EMC0 630 loader. This method is used
typically at shafts with diameters greater than 18 meters but with innovation can be used at 15 meters.
[1]
They are lowered to the base of the shaft and removed afterwards for drilling and mucking.
Development costs

Shaft sinking is generally done by private contractors. This is because private contractors tend to have
experience and technical knowledge to complete a shaft quickly and safely. Shafts are more expensive
on a per meter basis in comparison to ramps. This is due to the slow rate of advance and the
complicated development and technical considerations when developing. Typical costs per meter of
development are outlined below.

Shaft Development Costs(InfoMine, 2009) [6]

Development rates
Shaft sinking equipment is capable of an average advance of 3 meters per day with peak performance of
up to 4 meters.

References
1. 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Vergne, J. D. (2003). Hard Rock Miner's Handbook. North Bay: McIntosh
Engineering.

2. Berry, T. M. (1987). Circular Shafts for Deep Mines.Mining Engineering

3. Haycocks, C., & Aelick, R. C. (1992).SME Mining Engineering Handbook.Littleton, CO, U.S.:
Society for Mining Metallurgy and Exploration.

4. Unrug, K. F. (1992). Shaft Collars. In H. L. Hartman,SME Mining Engineering Handbook(pp.

1586-1591). Littleton: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc

5. Unrug, K. F. (1992). Location and Design of Vertical Shafts. In H. L. Hartman,SME Mining

Engineering Handbook(pp. 1580-1582). Littleton: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and
Exploration, Inc.

6. InfoMine USA, I. (2009). Mining Cost Service. Spokane Valley: Cost Mine.