CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

Society has always been dependent on transportation. Since the early times, people

already have the interest of traveling and transporting goods from a place to another. In lined

with this, rivers, valleys, mountains and other things which are considered as obstructions

have become one of the primary problems. This is the main reason on why bridges exist. By

definition, a bridge is a structure that provides a passage over a depression or obstacle. The

earliest bridges were made from anything that the nature provides, some are just made from

tree trunks or bamboos, while others are made from rocks. It was in the 18 th century when

bridge construction expanded and people began using iron, steel and reinforced concrete as

materials for bridges.

Now more than ever, bridges play an integral role in the society. It has paved a way

to an easier and advantageous road transportation. However, due to urbanization and

economic expansion in the Philippines, the use of roads and highways for transportation

increases each year. According to the data from the Department of Transportation and

Communications Land Transportation Office (DOTC-LTO), there are a total of 7,690,038

registered motor vehicles in the Philippines in 2013. Of the said total, twenty-seven percent

(27%) or 2,101,148 are registered in the National Capital Region (NCR). From this statistics,

one can imagine the number of vehicles traversing NCR each day. And considering that,

bridges, which are considered as alternative or shorter routes, are even more employed.

1
 In the City of Manila, there are about eight (8) bridges crossing the Pasig River.

Among which, the largest is the Nagtahan R. Magsaysay Link Road (see Figure 1.1). The

said bridge is a reinforced concrete highway bridge constructed in 1960s and became

operational in the year 1963. It spans two-hundred one meters (201 m) in length, linking Sta.

Mesa, Manila and Pandacan, Manila. During the reign of the Former President Joseph Erap

Ejercito Estrada in the year 2000, the name of the Nagtahan R. Magsaysay Link Road was

changed into Padre Jacinto Zamora Bridge under Proclamation No. 228. The renaming of the

bridge is a fitting tribute to the memory of the most prestigious son of Pandacan and one of

the three secular priests whose martyrdom kindled the flames of the Philippine Revolution of

1896.

Figure 1.1 Nagtahan R. Magsaysay Link Road (view from the deck)

B. Statement of the Problem

As aforementioned, alongside with the continuous growth of the Philippine

economy is the rise of the number of vehicles on the roads and highways of the country. One

2
 of the cities that is greatly affected by this matter is the countrys capital and economic heart,

the City of Manila. The focus of this study is the Nagtahan R. Magsaysay Link Road in

Pandacan, Manila, Philippines. Taking into account that the said bridge is situated in Manila

City, it is no doubt one of the busiest and most utilized bridges in the country. As such, it

sustains a massive amount of traffic loads per day, a tendency that is expected to continue

and escalate in the foreseeable future. Moreover, concrete structures, as per code provision,

has a lifespan of fifty (50) years. And in the case of the Nagtahan R. Magsaysay Link Road,

it was erected and has been serving the Filipino Community for more than 50 years.

Although it has undergone retrofitting after the 1996 earthquake, one cannot expect that an

old bridge like the Nagtahan R. Magsaysay Link Road will be able to withstand against an

increasing magnitude of load in the long run or unexpected phenomenon such as a major

earthquake. Thus, there should be a defined limit of its capacity.

With these actualities, the researchers believed that it is indeed imperative to

conduct a study regarding the Capacity Assessment of the Structural Members of a Single

Span of Nagtahan R. Magsaysay Link Road in Pandacan, Manila, Philippines.

There are several methods that we could use in this study. However, we would

like to use only the two main methods of bridge design which are mentioned. The Grillage

method and the Finite Element method. As one of our objectives we are tackling the task to

compare the final results of the two methods. Therefore we will be able to choose the more

reliable method to be used for the capacity assessment of the structural members of a single

span of Nagtahan R. Magsaysay Link Road in Pandacan, Manila, Philippines.

C. Objectives of the Study

3
 This research aimed to assess the capacity of the structural members of a single

span of Nagtahan - R. Magsaysay Link Road in Pandacan, Manila, Philippines. Specifically,

the primary objectives of this study are the following:

1. Review procedures and methodologies currently recommended for the capacity

assessment of existing bridges.

2. Verify the capacity of the Nagtahan R. Magsaysay Link Road based on its present

condition, existing properties and applied specifications.

3. Use different methods to assess the capacity of the Nagtahan R.

Magsaysay Link Road. The suggested methods for this study are the

following:

a. Grillage analysis method

b. Finite element method

4. Use different computer software to assess the capacity of the Nagtahan R.

Magsaysay Link Road. The suggested software for this study are the

following:

a. SAP2000

b. STAAD PRO

D. Significance of the Study

1. Technological

This study would be a source of significant information to the readers,

particularly the Philippines Government, regarding various technological methods in

order to assess the capacity of Nagtahan R. Magsaysay Link Road and other reinforced

4
 concrete bridges in the country. It proposes to expand advances in technology to further

develop approaches that will easily assess the capacity of old concrete bridges in the

Philippines.

2. Academics

The Smart Bridge Research Project of Mapua Institute of Technology may use

the findings in this study as a tool for accomplishing their researches on the Nagtahan

R. Magsaysay Link Road. They may also use the approach included in this study to

assess the capacity of other reinforced concrete bridges. Future researchers, on the other

hand, may utilize the data and information incorporated in this study for its own

improvement. It can be a means of reference if they desire to conduct a research relevant

to it. Additionally, for the reason that this research is related to the field of engineering, it

can help the present and incoming Civil Engineers in exploring engineering methods that

will lead to the possibilities of enhancing the loading capacity of reinforced concrete

bridges.

3. Social

The results obtained in this study can be a basis for the Engineers and other

researchers in determining the adequacy of the Nagtahan R. Magsaysay Link Road.

With that, they will be able to develop ways that could make the said bridge safer for the

public, particularly the Filipino community.

E. Scope and Limitations of the Study

5
 This thesis assesses the capacity of the structural members of Nagtahan R.

Magsaysay Link Road through the application of the two methods of bridge design. To be

specific, the study is only limited to a single span of the said bridge which is located nearest

to the Pandacan Station of the Philippine National Railway (PNR). Also, the structural

members that were considered in this study are parts of the superstructure only, namely the

deck, girder, capping beam or column cap, and rectangular column. The analysis of such

structural members was executed through utilizing the SAP200 software.

The span of this thesis does not cover a calculation check although it tackles the

data comparison in order to determine the adequacy of the bridge. Its primary focus is solely

evaluating the most reliable method of the bridges capacity assessment per structural

member.

6
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. General Concepts, Principles and Theories

Bridges play an important role and provide links in the transport network.

