Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 1 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to curriculum. It
provides insights to the types of curriculum, relationship between curriculum,
syllabus, course and programme. It also looks at the the forces that influence
curriculum construction..
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CONTENT
Exercise 1
Originated from the Latin word currere referring to the oval track upon which
Roman chariots raced (means literally to run a course). A plan for achieving
goals (Tyler and Taba). Tanner (1980) defined curriculum as the planned and
guided learning experiences and intended outcomes, formulated through the
systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the auspices
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of the school, for the learners continuous and wilful growth in personal social
competence.
Schubert (1987) defines curriculum as the contents of a subject, concepts
and tasks to be acquired, planned activities, the desired learning outcomes
and experiences, product of culture and an agenda to reform society.
Pratt (1980) defines curriculum as a written document that systematically
describes goals planned, objectives, content, learning activities, evaluation
procedures and so forth. Goodlad and Su (1992) define curriculum as a plan
that consists of learning opportunities for a specific timeframe and place, a
tool that aims to bring about behavioural changes in students as a result of
planned activities and includes all learning experiences received by students
with the guidance of the school.
Curriculum is:
That which is taught in school;
A set of subjects;
Content;
A programme of studies;
A set of materials;
Sequence of courses;
A set of performance objectives;
A course of study;
Everything that goes on within a school;
Everything that is planned by school personnel;
That which is taught both inside and outside of school directed by the
school;
A series of experiences undergone by learners in school; and
That which an individual learner experiences as a result of schooling.
Source: Peter F. Oliva, Developing the Curriculum. Boston: Little, Brown & Company.
1982.
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Be able to do (skills);
How it is taught (instruction);
How it is measured (assessment); and
How the educational system is organised (context).
It is a structured plan of intended learning outcomes, involving knowledge,
skills, behaviour and associated learning experiences organised as a
sequence of events that a student acquires through education and training.
How we conceive of the curriculum is important because our conceptions and
ways of reasoning about curriculum reflect how we think, study and act on
the education made available to students. In short, how we define the
curriculum reflects our assumptions about the world (Cornbleth, 1990).
Tutorial Task
Enacted Curriculum
Null Curriculum
That which we do not teach, thus giving students the message that these
elements are not important in their educational experiences or in our society.
Tutorial Task
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Political
Economic
Education was primarily didactic and learning was less book-based that it is
today. Controlled largely by the teacher, education focused predominantly on
basic skills. Teachers taught reading, writing and arithmetic to complement
the skill students learn outside school.
By the beginning of the 20th century, the industrial revolution brought about
drastic changes in the economy of many countries. More people moved to
live in cities and working in factories. As a consequence new skills were
needed in an industrial society. It was then that a great change took pace in
education: the model of schools as a factory emerged. Students were taught
the facts and skills they needed for industrial jobs, which they were likely to
hold their entire lives. One-room schools were eventually replaced by large
buildings. Students were sorted by grades and sat in straight rows, with a
teacher at the front of the classroom in control of learning. The curriculum
was compartmentalised.
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Social
Society is increasingly becoming diverse, especially in urban areas. Societies
are becoming more multicultural, multiethnic and multi-religious and it is
important that curriculum understands and reflect these changes. As stated
by Ornstein and Hunkins (1998), the complexion of our students is changing
from one colour to various shades of colour and this adding of colour and
cultural diversity will continue into the foreseeable future (p.146). As the
world moves towards becoming a global village, society will become even
more diverse with people bringing in new values, new languages and a new
way of life.
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Reflection
Do you think that the syllabuses & textbooks used in our country adequately
reflect your national ideology & the demands of our society?
Then take a break and move on to the next topic when you are ready.
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2.0 SYNOPSIS
2.3 CONTENT
Exercise 1
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Tutorial Task
After identifying the objectives (which are the desired learning outcomes), the
curriculum developer has to pass them through two screens: the *philosophy
screen and the **psychology screen. Resulting from this are specific
instructional objectives which state the kind of outcomes that are observable
are measurable.
Wheelers Model
1
Aims, goals and
objectives
5 2
Evaluation Selection of
learning experiences
4 3
Organisation and Selection of
integration of content
experiences
Aims are formulated from the general to the specific in curriculum planning.
This results in the formulation of objectives at both an enabling and a terminal
level.
Tutorial Task
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1. Diagnosis of needs.
2. Formulation of objectives.
3. Selection of content.
4. Organization of content.
5. Selection of learning experiences.
6. Organization of learning experiences.
7. Determination of what to evaluate and the ways and means of doing it.
This procedure has defined curriculum design since that time. Curriculum
design became little more than a determination of goals, activities, content,
delivery systems and assessment techniques. Curriculum design became
basically little more than an exercise in solving a series of problems.
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1) Scope - Scope refers to both the breadth and depth of content and
includes all topics, learning experiences and organising threads found in the
curriculum plan. Scope not only refers to cognitive learning but also affective
learning, and some would argue spiritual learning (Goodland & Zhixin Su,
1992). Sometimes the scope of a curriculum is narrow, consisting of just a
simple listing of key topics and activities.
The basis of NPEs philosophy is that humans are steadfast in their belief in
god and their religion. The ultimate aim of education based on this
philosophy therefore is to develop every aspect of individuals in a
harmonious and balanced manner so as to preserve their wellbeing.