However their structural members are exposed to the environment and weather, and so are

vulnerable to deterioration through time. In order to avoid damage of bridges, its capacity

should be assured by undertaking strengthening, repair or replacement when necessary. A

bridge-specific analysis has to be done to assess the performance of a bridge to avoid any

damage or worse, collapse. Current practice and methodologies are based on codes and

standards, experimentation, safety factors, etc., that make allowance on the various

parameters like ductility, redundancy, or consequences of failure. The key parameters

influencing the risk of bridge collapse are identified and quantified and these are: current

safety, future safety, warning level or redundancy, condition evaluation and consequences of

failure.

Structural analysis provides the numerical mathematical process to extract

structure responses under service and seismic loads in terms of structural demands such as

member forces and deformations. (Caltrans, 2015). Its purpose is to evaluate or describe

accurately the response of a structure during loading and/or failure. (Grahn, 2012).

Structural assessments are usually undertaken whenever the use of a bridge has

changed (e.g. heavier vehicles, new lane added) or the bridge has been damaged (e.g.

scouring, earthquake, bridge bashing). Apart from these, some countries do the assessment in

order to efficiently allocate monetary resources for maintenance. One of the most important

7
requirements in any bridge assessment is the evaluation of the hazards to which a bridge

might be exposed. (Imhof, 2004).

Structural assessments are also done if the bridge was designed according to an

outdated design code and it has to be checked using new code and traffic load requirements.

The procedures of analysis is different during the design process considering that many

design uncertainties related to prediction of mechanical properties of materials, structure

geometry and loads in the existing bridge can be eliminated since most of these parameter

can be measured. (Wineiwski, 2007).

Load evaluation of bridges maximizes the load carrying capacity of the bridge

while maintaining an adequate level of safety. A bridge load evaluation may be required as

result of (i) a bridges load carrying capacity being unknown, (ii) a bridge being subjected to

increased loading, and (iii) a change in the load carrying capacity of a bridge. It shall include

the evaluation of primary load carrying bridge superstructure members (e.g. girders, trusses,

etc.). Primary load carrying superstructure members are the bridge members most affected by

an increase in the truck load on a bridge and are the members of most concern in a load

evaluation. Bridge members that will typically not require load evaluation may need to be

load evaluated if they are damaged or deteriorated. For example, a pier column that, in good

condition, would not warrant a load evaluation could require a load evaluation if significant

concrete spalling or corrosion of the reinforcement has occurred and reduced its load

carrying capacity. The manual also contains evaluation procedures as well as different

requirements and guidelines for various types of bridges steel truss, steel girder, reinforced

concrete, precast reinforced concrete, and precast prestressed concrete bridges, and its

loadings permanent, live loads and other transitory and exceptional loads. For example in

8
reinforced concrete, it includes serviceability limit state, the resistance of the girders and slab

members, the resistance of strengthened concrete bridge girder and slab members, and the

resistance of damaged or deteriorated members. (Technical Standards Branch Alberta

Transportation: Bridge Load Evaluation Manual, 2015 in accordance with the provisions of

CSA S6-14, Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code, CSA 2014)

Field and laboratory testing may be needed depending on the extent of the

deterioration of the structure. Investigation of local scour, erosion and/or deposition of bed

material and changes in local stream should also be considered for the evaluation of the

safety of the foundation. The following data are needed for the assessment: (i) codes and

specifications, (ii) contract drawings updated to reflect as built details, (iii) design

calculations, (iv) site records of constructions, (v) soil investigation data before and during

construction, (vi) material test and load test data, (vii) contract specifications, (viii) post

construction inspection and maintenance reports, (ix) details of all repair/strengthening works

carried out till the date of investigations, (x) hydrological, seismic and environmental data

including changes if any (revision of zone for seismic classification and retrofitting

requirements as needed, and seismic retrofitting details, if carried out), (xi) prevalent

commercial vehicular loads plying on the bridge, (xii) other natural hazards identified, if any,

and (xiii) traffic survey data. Certain information has to be noted during the detailed field

investigation for the assessment of the structural condition of the bridge. These are, but not

limited to: (i) cracking, spalling, honeycombing, leaching, loss of material or lamination of

concrete members in superstructure, sub-structure and foundations, (ii) corrosion of

reinforcement bars, exposure of reinforcement bars, corrosion in pre-stressing cables and

structural steel members, (iii) in-situ strength of materials, (iv) effectiveness and condition of

9
 structural joints, bolted, riveted and welded connections for steel bridges, (v) conditions of

expansion joints, bearings and articulations hinges, (vi) settlement, deformation or rotation

producing redistribution of stress or instability of the structure, (vii) any possible movements

of piers, abutments, skew backs, retaining walls, anchorages and any settlement of protective

works and foundations, (viii) hydraulic data covering scour, afflux, erosion at abutments

variation, if any, in ground water table and discharging arising out of new irrigation projects

or any other reason. Preliminary and detailed assessment of those mentioned above are

needed. Structural materials should also be investigated specially on strength. When

reinforcement details unknown, position of reinforcement close to the surface may be

determined by cover meter, an electromagnetic reinforcement detector, or by making incision

at selected locations, taking care not to endanger the safety of the structure. This equipment

would give an approximate indication of bar sizes and spacing. In pre-stressed concrete

structures, size of tendons can be determined if the end anchorages are accessible.

Radiographic method can be used for inaccessible materials like reinforcements with depth

larger that 120mm. Buckling and distortion in steel components must be inspected because

this would reduce their load carrying capacity. (Guidelines for Evaluation of Load Carrying

Capacity of Bridges of the Indian Road Congress, 2010)

B. Local Studies

According to Sika Philippines Bridge and Bridge Refurbishment, the root causes

of damage and deterioration are: steel reinforcement corrosion; non-structural cracks from

the effects of shrinkage, thermal movement, alkali-aggregate reaction; deck corrosion

(corrosion of reinforced concrete or steel deck, which may be caused by, for example, failed

10
or inadequate waterproofing); leaching or efflorescence due to water ingress, concrete

spalling due to impact or rebar corrosion; structural steel corrosion from inadequate steel

coating and/or water and chloride ingress; structural cracks because of overloading,

earthquake impact, structural movements; and lastly spalling of concrete surfaces due to

erosion, abrasion and/or salt expansion. Also, it was said that before any repair and protection

details, certain bridge project requirement are need to be considered, that are also important

for the maintenance of the structure. The products must provide adequate durability to the

bridge to extend the defined service life. The total life-cycling cost including remedial and

maintenance cost should take into account in influences the renovation concept and materials

to be used. The duration closure is also important since it directly affects the cost of

construction works. Other considerations are the site condition or its exposure to the

environment, aesthetic issues, traffic flow and ecology also has direct impact to the materials

and concept to be used for refurbishment. Finally all the products should be compatible to the

scope of work and structure.