Knowledge and education should path the way to goods ethics and moral
values as responsible and learned members of the community and nation.
A core concept of the NPE is the value and role of knowledge in the
development of individuals and their role in the community. More importantly,
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the value of knowledge lies in the truth of the matter which serves not only to
inform but also to transform and shape individuals to serve the community.
This power of knowledge that is able to transform individuals and their
networks makes it a very valuable commodity. Education is a lifelong process
and man is constantly in need to expand, explore and verify existing
knowledge. Experience does not only enrich and strengthen knowledge but
also re-examine and increase the capacity of existing knowledge possessed
by individuals.
KSSR has one new word in it Standard. In this new curriculum, there are set
standards of learning that our children have to achieve at the different levels
of their schooling. This means that when our children complete a particular
level of schooling, they are expected to have achieved a preset standard of
knowledge, skills and values. At specific times at each level these learning
standards will be measured to ensure that no child gets left behind. If a child
fails to meet the required standard, the teacher is required to do more
revision activities with the child until he or she eventually achieves the
required standard.
In KSSR, for the primary school, the English Language syllabus is divided
into two separate levels. KSSR Level 1 is made up of Year One, Year Two
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and Year Three while KSSR Level 2 comprises of Year Four, Year Five and
Year Six.
Although the KBSR was student centered, the KSSR seem to be even more
focused to make learning fun and meaningful to the young learners. The
classroom atmosphere is more relaxed where students are given more room
for decision-making and encouraged to voice their opinions. Apart from the
3Ms (reading, writing and counting), the new curriculum has 4Ms, with
Reasoning added to the original 3Ms. The need for our children to think and
reason, of making connections between their actions and consequences is
now stressed. There is a shift from rote learning where students simply
followed instructions and are overly dependent on teachers. Students are
now being taught to be active decision makers and be accountable for their
actions. There also seems to be time allocated for Chinese and Tamil
languages within the school timetable to ensure that students need not
remain in school for long hours. The new curriculum also appears to be
moving away from an exam-oriented system and the streaming of students
according to their academic ability is discouraged. In the KSSR, students are
encouraged to work together and help each other rather than being focused
on competing to being the best. Although academic achievement is
important, it is no longer everything. Character development and values are
also given prominence.
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The Integrated Primary School Curriculum is divided into two phases that is
Phase 1 (Year1-3) and Phase II (Year 4-6). The curriculum emphasises the
mastery, reinforcement and application of the 3Rs and the acquisition of
complex skills and knowledge. Also, emphasised is the development of
positive attitudes and values. The content is divided into six components:
basic skills, humanities, art and recreation, values and attitudes, living skills
and communication skills.
The compulsory subjects are Bahasa Malaysia, English, mathematics,
Islamic Education, moral education, music, art, physical education, science,
local studies and living skills.
Reflection
Do you think that the curriculum used in our country is based on a particular
curriculum design model?
Summary
3.0 SYNOPSIS
Considerations in
designing curriculum
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3.3 CONTENT
Tutorial Task
Needs
Needs Analysis
Analysis
Constraints
Constraints Target Group
Target Group
Assessment
Assessment &&
Evaluation
Evaluation
Consideration in
Consideration in
Curriculum
Curriculum
Design
Design
Monitoring
Monitoring &
& Content
Content
Support
Support
Learning
Learning theories,
theories,
Material Selection
Material Selection approaches
approaches &&
methods
methods
Personnel
Personnel
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Need analysis
Target Group
exist? What are the tasks currently performed by the target audience and
what new skill level is required following the training?
What are the available delivery options and methods for transferring the new
skills to the workplace? What is the instructional setting; e.g. lectures,
tutorials, on-the-job, self study, etc? How do these skills connect to the
intended audience?
What is the timeline for programme completion?
Curriculum should be appropriate for:
- personal development (attitudes, behaviours)
- social development (communication)
- aesthetic development
- interpersonal/intrapersonal development
- physical development
- Intellectual development
- Multiple intelligence (linguistic, spatial, musical, logical-mathematical)
The stated aims of a curriculum tell students what are the results of studying
it is likely to be. (what would they gain by learning from it). Aims are not the
same as desired learning outcomes.
a) aims should relate to the combined impact of the curriculum, the pedagogy
and the assessment of the various elements.
b) desired learning outcomes need to be student oriented, and should point
to the knowledge, skills, competencies and attitudes of those students who
successfully complete the course.
Aims and Learning Objectives - Aim statements are broad and all
encompassing, while, desired objective/learning outcomes are
specific, behavioural, student- focussed statements.
Content selection
- the topics
- issues or subjects that will be covered as it proceeds
When selecting content for curriculum, you should bear in mind the following
principles:
3) it should be up-to-date.
The students should be aware of whats happening around them and
the world.
The content should be constantly updated.
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1) Subject-centred design
Subject-Centred Designs are by far the most popular and widely used
curriculum design. This is because knowledge and content are well accepted
as integral parts of the curriculum. Since acquiring a body of content is
integral in any school system, much thought has focused on how best to
present the knowledge, skills and values of the subjects to learners and the
following five approaches have been proposed:
Why is this model of curriculum design widely adopted? One reason given is
that it is much easily interpreted in textbooks and commercially available
support materials. Since teaching is essentially a verbal activity (whether it be
lecture, recitation, group discussion) teachers find it easier to communicate
the ideas and knowledge of a subject presented in verbal form in textbooks.
Also, people are familiar with this format, having gone through it themselves
when in school.
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However, critics argue that this design deemphasises the learner by taking
away their rights to choose the content that is most meaningful to them. The
focus on the subject matter fails to foster social, psychological and physical
development and to some extent, fosters an elite ruling class based on
knowledge (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998).
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separate subjects nor five different subject areas to be fused into one, then
the correlation design model might be an alternative. For example, you may
want to just fuse or correlate history with literature at the secondary school
level. For example, in a history lesson the class learns about the Japanese
occupation of Malaysia. During the literature class, students read novels
about life during that time period. However, each subject retains its own
distinct identity.
2) Learner-centred design
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about the information given to them. Learners will value what they learn if
they are allowed to construct their own knowledge. When learners create
meaning, they have ownership over what they have learned resulting in
genuine thought.
The humanistic design became popular in the 60s and 70s in response to
excessive overemphasis on the disciplines during the 50s and early 60s in
the United States. Proponents of the humanistic design based their
arguments on the principles of humanistic psychology. A basic question
asked is whether the curriculum has allowed a person to truly achieve his or
her full potential. The curriculum should be designed to empower learners to
be involved in the process of realising their potential. Greater emphasis was
placed on the affective domain to permit students to feel and to value. One of
the proponents of the humanistic curriculum design was Carl Rogers (1902-
1987) who argued that the aim of education is the facilitation of learning. To
facilitate learning, the teacher accepts learners as persons, placing
importance on their feelings and their opinions; while caring for them. In other
words, the teacher is able to view the world through the students eyes. With
such a curriculum, learners become fully functional persons capable of
intelligent choice; are critical learners able to approach problem situations
with flexibility; and are able to work cooperatively with others (Ornstein &
Hunkins, 1998). The humanistic curriculum design focuses on the
interconnectedness of the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. The
design stresses the development of positive self-concept and interpersonal
skills of learners. The humanistic curriculum requires teacher with great skills
and competence in dealing with individuals. This may be difficult to obtain in
all teachers. There is also a tendency to overemphasise the individual and
ignore the needs of the society.
3) Problem-centred design
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In any society, there are persistent life situations that are crucial to a societys
successful functioning. Examples of such life situations are healthy living, use
of leisure time, ethics, racial tolerance, citizenship skills and so forth. It was
argued by its advocates that it makes educational sense to organise a
curriculum around such life situations. Students will direct relevance in
studying such social issues when they are related to their world. Also, having
students study social or life situations will encourage them to seek ways to
improve society. The life situations that need to be emphasised in schools will
depend on what students need before they enter the working world and
assume adult responsibilities. However, some needs and interests have
already been met by the family, religious institutions and other community
organisations. So, the schools should address those needs not met by these
institutions.
The life-centred situations curriculum has been criticised because students
do not learn much subject matter. However, proponents of the model state
that this is not true because the design draws heavily from the traditional
subject areas. The content is organised in a manner that allows students to
see problems faced by society. In addressing society's pressing problems,
content is drawn from different subject areas to explain and find solutions to
current issues
(b) Core-design
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What are the constraints affecting the teaching and learning process?
Are the teaching and learning methods appropriate for the selected
assessment methods?
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Whether the learners entry requirements are well defined and at the
right level.
Whether the materials and delivery are pitched at the right level for the
learners at different points in the course.
Whether the balance of teaching and learning methods is appropriate
and whether there is enough time to ensure learning.
Whether teachers have the knowledge and skills required to deliver
the curriculum.
Whether the learning resources that have been identified are
adequate, appropriate and available.
Monitoring and Support
Constraints
What are the program constraints? Technological: ICT, lab, LCDs etc.
-Timing: Implementation, Readiness
- Duration: Length lectures,
- Co-curriculum, practicum, internship, etc
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Summary
Curriculum design is a complex activity both conceptually and its
implementation. Designing a curriculum requires a vision of educations
meaning and purpose. Curriculum design must be carefully considered so
that the curriculum imparts essential knowledge, skills and attitudes.
Relax and move on to the next topic when you are ready.
4.0 SYNOPSIS
Curriculum
and the
teacher
Role of a Relationship
teacher between teacher
beliefs and
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CONTENT
A teacher's role may vary among cultures. Teachers may provide instruction
in literacy and numeracy, craftsmanship or vocational training, the arts,
religion, civics, community roles, or life skills.
Exercise 1
a. Define a teacher?
b. What are the roles of teachers in curriculum development?
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in any curriculum implementation process not all teachers will have the
benefit of such exposure. There are just too many teachers and insufficient
funds to go around. The most common approach is to have one-day
workshops given by experts with the lecture method being the dominant
pedagogical strategy. Among the many extrinsic factors identified that may
impede curriculum change are adequacy of resources, time, school ethos
and professional support. The intrinsic factors are: professional knowledge,
professional adequacy and professional interest and motivation.
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Factors Description
School ethos Overall school beliefs towards the new curriculum.
Status of the curriculum as viewed by staff,
administrators and community; e.g. school
administration recognises the importance of the
subject in the overall school curriculum.