A team from Logistics Cluster and International Medical Corps assessed three

damaged bridges in Burauen, Leyte to determine the extent of damage after typhoon Haiyan

or Yolanda hit Leyte. One is the Malitbog Bridge located on the Barauen Albuera Road at

an elevation of 79 m. It is approximately 30 m. in length and 4 m. in width. One lane of the

bridge is closed to vehicles due to the risk of collapse. The condition of the concrete bridge

deck is good with no cracks or sagging observed. Concrete culverts are unaffected, but the

downstream side is harshly affected by erosion and the roadway may collapse. It was said

that repairs and anti-erosion measures should be done so that the downstream can open to

11
vehicular traffic, otherwise the risk of collapse may increase due to further erosion since the

deck is not supported by a superstructure.

The Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) carried out a major

maintenance and rehabilitation program for roads and bridges in the Philippines. More than

50 bridges in the province of Agusan del Sur have been surveyed and evaluated to determine

the capacity, serviceability and longevity of each structure. One of those is the Adgawan

Bridge which according to the assessment, is in need of strengthening due to concrete

deterioration over time. Its deck and girders have been retrofitted and was introduced to the

Tyfo Fiberwrap Systems to strengthen the structure against shear and flexure.

During the 1990 Luzon earthquake, bridges like the Magsaysay Bridge in

Pangasinan and Carmen Bridge (Pacheco 2000) collapsed due to the lateral spreading of the

ground caused by soil liquefaction. The foundations were affected and so the concrete decks

were unseated from their bearings.

Bridge retrofitting is dependent on the capacity-demand (C/D) ratios of the

different bridge elements. In accordance to that, accurate assessment of the capacities of the

various structural members of the bridge are necessary to meet the demands (e.g. seismic)

before the retrofitting itself.

Instability of surrounding soil conditions is required when considering foundation

retrofitting. As for abutments, liquefaction of sandy soil or sliding of soft clayey soils is a

typical cause of instability of the underlying ground. Bearings mostly suffer extensive

damage. If the tilt of the abutment is large, unseating of the deck from the abutment occurs.

An increase in seismic demand due to axial demand of columns and piers plus inadequacies

in shear and flexure may also lead to footing retrofit by concrete overlay.

12
 Reinforced concrete columns that were designed without taking into account the

importance of plastic deformation and ductility are commonly deficient in flexural ductility,

flexural strength, and/or shear strength under strong seismic excitation. The superstructure

may also be retrofitted to prevent unseating from the piers and abutments in the event of

large-displacement demand. Seismic isolation reduces the force demands on the substructure

and superstructure, but increases the displacement demands. (Pacheco 2000)

In the Republic of the Philippines, the Department of Public Works and Highways

(DPWH) is the government body that manages the national road network. Currently, many

Regional, District, Engineering Offices, Services and Bureaus are within the DPWH which

makes them responsible for the national road network administration.

As stated by Linda S. Templo (2004), the system of expenditure priorities and

approach at the time needed upgrade. A unified road management system was developed by

the DPWH to provide support to all the steps such as procurement and implementation.

Within the unified road management system, a Bridge Management System

(BMS) was developed. Under BMS, management of bridges are put through a systematic

structure allowing highway authorities to assimilate information of the current condition of

the bridges in the highway network. This will improve the programs involving specific

bridges and enhance their maintenance works.

The scope of the project as summarised: Establish a system that makes procedures

for effective bridge maintenance, and develop programs that will support the staff of the

DPWH in gathering data and making detailed procedures on Bridge management

applications.

13
 At the time of planning and budgeting, as a standard of most road agencies,

bridges were overshadowed by the pavement works of the highway network. This being the

case, finance and value of the bridge infrastructure was being dominated by road network. As

a result of the domination, few policies were established for bridge management. Those

policies as summarised: National Permanent Bridges from 89% in 2000 to 95% completed by

2004, and Maintenance of existing assets will be given with the highest priority to lengthen

serviceable life of the road network all implemented at minimum cost.

C. Foreign Studies

According to Andrew Sonnenberg et al. (2014), the worries of asset owners about

the safety of their structures has caused an increase of demand in understanding the structure

capacity of rail networks and roads. However, asset owners have a plethora of methods that

are useful at assisting them in the understanding of the risks involved. The range of methods,

unfortunately, comes with a cost. The understanding of the advantages and complexities of

such options is as significant as ensuring the cost does not compromise safety.

Only experienced bridge engineers are capable of undertaking a Load Capacity

Assessment in a structured manner. Vicroads, the state road authority of Victoria, released the

Road Structures Inspection Manual which describes the process in detail. Consultants are

required to be prequalified to PE level by Vicroads. In doing so, the works done by the firms

will most likely to achieve better outcomes and avoid unnecessary reinforcements.

On concrete bridges, a cover meter survey may be undertaken for the inspection

of concrete structures. It needs to determine the spacing, location, and size of reinforcements.

Additionally, the inspection may remove the concrete cover to expose the reinforcements for

14
extra details of its type. Samples of concrete cores may be tested in accredited testing sites to

determine concrete strength. To determine the tendency of corrosion to happen in the

reinforcements, a Half Cell Potential test may be used. Andrew Sonnenberg et al. (2014)

In structural reliability theory, F. Moses and D. Verma (1987) observed that the

assessments of the performance of structures such as highway bridges was without certainty;

the bridges load intensity, load effect analysis, and strength parameters were almost

unknown. The aim of structural reliability theory is to make these uncertainties be known in

order to decide actions with consistency and reliability. The application does not intend

predict the failure of a structure rather it sets its goal for the code evaluation and modification

of the factor of safety in the design of structures.

Important loads to be considered in the evaluation of superstructures are Dead

Load and Live Load. These loads has the most effect on the superstructure itself. Other loads

such as Seismic, Wind, Thermal, and Deformation Loads may be neglected since existing

structures have withstood the effect of these Loads over a long period. F. Moses and D.

Verma (1987).

Several method for the analysis of concrete bridges were described, and these are:

(i) linear elastic analysis, (ii) finite element analysis, and (iii) non-linear analysis.

Linear elastic modelling assumes that the behavior of the structure is linearly

dependent on the applied load. The linear elastic model will only describe the true

distribution of forces under certain conditions, such as uncracked sections. Those conditions

are generally never achieved, since concrete structures often crack even for relatively low

service loads. Concrete will crack and force redistribution will take place in the structure

(provided that the structure is statically capable of redistribution). Finite element method

15
(FEM), a general tool for solving differential equations suitable for structural engineering

applications is another method for assessment. FEM is capable of handling large structural

mechanics problems by discretizing the problem into a finite number of elements, which in

turn is governed by equations. The elements used in FEM can roughly be categorized in three

different categories; continuum elements, structural elements and special purpose elements.