Professional Support for teachers from both within the school and
support outside; e.g. opportunities to receive ongoing
curriculum professional support
Leader who can inspire and influence students through expert and
referent power but never coercive power. This teacher knows his
students well and is kind and respectful towards his students. He has
high standards and expectations coexisting with encouragement,
support and flexibility. The teacher empower students and get them to
do things of which they did not think they were capable.
Coach/guide who helps students to improve on their skills and insights.
Disseminator of knowledge and skills
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1. Education arises from two Latin terms that is educare and educere.
Educare is to lead, draw or bring out; to unsheathe/uncover. The
etymology emphasizes the militaristic aspect of the word; the word
involved leading or bringing out the troops or unsheathing ones
sword- the notion of preparing for battle.
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4.3.7 Researcher
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In some countries, formal education can take place through home schooling.
Informal learning may be assisted by a teacher occupying a transient or
ongoing role, such as a family member, or by anyone with knowledge or skills
in the wider community setting.
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Exercise 2
How do I do it?
Will I ever get the hang of it?
Who can I trust to help me ?
Am I getting it right?
Is it really helping my students?
Know it is going to take time...
Tutorial Task
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Summary
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5.0 SYNOPSIS
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Exercise
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Tutorial Task
The Teacher
The Learners
From your experience, you are aware that no meaningful teaching and
learning take place without adequate resource materials. This applies to
curriculum implementation as well.
For the officially designed curriculum to be fully implemented as per plan, the
government or Ministry of Education should supply schools with adequate
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Interest Groups
Can you identify interest groups in your country that could influence the
implementation of curricula?
A number of these groups exist in almost all Southern African Development
Community (SADC) countries. These include parents, parents and teachers
associations, School Development Associations (SDAs) and School
Development Committees (SDCs) in Zimbabwe, religious organisations,
local authorities, companies and private school proprietors. These groups
can influence implementation in the following ways:
Instructional Supervision
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Assessment
Self-Assessment
From what you have read so far, list what you can identify as determinants of
curriculum implementation.
5.5.1 Literacy
Literacy is the ability to read and write. The inability to do so is called illiteracy or
analphabetism. Visual literacy also includes the ability to understand visual forms of
communication such as body language, pictures, maps, and video. Evolving
definitions of literacy often include all the symbol systems relevant to a particular
community. Literacy encompasses a complex set of abilities to understand and use
the dominant symbol systems of a culture for personal and community development.
In a technological society, the concept of literacy is expanding to include the media
and electronic text, in addition to alphabetic and number systems. These abilities
vary in different social and cultural contexts according to need, demand and
education.
The primary sense of literacy still represents the lifelong, intellectual process of
gaining meaning from a critical interpretation of the written or printed text. The key to
all literacy is reading development, a progression of skills that begins with the ability
to understand spoken words and decode written words, and culminates in the deep
understanding of text. Reading development involves a range of complex language
underpinnings including awareness of speech sounds (phonology), spelling patterns
(orthography), word meaning (semantics), grammar (syntax) and patterns of word
formation (morphology), all of which provide a necessary platform for reading fluency
and comprehension. Once these skills are acquired, the reader can attain full
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language literacy, which includes the abilities to approach printed material with
critical analysis, inference and synthesis; to write with accuracy and coherence; and
to use information and insights from text as the basis for informed decisions and
creative thought.
Equitable access
Across the globe, UNICEF is committed to nothing less than full and complete
access to free, quality education for every child. Universal access to quality
education is not a privilege it is a basic human right.
With progress towards universal enrolment slowing, it is now without doubt that the
world will not meet its most prominent global education. The current financial crisis
has put extra pressure on stretched public funding. The aid to education has fallen
by 10 per cent since 2010. If funds become scarcer, access to education will
continue to stagnate and the quality of schools will decline, denying the most
vulnerable children in the worlds poorest countries their basic human right to quality
education: without it, their future opportunities are dramatically limited.
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In education, the term equity refers to the principle of fairness. While it is often used
interchangeably with the related principle of equality, equity encompasses a wide
variety of educational models, programs and strategies that may be considered fair,
but not necessarily equal. It is has been said that equity is the process; equality is
the outcome, given that equitywhat is fair and justmay not, in the process of
educating students, reflect strict equalitywhat is applied, allocated, or distributed
equally.
The growing importance of education equity is based on the premise that now, more
than ever before, an individuals level of education is directly correlated to the quality
of life he or she will live in the future. Therefore, an academic system that practices
educational equity is a strong foundation of a society that is fair and thriving.
However, inequity in education is challenging to avoid, and can be broken down into
inequity due to socioeconomic standing, race, gender or disability.
Costs of education
The extraordinarily high cost of the many prestigious high schools and universities in
the United States makes an attempt at a "level playing field" for all students not so
level. High-achieving low-income students do not have the means to attend selective
schools that better prepare a student for later success. Because of this, low-income
students do not even attempt to apply to the top-tier schools for which they are more
than qualified. In addition, neighborhoods generally segregated by class leave lower-
income students in lower-quality schools. For higher-quality schooling, students in
low-income areas would be required to take public transport which they do not have
the means to pay for. Fewer than 30 percent of students in the bottom quarter of
incomes even enroll in a four-year school and among that group, fewer than half
graduate.
Higher education has become too expensive and doesnt do enough to help lower
income students succeed.
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Tracking
Another contributor to the inequality in the education system is tracking. Tracking
sorts students into different classes or groups based on ability or future plans. The
point of tracking is to create an environment in which the student's abilities match
both the curriculum as well as the other student's in the class.
This separation, however, creates an inequality within itself. Starting at an extremely
young age, the sorting of students mimics hierarchy similar to one which will form
later on in life. Students are both viewed and treated differently depending on which
track they take. The quality of teaching and curricula vary between tracks and as a
result, those of the lower track are disadvantaged with inferior resources, teachers,
etc. In many cases, tracking stunts students who may develop the ability to excel
past their original placement.
The educational system and its response to racial concerns in education vary from
country to country. Below are some examples of countries that have to deal with
racial discrimination in education.
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South Africa : A major task of South Africa's new government in 1994 was to
promote racial equity in the state education system. During the apartheid era,
which began when the National Party won control of Parliament in 1948 and
ended with a negotiated settlement more than four decades later, the
provision of education was racially unequal by design. Resources were
lavished on schools serving white students while schools serving the black
majority were systematically deprived of qualified teachers, physical
resources and teaching aids such as textbook and stationary. The rationale for
such inequity was a matter of public record.
Higher education
Higher education plays a vital role in preparing students for the employment market
and active citizenship both nationally and internationally. By embedding race equality
in teaching and learning, institutions can ensure that they acknowledge the
experiences and values of all students, including minority ethnic and international
students.
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like Sudan, Somalia, Thailand and Afghanistan face the highest of inequity when it
comes to gender bias.
Question 1
Why do you think inequities occur in the education system? List down your
recommendations and solutions.
Discussion
To what extent does racial, gender, and socioeconomic discrimination still exist? Is
discrimination no longer a major problem in Malaysian society or in public education?
5.5.4 Multilingualism
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The definition of multilingualism is a subject of debate in the very same way as the
definition of language fluency. On one end of a sort of linguistic continuum, one may
define multilingualism as complete competence and mastery in another language.
The speaker would presumably have complete knowledge and control over the
language so as to sound native. On the opposite end of the spectrum would be
people who know enough phrases to get around as a tourist using the alternate
language. Since 1992, Vivian Cook has argued that most multilingual speakers fall
somewhere between minimal and maximal definitions. Cook calls these people
multi-competent.
Multilingual individuals
Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during
childhood, the so-called first language (L1). The first language (sometimes also
referred to as the mother tongue) is acquired without formal education. Children
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acquiring two languages in this way are called simultaneous bilinguals. Even in the
case of simultaneous bilinguals, one language usually dominates over the other.
In multilingual societies, not all speakers need to be multilingual. Some states can
have multilingual policies and recognise several official languages, such as Canada
(English and French). In some states, particular languages may be associated with
particular regions in the state (e.g., Canada) or with particular ethnicities (e.g.,
Malaysia and Singapore). When all speakers are multilingual, linguists classify the
community according to the functional distribution of the languages involved:
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Thinking question
1. Use of computers in the classroom: Computers have evolved and they have
changed they way the look and the way they function. Now days we have both
desktop computers and portable computers commonly known as notebooks or
laptops. New technologies have also emerged and birthed some new computer
related gadgets like the iPad or Galaxy tablet. These computers can be used by
teachers to assign work to students and study groups in a classroom. Also teachers
can use computers to illustrate visual related subjects which help students to learn
easily. Modern computers come with installed applications which can help students
study well. For example, students can use internet explorer to search the internet,
they can use word processing application to write notes. Teachers can also help their
students to learn complicated applications on these computers as a way of making it
easier for students to learn and also make the teachers job easier.
2. Creating class websites and blogs: It is very easy to create a website or blog
using WordPress or any other content management software. Teachers can create
class blogs were they post assignments. If the school has no website sever to host
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these class blogs, the teacher can use free website hosting services like
wordpress.com or blogger.com. Via these platforms, the teacher will create a blog
under a sub domain of that host. For example, matchclass.wordpress.com, so
students will find all academic assignments via that blog. It is very easy to manage
and post data to a blog, because they have simple HTML editors.
4. Use of mobile devices: Teachers and students can use smart-phones for
academic purposes in the classroom. Mobile learning is becoming so popular. It is
similar to e-learning or long distance education. Though its based on mobile phones.
M-Learning is convenient because it is accessible from anywhere. Mobile phones
are very light yet they can also have the same application a simple PC can have, a
student can access academic information like assignments via an educational mobile
application (APP). Teachers can tell their students to use mobile apps like
PIAZZA to access course materials and also to post questions about specific
subjects, all this can be done in the classroom or outside the classroom.
5. Use of smart interactive Whiteboards: Modern smart white boards have a touch
screen functionality, so the teacher can illustrate points using a pen or their finger.
Using a projector, teachers can display visual images on these white boards which
improves the learning process. Students will learn more easily with visual images.
Also students can use a white board to draw, write or manipulate images. Smart
whiteboards come in various sizes, the wide ones are better, because they can show
a lager image and can also be used by two students at a time. Most of them are
electronically powered , so they can be switched on with a button, and they can also
save teachers work for latter use.
6. Use of online media: Teachers and students can both use online streaming
Medias to learn in the classroom. With the aid of a projector, computer, internet and
a white board, a teacher displays a real-time example using sites like Youtube.com.