Continuum elements describe the structure as a continuous sequence where adjacent

elements are not perceptibly different from each other, although the extremes are quite

distinct. This includes 3D solid elements and 2D plane stress/strain elements. Since these

elements work with the stresses of the structure they describe the real behavior of the

structure and lack some of the limitations of the structural elements, (Grahn, 2012). The non-

linear analysis is capable of accurate prediction of the response during loading and describe

the complex force redistribution taking place when cracking of concrete and yielding of

reinforcement occurs, (Engstrm, 2011). It precisely predicts the behavior of the structure in

service state, and the mode of ultimate failure. However, this method needs more effort in

computation, establishment and post processing of the model. It also requires the knowledge

of the complete layout of the structure beforehand.

According to the research, Finite-Element Analysis of Bridge Decks by

Abdelraouf and Matlock (1972), finite element method is applicable to the analysis of several

types of bridges. The present method for modern bridges treats the whole deck as a shell-type

structure, a structure that has smaller thickness compared to the other dimensions of the

structure, to make it possible to present most of the details of the bridge like single and

double curvature, variable girder depth, girder-slab interaction, boundary details, and

variation of material properties. It has a considerable flexibility and be used successfully to

16
analyze a wide variety of bridges on rigid or elastic supports. Two approach is used: (a) the

use of coarse meshes composed of refined finite elements wherein input data is reduced and

the probability of data error is relatively smaller; (b) the use of fine meshes composed of

relatively less fine elements that has more complex solution since it requires more data.

Therefore it is economical to use refined elements with coarse material to idealize bridge

decks with simple geometrics (box-girder, slab type, and beam-slab bridges). Fine meshes

can be used with other elements for complex geometries such as single or double curvature

bridges.

In the Analysis of Integral Bridges by Finite Element Method of Amirahmad and

Rahman Al-Sinaidi, a sample of a 300-ft long integral abutment bridge in Saudi Arabia was

analyzed using the finite element method. It was assumed that the bridge consists of

W44x285 steel girders spaced 8 feet apart, with a 10-inch thick concrete deck, resting on 10-

ft high 3.0-ft thick abutments, which are supported by HP10x42 steel piles, spaced 6 feet

apart. (See Figure 2.11 and 2.12). Integral bridges are bridges without expansion joints. The

analyses were performed using the finite element program ANSYS. ANSYS is capable of

analyzing plane strain soil-structure interaction problems.

17
 Figure 2. 11 Bridge Geometry

Figure 2. 12 Enlarged view of integral abutment bridge

Table 2.2 Properties of Structural Members

Structural Component Bridge Beams Pile
EA (kips) 2.43 x 106 0.36 x 106
EI (kips-ft2) 4.95 x 106 14.44 x 103
Spacing (ft) 8 6
EA per ft. (kips/ft) 0 60 x 106
EI per ft. (kips-ft2)/ft 600 x 103 2.4 x 103

Finite element mesh used in the analysis is illustrated in Figure 2.13. The mesh is

finer around the abutment, and is coarser near the boundaries. Zero-thickness interface

elements were used between the approach fill and the abutment.

The purpose of the analysis was to model expansion of the superstructure due to

increasing temperature. The load on the abutment due to expansion of the superstructure was

18
modeled by applying forces at the node where the superstructure is connected to the

abutment.

Figure 2. 13 Finite Element Mesh used for Bridge Analysis

In another analysis, under the same study, a 92-m long, 25-m wide integral bridge

was used to gain insight into the interactions between the superstructure, the abutment, the

approach fill, the foundation piles, and the foundation soil. It was assumed that the bridge

consists of nine equally spaced W44x285 steel girders and a 23-cm thick concrete deck,

resting on 2.6-m high 0.9-m thick abutments, which are supported by equally spaced eighteen

HP10x42 steel piles in medium dense sand. Approach fill is represented using 4-node

quadrilateral element and foundation soil is represented using 6-node triangular element.

Abutment displacements in x and y directions are shown in figures 2.14 and 2.15.

The complex interactions that took place between the structural components of the integral

19
bridge and the soil through analytical studies were investigated. Finite element analysis

showed that the presence of the approach fill significantly reduces the stresses in piles

supporting integral bridges.

Figure 2. 14 Abutment displacement in x direction

Figure 2. 15 Abutment displacement in y direction

20
 An experiment was conducted to determine the strength of the members of Grant

Road Bridge in both tension and compression with the use of cardboard model. It was said in

the study that in order to assess the load-carrying ability of a structure, the member strengths

should be determined first. Strength of members can be determined using two ways by

experimentation and by application of scientific principles such as mechanics of materials.

However, this study focused on the experimentation. Important properties that need to be

noted of are the cross-sectional area of the member, the tensile strength, and compression

strength.

For example, testing a sample carbon steel bar specimen with cross sectional area

of 1m2, using a testing machine will determine the load and deformation of the specimen.

The load-deformation curve will tell more about the yield strength, the ultimate strength, the

elastic and plastic behavior, as well as the ductility of the specimen before it fails or the

rupture. The analysis led to the following observations about tensile strength: (1) tensile

strength depends on the cross-sectional area and on the type of material the member is made

of, (2) tensile strength does not depend on the length of a member and on the shape of the

cross-section.

Using cut-out cardboard materials that are rectangular in shape, compressive

stress was examined and it was observed that (1) shorter members have greater capacity on

compression that than longer members and (2) hollow tube has significantly higher

compressive strength compared to a solid bar even when using the same amount of material.

This means that compressive strength is dependent on the length and the shape of the cross

21
section of the member, and is not dependent on the material that is it made of nor to its cross-

sectional area.

In the absence of testing machines, the principle of lever can be used to determine

the amount of force that is applied to a certain member. In the example mentioned in the

study, a 200 pound rock should be moved using only a 6- meter long steel pipe and a short

log. Applying the principle of lever, the steel pipe can be used as the lever while the log is the

fulcrum. It is that when downward force is applied to one end of the lever, the lever pivots on

the fulcrum and applies an upward force to the 200 lb. rock at the end. Therefore, F 1L1 = F2L2.

Moreover, using a more complex machine, equations that can be formulated are: TL 1 = WL2 ,

W L2 W L2
T= C=
L1 , L1 . Even when both forces are on the same side of the fulcrum, the

principle of lever can still be applied.