This website has videos which can be used for academic reference. Lets take a
simple example on how a Geography class can use technology. Teachers can
explain volcanic activities and its impacts on the environment using live stream
YouTube videos about the subject. This type of illustration will attract the students
attention and they will learn easily.
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7. Use of online study tools : Online study tools like Dynamic Periodic Table
(ptable.com) which can be used by Chemistry students in keeping elements apart ,
Foldit (fold.it) this tool can help biology students easily understand basics about
proteins. Mathway (Mathway.com) this helps math students solve math challenges,
students can simply select a subject and hit solve, the equation will be solved by the
tool. All these academic tools can improve the way students learn.
Question 2
Malaysias unique diversity - ethnic, religious, and cultural - has always been its
greatest strength, and its greatest challenge. As Malaysia increasingly finds itself in a
world where differences can divide, it has never been more important for Malaysians
to forge a Malaysian identity and to embrace our diverse heritage. As a shared space
for all Malaysians, schools have a unique potential to be a place to foster unity. The
challenge is that to date, the system has struggled to measure unity in a systematic
manner. The best available data suggests that student and teacher diversity in
National schools has decreased, although there is still a fair degree of interactivity
across ethnicities inside and outside the classroom.
Unity, a vital component in Malaysias truly unique social context, is a key factor in
realising a society of balanced and harmonious individuals as envisioned in the
National Education Philosophy. To that end, the Ministry has taken a range of
actions, from ensuring that all ethnicities are fairly represented in the teaching
materials used in schools, to organising school-based programmes explicitly focused
on building unity. The critical question, however, is how unity can be measured. This
section considers several possible measures to paint a picture of where the system
stands. Student enrolment in the overall public education system remains broadly
reflective of national demographics. However, there are specific schooling options
that have homogenous environments. For example, primary school students across
all options are in highly homogeneous environments. The challenge is that these
homogeneous environments make it less likely for students to receive exposure to
students of different cultures and ethnic groups, and thus less likely to develop the
respect for diversity critical for unity. However, there is some convergence in
secondary school. Most students from the various primary schools enrol in a single
secondary school format; the SMK. Nevertheless, some students still receive limited
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The Malaysian education system comprises over 20 schooling options at both the
primary and secondary levels.
a) Public primary schools. The primary level comprises three main types of
schools: SK, SJK(C), and SJK(T). Each type of school is defined by different
mediums of instruction and jointly accounts for almost 99% of total primary
enrolments. In addition, there are numerous school types serving niche groups, such
as religious (Islamic) and special education schools.
c) Private schools. A small but growing number of students enrol in private schools.
These schools operate at both the primary and secondary level and include private
schools that teach the national curriculum, international schools, religious schools,
and Independent Chinese schools. Currently, private schools comprise 1% of total
primary enrolments and 4% of total secondary enrolments.
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In the United Kingdom, special needs often refers to special needs within an
educational context. This is also referred to as special educational needs (SEN). In
the United States, 18.5 percent of all children under the age of 18 (over 13.5 million
children) had special health care needs as of 2005.
More narrowly, it is a legal term applying in foster care in the United States, derived
from the language in the Adoption and Safe Families Act of 1997. It is a diagnosis
used to classify children as needing "more" services than those children without
special needs who are in the foster care system. It is a diagnosis based on behavior,
childhood and family history and is usually made by a health care professional.
Trouble learning the alphabet, rhyming words, and connecting letters to sounds.
Making many mistakes when reading aloud
Not understanding what they are reading
Awkward pencil grip and poor handwriting skills
Trouble understanding jokes and sarcasm
Trouble following multiple directions
Trouble organizing thoughts and what they want to say
Not following social rules of conversation
Confusing mathematical symbols and numbers
Not being able to tell a story in order
Not knowing where to begin a task
Emotional and/or social issues
Trouble sleeping or getting along with family
No one knows for sure what causes learning disorders. Sometimes there is no
apparent reason.
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Problems during Pregnancy or Birth: Disabilities can result from fetal exposure
to alcohol or drugs, low birth weight, oxygen deprivation or by premature birth.
Accidents After Birth: Head injury, malnutrition or toxic exposure can increase a
child's risk.
Individual needs
A special education program should be customized to address each individual
student's unique needs. Special educators provide a continuum of services, in which
students with special needs receives varying degrees of support based on their
individual needs. Special education programs need to be individualized so that they
address the unique combination of needs in a given student.
Students with special needs are assessed to determine their specific strengths and
weaknesses. Placement, resources, and goals are determined on the basis of the
student's needs. Accommodations and Modifications to the regular program may
include changes in the curriculum, supplementary aides or equipment, and the
provision of specialized physical adaptations that allow students to participate in the
educational environment as much as possible. Students may need this help to
access subject matter, physically gain access to the school, or meet their emotional
needs. For example, if the assessment determines that the student cannot write by
hand because of a physical disability, then the school might provide a computer for
typing assignments, or allow the student to answer questions verbally instead. If the
school determines that the student is severely distracted by the normal activities in a
large, busy classroom, then the student might be placed in a smaller classroom such
as a resource room.
Special schools
A special school is a school catering for students who have special educational
needs due to severe learning difficulties, physical disabilities or behavioural
problems. Special schools may be specifically designed, staffed and resourced to
provide appropriate special education for children with additional needs. Students
attending special schools generally do not attend any classes in mainstream
schools.
Special schools provide individualised education, addressing specific needs. Student
to teacher ratios are kept low, often 6:1 or lower depending upon the needs of the
children. Special schools will also have other facilities for children with special needs,
such as soft play areas, sensory rooms, or swimming pools, which are necessary for
treating students with certain conditions.
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In recent times, places available in special schools are declining as more children
with special needs are educated in mainstream schools. However, there will always
be some children, whose learning needs cannot be appropriately met in a regular
classroom setting and will require specialised education and resources to provide the
level of support they require. An example of a disability that may require a student to
attend a special school is intellectual disability. However this practice is often
frowned upon by school districts in the USA in the light of Least Restrictive
Environment as mandated in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.
Instructional strategies
Different instructional techniques are used for some students with special
educational needs. Instructional strategies are classified as being either
accommodations or modifications.
Examples of modifications:
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with poor fine motor skills may be taught to print block letters, but not cursive
handwriting.
Simplified assignments: Students may read the same literature as their peers
but have a simpler version, such as Shakespeare with both the original text
and a modern paraphrase available.
Extended time: Students with a slower processing speed may benefit from
extended time for assignments and/or tests in order to have more time to
comprehend questions, recall information, and synthesize knowledge.
Examples of accommodations:
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Summary
Relax for a while. When you are ready, move on to the next Topic.
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1.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 6 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to curriculum
evaluation. It provides insights to the various forms of evaluation in curriculum. It also
discusses a variety of methods and tools can be used to conduct evaluation.
Curriculum
Evaluation
Definition Evaluation
Forms Purposes
of Methods
Of Of
Curriculum Evaluation and
Evaluation Evaluation
Tools
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CONTENT
Evaluations should:
provide assessments of what works and why, highlight intended and
unintended results, and provide strategic lessons to guide decision-makers
and inform stakeholders;
provide evidence-based information that is credible, reliable and useful,
enabling the timely incorporation of findings, recommendations and lessons;
feed into management and decision-making processes as a key component to
managing for results;
inform the planning, programming, budgeting, implementation and reporting
cycle;
improve the institutional relevance and the achievement of results, optimize
the use of resources, provide client satisfaction and maximize the impact of
activities; and
involve a rigorous, systematic and objective process in the design, analysis
and
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As such curriculum assessment is concerned about the assessment of the merit and
worth of a program of studies, a field of study, or a course of study. Curriculum
evaluation should be concerned with assessing the value of a program of study (all
the planned learning experiences over a multiyear period for a given group of
learners), a field of study (all the planned learning experiences over a multiyear
period in a given discipline or area of study), and a course of study (all the planned
learning experiences for a period of 1 year or less in a given field of study).
Curriculum evaluation can be defined as the collection and provision of evidence, on
the basis of which decisions can be taken about the feasibility, effectiveness and
educational value of curricula.
Gay (1985) argued that the aim of curriculum evaluation is to identify its
weaknesses and strengths as well as problems encountered in implementation; to
improve the curriculum development process; to determine the effectiveness of the
curriculum and the returns on finance allocated.
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In formative evaluation, one would evaluate the fit between the instructional strategies
and materials used, and the learning outcomes or what it aims to achieve. Sometimes,
the learning outcomes in a curriculum plan and the learning activities may not fit or
match. For example, teachers may want their students to develop speaking skills but
there are no learning activities which provide opportunities for students to practise
speaking skills. Review of the curriculum plan through formative evaluation may
provide useful information for modifying or adapting selected strategies.
As the term summative indicates, data is collected at the end of the implementation
of the curriculum programme. The effectiveness of a programme can be through
summative evaluation which can be done after new course materials have been
implemented in full or several months to years after the materials have been
implemented in full. This type of evaluation assesses whether or not the project or
programme can perform as the designers intended. It considers cost effectiveness in
terms of money, time and personnel. It also assesses the training that teachers might
need in order to implement a programme successfully. It determines whether a new
curriculum programme, syllabus or subject is better than the one it is intended to
replace or other alternatives. These evaluation outcomes can be determined through
formal assessment tasks such as marks obtained in tests and examinations. Other
than quantitative data to determine how well students met specified objectives, data
could also be collected through qualitative methods such as interviews, direct
observations, and document analyses
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The methods of data collection and the instruments used are more or less similar for
both formative and summative evaluation. The common evaluation methods used in
curriculum evaluation are interviews, observations, tests, survey, documents and
portfolios which are record of work or products.
Survey is a useful data collection method if one needs to quickly and easily get lots of
information from people in a non threatening way. Questionnaires are the common
instrument used in this data collection method. Questionnaires can be completed
anonymously, can be administered to many people and is relatively inexpensive to
administer. Data collected from this method is quantitative in nature, thus, it is easy to
compare and analyse. Massive amount of data can be obtained through
questionnaires. As there are many sample questionnaires already in existence,
questionnaires are relatively easy to design. One of its weaknesses is the information
obtained may not be accurate as it relies on how truthfully subjects respond to the
items in the questionnaire. In addition, there is also the fear that the wordings used can
bias respondents responses. Questionnaires are also impersonal. Moreover, since
only a sample of subjects is given the instrument, we not get the whole picture.