For the California Department of Transportation or Caltrans, in the analysis of any

structural members, the following principles should be considered:

1. Static Equilibrium: F=0 and M =0

2. Dynamic Equilibrium: F=m ; For calculating the dynamic response to a

time-varying load or for analyzing the propagation of waves in a structure, the proper

inertia terms shall be considered.

3. Constitutive Laws: This define the relationship between the stress and strain in the

material of which a structure member is made.

22
 4. Compatibility: Compatibility conditions are referred to continuity or consistency

conditions on the strains and the deflections. As a structure deforms under a load, it

should be ensured that (i) two originally separate points do not merge into a single

point, (ii) perimeter of a void does not overlap as it deforms, (iii) elements connected

together remain connected as the structure deforms.

Still, based on Caltrans (2015) the analysis methods for bridges are as follows:

1. Small Deflection Theory: It is usually adequate for the analyses of beam-type bridges.

In many cases the degree of sensitivity can be evaluated by a single-step approximate

method, such as moment magnification factor method (AASHTO 4.5.3.2.2).

2. Large Deflection Theory: If the deformation of the structure results in a significant

change in force effects, the effects of deformation shall be considered in the equations

of equilibrium. The effect of deformation and out-of-straightness of components and

the time-dependent and stress-dependent material characteristics that cause significant

changes in structural geometry for slender concrete compressive shall be included in

stability analysis and large deflection analyses.

Because large deflection analysis is essentially nonlinear, the

displacements are not proportional to applied load, and superposition cannot be used.

Therefore, the order of load application are very important and should be applied in

the order experienced by the structure, i.e. dead load stages followed by live load

stages, etc. If the structure undergoes nonlinear deformation, the loads should be

applied incrementally with consideration for the changes in stiffness after each

increment. (Bridge Design Practice, 2015)

23
3. Linear Analysis: In the linear relation of stress-strain of a material, Hookes law is

valid for small stress-strain range. For linear elastic analysis, sets of loads acting

simultaneously can be evaluated by superimposing (adding) the forces or

displacements at the particular point.

4. Non-linear Analysis: The objective of non-linear analysis is to estimate the maximum

load that a structure can support prior to structural instability or collapse. The

maximum load which a structure can carry safely may be calculated by simply

performing an incremental analysis using non-linear formulation. In a collapse

analysis, the equation of equilibrium is for each load or time step. Design based on

assumption of linear stress-strain relation will not always be conservative due to

material or physical non-linearity. Very flexible bridges like suspension and cable-

stayed bridges, should be analyzed using nonlinear elastic methods (LRFD C4.5.1,

AASHTO, 2012). P-Delta effect is an example of physical (geometrical) non-

linearity, where principle of superposition doesnt apply since the beam-column

element undergoes large changes in geometry when loaded.

5. Elastic Analysis: Service and fatigue limit states should be analyzed as fully elastic,

as should strength limit states, except in the case of certain continuous girders where

inelastic analysis is permitted, inelastic redistribution of negative bending moment

and stability investigation (LRFD C4.5.1, AASHTO, 2012). When modeling the

elastic behavior of materials, the stiffness properties of concrete and composite

members shall be based upon cracked and/or uncracked sections consistent with the

anticipated behavior (LRFD 4.5.2.2, AASHTO, 2012).

24
6. Inelastic Analysis: This should be used for displacement-based analysis (Akkari and

Duan, 2014). The extreme event limit states may require collapse investigation based

entirely on inelastic modeling. Where inelastic analysis is used, a preferred design

failure mechanism and its attendant hinge locations shall be determined (LRFD

4.5.2.3, AASHTO, 2012).

7. Static Analysis: This is mainly used for bridges under dead load, vehicular load, wind

load and thermal effects. The influence of plan geometry has an important role in

static analysis (AASHTO 4.6.1). One should pay attention to plan aspect ratio and

structures curved in plan for static analysis.

8. Equivalent Static Analysis (ESA): It is used to estimate seismic demands for ordinary

bridge structures (Caltrans, 2013). A bridge is usually modeled as Single-Degree-of-

Freedom (SDOF) and seismic load applied as equivalent static horizontal force. It is

suitable for individual frames with well-balanced spans and stiffness. Equivalent

Static Analysis such as Lollipop Method, Uniform Load Method and Generalized

Coordinate Method can be used.

9. Nonlinear Static Analysis (Pushover Analysis): Nonlinear Incremental Static

Procedure is used to determine displacement capacity of a bridge structure.

Horizontal loads are incrementally increased until a structure reaches collapse

condition or collapse mechanism. Change in structure stiffness is modeled as member

stiffness due to cracking, plastic hinges, yielding of soil spring at each event. Analysis

Programs such as WFRAME, CSiBridge, STRUDL, SCPush 3D, ADINA can be

used.

25
 The requirements for a pushover analysis are (i) linear elastic structural

model, (ii) initial or gravity loads, (iii) characterization of all nonlinear actions -

multi-linear force-deformation relationships, e.g. plastic hinge moment-curvature

relationship, (iv) limits on strain based on design performance level to compute

moment curvature relationship of nonlinear hinge elements, (v) section analysis -

strain curvature, (vi) double integration of curvature displacements, and (vii) track

design performance level strain limits in structural response.

10. General Dynamic Equilibrium Equation: For a typical Single-Degree-of-Freedom ,

the dynamic equation of motion are as follows:

26
 Earthquakes, wind, and moving vehicles can cause dynamic loads on

bridge structures. Wind load may bring instability and excessive vibration. The

interaction between the bridge vibration and wind results in two kind of forces:

motion-dependent and motion-independent. (These are insignificant to short span

bridges). The motion dependent force causes aerodynamic instability with emphasis

on vibration of rigid bodies. The bridge aerodynamic behavior is controlled by two

types of parameters: (i) structural parameters bridge layout, boundary condition,

member stiffness, natural modes and frequencies; and (ii) aerodynamic parameters

wind climate, bridge section shape. (Bridge Design Practice, 2015) Thus the

aerodynamic equation of motion is expressed as:

11. Free Vibration Analysis: Vehicles such as trucks and trains passing bridges at certain

speed will cause dynamic effects. Dynamic effects due to moving vehicles may be

attributed to two sources: (i) hammering effect or the dynamic response of the wheel

assembly to riding surface discontinuities, such as deck joints, cracks, potholes and

delamination, (ii) dynamic response of the bridge as a whole to passing vehicles,

which may be due to long undulations in the roadway pavement, such as those caused

by settlement of fill, or to resonant excitation as a result of similar frequencies of

vibration between bridge and vehicle. (AASHTO LRFD C3.6.2.1)

The magnitude of response depends on the bridge span, stiffness and

surface roughness, and vehicle characteristics such as moving speed and isolation

27
systems. There are two types of analysis methods to investigate the dynamic response

of bridges due to moving load: (i) numerical analysis or sprung mass model, and (ii)

analytical analysis or moving load model. Analytical analysis simplifies the vehicle

interaction with bridge as it models a bridge as a plate or beam with a good accuracy

if the ratio of live load to self-weight of the superstructure is less than 0.3.