There are two general types of interviews depending on the extent to which the
responses required which are unstructured or structured. In an unstructured interview,
the interviewer does not follow a rigid script and there is a great deal of flexibility in the
responses. Since the response from the interviewee may be varied, it makes the task
of keeping track of responses more difficult. The open-endedness of the question will
require that the interviewer record all responses and analyse and interpret the data
later. However, one of the advantages of the unstructured interview is that it allows
one to gather a variety of information, especially in relation to the interviewees
knowledge, beliefs or feelings toward a particular situation.
In a structured interview, the questions asked usually require very specific responses.
Regardless of which type of interview is used, evaluators should ensure that each
question is relevant for its intended purpose. The data collected is to be translated into
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a form that can be analysed and this is to be done well to ensure accuracy and to
maintain the sense of the data. The advantage of interviews is that it can get a full
range and depth of information and it develops a relationship with teachers and
students and it is more flexible. However, interview is time consuming, can be hard to
analyze and compare, can be costly and the interviewer can be biased towards
respondents responses.
1.2.4.4Documents
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Exercise
3. What data collection methods and instruments can be used to evaluate the
effectiveness of the KSSR English language curriculum?
1.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 6 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to curriculum change.
It provides definitions of curriculum change and innovation. It also discusses context
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Curriculum
Change
Definition
Contexts
of Strategies
Of Planning and Implementation
Curriculum Change and Innovation of Evaluation
Curriculum Change
CONTENT
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takes place within a definite time frame. In the context of curriculum, curriculum
change is dictated by the changes in the economic, social and technological aspects
of a society. Change is a process not an event; it requires time, energy and
resources. It is achieved incrementally and entails development in feelings and skills
in using new programmes. Change should lead to improvement
The difference between innovation and change is innovation is always planned while
change may occur in response to external events. Curriculum innovations become
meaningful and effective, if they are planned and organised. It is possible that other
types of changes may occur when they are not planned.
Curriculum change and curriculum innovation are made necessary due to a countrys
political, social, economic, cultural and technological environments. The education
system changes in order to address the needs and demands brought about by these
factors.
At the national level, curriculum change and innovation arise from deliberate policy
decisions. Changes in the education system in Malaysia occur when the central
authority decides to adopt a new idea. This change is usually made known through
a circular. One such example is the introduction of the Kurikulum Standard Sekolah
Rendah (KSSR) or the Primary School Standard Curriculum.
Another reason for curriculum change and innovation is the desire of authorities at
various levels to deliberately change established practices in order to tackle existing
problems or identify new problems and seek ways of dealing with these problems.
Curriculum change and innovation can also be a due to development in technology.
For example, computers are being used in almost every aspects of our society. Thus,
the education system and its curriculum must adapt to this new development.
Computers must not be seen as merely a tool for administrative purposes, but also
to make the computer and related technological advancements part and parcel of the
curriculum.
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Change can occur in the different forms. In substitution, one element replaces
another previously in use. For example new textbooks, new equipment or the
replacement of teachers and administrators. Alteration on the other hand involves
change in existing structures rather than a complete replacement of the whole
curriculum, syllabus or course of study. Addition is the introduction of a new
component without changing old elements or patterns. New elements are added to
the existing programme without seriously disturbing the main structure and content
of the prescribed curriculum. These could be support inputs such as audio-visual
aids, workshops and equipment. Restructuring involves the rearrangement of the
curriculum in order to implement desired changes. It may also involve the sharing of
resources among a group of schools or institutions.
The strategies for implementing the curriculum must be considered carefully for
change and innovation to succeed. A strategy of innovation refers to the planned
procedures and techniques used in the desire for change. Harris et al. (1978),
developed some models to explain how the strategies work. The strategies include
are as mentioned below.
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In this model, an innovation is thought out at the head or centre and then fed into
the system. This views the processes of change as a logical sequence of phases in
which an innovation is:
1. invented or discovered,
2. developed,
3. produced, and
4. disseminated to the user.
This model is built with the user of the innovation in mind. The user of the innovation
would follow the steps below.
1. Determine the problem.
2. Search for an innovation.
3. Evaluate the trials.
4. Implement the innovation.
For change to be implemented in the curriculum, a process has to take place. This
process involves four major factors. According to Bishop (1986), these factors
include:
Change agents include teachers, school heads, local authorities or the Ministry of
Education. The agent initiates the innovation or curriculum change in general.
The innovation
This involves executing the change itself; in other words putting it into use or
operation.
This relates to the person or group of people at which the innovation is directed.
Time
These factors interact with change and are changed by each other during the
process of innovation. The curriculum change agent is involved with the process, the
planning and the strategies, and is also frequently the user of the innovation.
Innovation Planning
Effective planning for innovation cannot take place unless the following elements are
considered in the process:
the personnel to be employed
the specification of the actual task
the strategy or procedure to be used to undertake the task
the equipment needed
the buildings and conducive environment
the costs involved
social contexts
time involved
sequencing of activities
rationale for undertaking the innovation
evaluation of the consequences or effects of the innovation.
Potential users of an innovation are more likely to accept it if the conditions below
are met.
The innovation must be relevant to them.
It must be feasible in their particular organizational context.
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Exercise:
2. What are the basic steps involved in implementing any significant curriculum
change?
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