Free vibration analysis assuming a sinusoidal mode shape can be used for

the analysis of the superstructure and calculating the fundamental frequencies of slab-

beam bridges (Zhang, et al., 2014).

For long span bridges or low speed moving load, there is little

amplification which does not result in much dynamic responses. Maximum dynamic

response happens when load frequency is near the bridge fundamental frequency.

The aspect ratios of the bridge deck play an important role. When they are

less than 4.0 the first mode shape is dominant, when more than 8.0, other mode

shapes are excited.

28
As stated by Himanshu Jaggerwal (2014), in general, bridge analysis was most commonly done by
grillage analysis. With this method, the deck of the bridge is replaced by an equally sized grillage of
beams. A mesh with finer grillage yields more accurate results. This was proven to be adequate enough to
be used for design purposes when compared to more rigorous methods. In-service skewed bridges show
lower critical values of bending moments and vertical defections. Inversely, skewed bridges have been
proved to have larger torsional rotations, shears and moments. Himanshu Jaggerwal (2014) has defined
skewed bridge as bridges with its longitudinal axis not making a right angle with its abutment.
Additionally, effects of skew in bridges are more significant at angles more the 30.

Grillage Idealization of T-Beam Bridge Cross Section

In Grillage Analogy Method, the grillage should theoretically look like the actual T Beam Bridge to test
accurately its true behavior. However, the calculation of the properties of structure and exact modelling
are proved to be too demanding and lengthy. So in order to address the problem, approximations are
allowed for simplicity and ease of modelling.

Since the whole bridge deck is approximately divided into a no. of longitudinal and transverse
beams so the size of the gridlines has to be fixed. The designer is responsible to carefully fix the
sizes of the gridlines. The distribution of bending stress in the flange of the T-Beam Bridge is not
uniform as suggested by the simple bending theory, so the effective width concept is used to
define the width of the flange of the T-section. For this purpose assistance from IRC 21: 2000
clause 305.15 was sought in the selection of sizes of T-Beam. It suggests:

be = bw + lo / 5

Where, be = effective flange width of T-Beam; bw = width of T-Beam and lo = distance between the
points of contra flexure.

Grid Pattern

29
 Grillage Models for 10 m span bridge

Plan of grillage of 0, 15, 30, 45 and 60 skew bridges is shown in Fig 3 to 7. One
intermediate cross girder is provided at center while two end girders are provided.
Pin supports have been provided at the end of each longitudinal girder.

Fig 3: Plan of Grillage Model of Fig 4: Plan of Grillage Model of

10 m span, 0 skew Bridge 10 m span, 15 skew Bridge

Fig 5: Typical plan of Fig 6: Typical plan of

Grillage Model of 10 m 30 Grillage Model of 10 m 45
skew skew

30
 Fig 7: Typical plan of
Grillage Model of 10 m 60
skew
Idealization of Vehicle

The vehicle idealized for the live load application is as shown in figure below. The
load values shown in the longitudinal details are the axle loads and since there are
two wheels on each axle, so the values are halved when seen in the transverse
view. The loads were placed both centrally and eccentrically and an increment of
0.1 m was given to each train of load.

Class A Vehicle

Front Axle

Effect of Arrangement of Loading

31
The Class A vehicle was placed centrally on G3 & G4 and The maximum moments
obtained in the girders G1, G2, G3, G4 and G5 were recorded. The maximum
moment occurred simultaneously in all girders for 00 skew angle but for other skew
angles it occurred with some lag due to skew effects. The lag increased with skew
angle. A total of 554 KN load was applied in this loading on 18.8m distance. Results
from output of analysis of bridge decks are shown in following graphs for three
lanes Class A loading. Graphs were plotted for different skew angles versus:

Maximum Shear Force

Maximum Bending moment

Maximum Torsion

Maximum Positive Reaction

Maximum Negative Reaction

Fig. 8: Maximum Shear

Force Three Lane of Class A

32
Fig. 9: Maximum Bending Fig. 10: Maximum Torsion
Moment Three Lane of Three Lane of Class A
Class A

Fig. 11: Maximum Positive Fig. 12: Maximum Negative

Reaction Three Lane of Reaction Three Lane of
Class A Class A

33
 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

A. Analytical Framework
Comparison of Application of Grillage Analysis Method and Finite Element Method in Capacity Assess

Exploratio

Selection

Analysi

Establish

Figure 3.1 Sequence of Research

34
1. Setting of Objective

To start this study, the researchers devised the general and specific objectives. These

objectives determined the areas of focus of the study and presents a summary of its

content. In setting up the objectives, the researchers have considered the significance of

the findings in this study, on how it will be useful to the readers and the society.

2. Exploration of different methodologies

Through the use of the past related studies, theses and researches, the researchers

investigated on the different methodologies or approaches that would be useful in

evaluating the bridges capacity. Such studies, theses and researches were extracted from

local and foreign literatures.

3. Selection of the optimum methodology

Among the accumulated methodologies, the researchers singled out the optimum

approach that would best fit the objectives of the study. They thoroughly weighed the

functions of each methodology to find out which is the most applicable to the subject of

the study which is Nagtahan R. Magsaysay Link Road and of course to the tool that will

be used, the SAP2000 and the STAAD PRO. SAP2000 is a general purpose finite

element program which performs the static or dynamic, linear or nonlinear analysis of

structural systems. It is also a powerful design tool to design structures following

AASHTO specifications, ACI and AISC building codes. STAAD or (STAAD.Pro) is a

structural analysis and design computer program originally developed by Research

Engineers International at Yorba Linda, CA in 1997. In late 2005, Research Engineers

International was bought by Bentley Systems. (Deng and Ghosn, Structural Analysis with

SAP2000).

4. Gathering of data

35
 Quantitative data such as the present properties and specifications of the bridges

structural members, such as section properties, post-tensioning details and strength and

specification of each member, were gathered. These data are all necessary inputs to the

SAP2000 and STAAD PRO software to finally assess the bridges capacity through the

most accurate method.

5. Analysis and interpretation of data

The researchers subjected the gathered data to a comprehensive analysis and interpreted

the results, satisfying the objectives of the study. This was done by either Finite Element

method or Grillage Analysis method. In the interpretation of results, the researchers

assessed the actual capacity of each structural member of the said bridge, such results are

either in concentrated loads (kilonewton or kN) or moment loads (kilonewton-meter or

kN-m).

6. Establishment of significant findings

A conclusion was made based on the interpreted results, finding out the actual capacity of

the structural members of Nagtahan R. Magsaysay Link Road in Pandacan, Manila

Philippines. And upon arriving to such conclusion, the objectives of the study were met.

A recommendation was therefore made upon the comparison of the two methods of

bridge design used in the study. Apart from this, recommendations regarding the studys

own improvement or future related studies were established by the researchers as well.

B. Conceptual Framework

As shown in the diagram below (Figure 3.2), the INPUT presents the quantitative

data gathered in the study such as the section properties, post-tensioning details, and strength

and specification of each structural member of the Nagtahan R. Magsaysay Link Road.

36
Quantitative Data Pertaining to the ActualInvestigation
Determination
Properties of by
ofFinite
the Capacity
Nagtahan Element of
Analysis
the Structural
R. Magsaysay and Grillage
Link Members
Road Analys
o
section properties using SAP2000 deck
post-tensioning details using STAAD PRO girde
strength and specification of each member capping beam or
rectangular

Input Process Outpu

Figure 3.2 Conceptual Diagram

These data served as the independent variables in order to accomplish the

objectives of the study. In addition, the said data were accumulated from the filed records of

the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH). DPWH is one of the three

executive departments of the Philippine government responsible for undertaking major

infrastructure projects. Therefore, DPWH is the only reliable source of information for the

subject of this thesis.

The PROCESS, on the other hand, describes how the gathered data were utilized

in the study in order to come up with the significant findings. In this study, Finite Analysis

Method and Grillage Analysis Method were conducted through the use of the SAP2000 and

STAAD PRO software.

37
 Finally, in the OUTPUT, the diagram shows the dependent variables that were

obtained in the study. These parameters, which are the capacity of the deck, column, capping

beam or column cap, and rectangular column of a single span of Nagtahan R. Magsaysay

Link Road, were based from the inputs (or independent variables) and the conducted process

in the course of the study.

38
 REFERENCES

Imhof, D. (2004). Risk Assessment of Existing Bridge Structures

Marg, K.K., Puram, R.K. (2010). Guidelines for Evaluation of Load Carrying Capacity of

Bridges

Structures Engineering Main Roads Western Austraila. (2009). Structures Engineering

Design Manual. Retrieved from https://www.mainroads.wa.gov.au/Documents/SE

%20Design%20Manual%203_8_11.PDF

California Department of Transportation (Caltrans). (2015). Bridge Design Practice.

Retrieved from

Wineiwski, D.F. (2007). Safety Formats for the Assessment of Concrete Bridges

Wang, N. (2010). Reliability Based Condition Assessment of Existing Highway Bridges

Grahn, M. (2012). Structural Analysis and Design of Concrete Bridges

Technical Standards Branch Alberta Transportation: Bridge Load Evaluation Manual.

(2015). Retrieved from

http://www.transportation.alberta.ca/Content/docType253/Production/BridgeLoadEvaluat

ionManualv1(Final%20June%2010%202015).pdf

Deng, L., Ghosn, M. Structural Analysis with SAP2000.

Abdelraouf M.R, Matlock, H. (1972) Finite Element Analysis of Bridge Decks.

Amirahmad, A., Al-Sinaidi,A.R. (2013). Analysis of Integral Bridges by Finite Element

Method.

Moses, F., Verma, D. (1987). Load Capacity Evaluation of Existing Bridges.

39
 Paeglitis, A., Paeglitis A. (2010) Simple Classification Method for the Bridge Capacity

Rating

Test the Strength of Structural Members. (2013). Retrieved from

https://bridgecontest.org/assets/2013/09/la2.pdf

Sika Philippines. (2016). Construction Solution and Systems for New Build Bridges and

Refurbishment Projects. Retrieved from

http://phl.sika.com/en/solutions_products/solutions-for-projects.html

Burauen Bridges Assessment (20130. Retreived from

http://www.logcluster.org/sites/default/files/documents/Logistics

%2520Cluster_Philippines_Assessment_Burauen%2520Bridges_131228.pdf

Retrofitting of Adgawan Bridge in Philippines. (2014). Retrieved from

http://www.fyfeasia.com/Utilities/MakePDF.aspx?pid=%7B27798772-5786-4158-8B7E-

ACD1848B7A4E%7D

Estaero, R., Kawashima, K., Pacheco, B. (2009). Seismic Retrofitting Technologies for

Bridges to Reduce the Environmental Impact of Earthquake on Existing Structures.

40
 APPENDIX

Guidelines on how to use SAP2000:

Part 1 Preprocessing

1. Selecting the units for the structure

From the combo (i.e. the drop down list) in the main windows status bar, choose

the units for this project.

2. Setting up geometry.

Two ways to set up the structures geometry:

a. from the SAP2000s templates

Click on the File menu.

Select New Model from Template. This will display the Model

Template dialog box.

Then, click on the template which most closely resembles the

structure you want to analyze. This will display the template dialog

box.

In this dialog box, choose the suitable parameters.

Click OK button.

The screen will refresh and display 3-D and 2-D views of the model in

vertically tiled adjoining windows. You can activate the one you plan to work in

by clicking the windows title. You can use any of the two windows if you wish.

41
 b. by creating a completely new model

On the File menu, choose the New Model. The window of

coordinate system definition will show.

Then, enter the appropriate grid information. The cross points of

the grid will define the necessary joints of your structure. This will

display the 3-D and 2-D view window with grid displayed in

vertically tiled adjoining windows.

You can close the 3-D windows if you wish. Active the 2-D view

by click the x-y button in toolbox or by clicking any point inside

the 2-D window.

On the Draw menu, choose "Draw From Element". Draw your

structure in the grid based on the grid spacing defined in 2nd step.

Click your left mouse button to define the joints. Every joint needs

one click. SAP2000 will connect the joints automatically. Double

click the left mouse button to stop the action of connection. To see

the modified structure, from the display menu, choose the show

undeformed shape.

3. Defining material and member section properties.

a. On the Define menu, choose Material. This will display the window of define

material.

b. If your material is standard steel or concrete, you can click Modify/Show

Material button and use the library supplied properties. Click the OK button to

42
 accept appropriate properties. Otherwise click the button Add New Material to

define a new materials properties, or the button Modify/Show material to

change the librarys data according to your materials properties.

c. From the Define menu, choose Frame section. This will display the Frame

sections dialog box.

d. Then, you can define a new section type, import a sections geometry from the

SAP2000s library, or modify a sections geometry from the default values.

Suppose you have two rectangular sections, you need the following steps to

define these sections.

Highlight the FSEC1 in the box frame name.

Click the Modify/Show section button. This will display the window of

rectangular section dialog box.

Choose the corresponding material from the material combo, type in the

number in the sections width and heights text box. Click ok to terminate

this dialog box and return to Frame sections dialog box.

Choose Add rectangular in the second combo box. This will display the

rectangular section dialog box.

Repeat the 3rd step to define the properties of section.

If you want to delete a section type, you highlight the sections name

which is to be deleted, then click the button delete sections.

e. Click on the OK button to return the main window.

4. Assigning member section properties and element releases.

43
Three selection methods to assign member properties:

support

restraints

loads

Three ways to select member sections:

By clicking the members one by one after you click on the pointer tool

button on the floating toolbox.

By dragging a rectangular box after you click on the pointer tool button on

the floating toolbox. All of the objects inside this rectangular will be

selected simultaneously.

By drawing a straight line after you click the "Sect intersecting line select

mode" button on the floating toolbox. All the objects intersecting the line

you draw will be simultaneously selected.

To assign member section properties, follow these steps:

a. Select a group of members which have the same sections by one of the 3

selection methods described above.

b. From Assign menu, choose Frame, then Section from the submenu. This

will display the define frame sections dialog box.

c. In the name area of this dialog box, click the section corresponding to this

selected group (e.g. FSECT1 or FSECT2, etc).

d. Repeat steps a, b and c until you have assigned a section for every member

of the structure.

44
 e. Select a group of members which will be assigned the same member

releases.

f. From Assign menu, choose Frame, then Release from the submenu. This

will display the frame release dialog box.

g. Choose the appropriate release parameters for the already selected

members. If these members are truss members, click the check-boxes of

torsion-start, moment22-start, moment22-end, moment33-start and

moment33-end.

h. Repeat steps e, f and g until you finish to assign release properties for all

the necessary members.

5. Defining load cases.

To give the applied loads information,

a. From Define menu, choose Static load cases. The define load case dialog

box will display.

b. This dialog box will display the default load, LOAD1, with type set to

Dead, and self-weight multiplier set to unity. This will automatically

include the self-weight of structural members in the analysis based on

preset specific weights given in function of the material type. We dont

have to change anything for this first load case. But if you wish to enter

the weight by yourself and put it as joint load, or if you want to ignore the

offset of the dead weight, then you should change the self-weight

multiplier to 0 to avoid count the self-weight twice.

45
 c. Define additional load cases, change the LOAD1 to LOAD2 (or the case

you defined), select load type from the Type drop-down list box, change

the self-weight multiplier to appropriate number. In most times, you

change the self-weight multiplier to 0 because dead load already count

dead load in LOAD1). Then click on the Add new Load button to notify

SAP2000. Repeat this step until you define all the load cases.

In the following section of assigning joint load cases, you must assign a

numerical volume and the location of each joint loads for every load cases.

d. Finally, click OK to go back to the main window.

6. Assigning load magnitudes.

To assign joint loads,

a. Select the joints which have the same joint loads. You can use one of the

three selection methods used previously to select members.

b. From the Assign menu, choose Joint Static Loads, then Force from the

submenu. This will display the Joint forces dialog box.

c. In this dialog box, accept the default load case name as LOAD1, enter the

corresponding joint force components in the Load area. Click OK to

accept the above joint loads.

d. Repeat steps a, b and c until you assign all the joint loads of this load case

defined to this structure.

e. Repeat steps a, b, c and d until you finish every load cases load

assignment.

46
 7. Assigning restraint

Restraints are necessary for the structure for it to become stable,

otherwise the structure will become a free body and will not be analyzed by

SAP2000. To apply joint restraints,

a. Click the Pointer Tool button, i.e. in the Floating Toolbar.

b. Click the joints which have the same restraints.

c. From the Assign menu, choose the Joint Restraints from the submenu.

This will display the joint restraint dialog box.

d. Then choose the appropriate restraint parameter. Then click OK to accept

this assignment.

e. Repeat steps a, b, c and d until you finish the restraint assignment.

Part 2 Solving

1. From the Analysis menu, select Set Option. This will display the Analysis Option

dialog box.

2. Then check the available DOF.

3. Click OK to accept what you choose.

4. From the analysis menu, select Run. This will display the Save Model File

as dialog box.

5. In the dialog box, save the model under a filename. No extension is necessary.

47
 6. Click the OK button, the analysis will begin. A top window is opened in which the

various phases of analysis process are progressively reported. When the analysis

is complete, the screen will display the message "ANALYSIS COMPLETE".

7. Click OK button in the top window to close it.

Part 3 Post processing

The three fundamental options in post processing are:

1. Displaying the deformed shape.

After the analysis is complete, SAP2000 automatically displays the

deformed shape of the model for the default load case, LOAD1, in the active

display window. We can now display the deformed shape for another load case in

one of the two view windows.

a. Activate one of the two view windows by clicking anywhere inside that

window.

b. Click the display deformed shape button on the floating toolbar. This will

display the deformed shape dialog box.

c. In the drop down list in the load area of this dialog box, select the load

case to be displayed, then click OK button. The deformed shape will show.

2. Displaying the member forces

a. From the Display menu, click the Show Element Forces/Stress Frames.

This will display the member force diagram dialog box.

48
 b. In the dialog box, select the component which need to display in

the Component area, and click the OK button. By moving cursor to a

specific location, we can read the values of the force at that point.

3. Printing the results.

a. From File menu, select Print Output Table. In the display dialog box, click

OK to accept the default setting. The detailed output results will be

printed.

b. From File menu, select Print Input Table. In the display dialog box, click

OK to accept the default setting. The detailed input information will be

printed.

When we analyze a structure, by default, SAP2000 will create

three output files: filename.out, filename.log and filename.EKO. The output

file, filename.out stores the output of your analysis; filename.EKO stores the

input information for this structure; and filename.log take all of the running

information. These files are text files. You can print these files using computer

operating system. For example, we can print these files from Notepad. The

steps are:

Open Notepad by double clicking the Notepad icon on the main

window.

From the File menu, choose Open. This will display a standard

Microsoft file selection dialog box.

Choose the drive and subdirectory where your file is located.

49
 Click on the file name you want to display and print (any one of

filename.out, filename.EKO, or filename.log.).

Click OK to terminate this dialog box. Your file will display by

Notepad.

Review the file to make sure your results are correct.

From File menu, choose Print. This will display the print dialog

box.

Click OK to accept the default print setting. Your file will print on

background.

Repeat steps b, c, d, e, f, g and h to print another file.

50