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Detrital sedimentary
rock classification and
nomenclature for use in New
Zealand
a b c
R. L. Folk , Peter B. Andrews & D. W. Lewis
a
Department of Geological Sciences , University of
Texas at Austin , Austin, Texas, 78712, USA
b
Sedimentation Laboratory , New Zealand
Geological Survey , Christchurch
c
Department of Geology , University of Canterbury ,
Christchurch
Published online: 21 Dec 2011.
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No.4 937
PETER B. ANDREWS
and
D. W. LEWIS
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
Concepts in Classification
combinations are more common than others; for example, coarse sediments
usually contain abundant rock fragments. Apart from them, texture and
composition are controlled by quite independent processes, a thesis that is
supported by Gilbert (in Williams et al., 1954), Van Andel (1958), Klein
(1963), McBride (1963), Huckenholz (1963b), Dott (1964), Chen (1968),
and many others.
The texture* of a sediment is largely a reflection of the conditions in the
environment of deposition at the time of sediment accumulation and burial.
(It may also reflect post-depositional reworking by organisms, but this is
commonly of secondary importance.) For example, a sandy beach is almost
always composed of clean, well-sorted sand regardless of whether the beach
is exposed or protected, whether it is a lake or a coast beach, and whether
the waves that break on it are large or small. The sand will be clean and
well-sorted no matter if it consists of olivine and basalt grains (Tahiti),
largely of K-fe1dspar grains (south-west Mexico), largely of ilmenite grains
(parts of West Coast, South Island), or purely of quartz (Parengarenga,
Northland). Similarly, a floodplain almost always consists of muddy sedi-
ments regardless of the dominant grain size or mineral composition of the
sediment that is being carried by the alluvial system of which the floodplain
is a part.
Of course, the pre-depositional history of a sediment can significantly
affect its texture. For example, the mud fraction may be winnowed from the
sand fraction by subaerial deflation before either is finally deposited. Or,
no matter how great the competency and capacity of the transporting agent,
if no gravel is available, no gravel will be deposited. But if we assume equal
availability of all grain sizes, the statement that conditions in the deposi-
tional environment control the size distribution of the accumulating sediment
is correct.
On the other hand, the composition of sediments reflects the interplay of
rock-type, tectonism, and climate in the source area. In many areas, the
nature and intensity of earth deformation and the length of time since it
occurred determine both the rock types that are exposed to erosion and the
*Texture is used here in a restricted sense to mean grain size distribution, but not
grain morphology and grain surface features.
940 N.Z. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS VOL. 13
relief of the landscape. The relief and the type of climate determine whether
rock and mineral disintegration or rock and mineral decomposition is pre-
dominant. With one combination of these factors, minerals that are suscept-
ible to decomposition will persist and will accumulate in the environment
of deposition; with another they will be preferentially eliminated. Of course,
composition also reflects the effect of selective abrasion and sorting during
transport and, in some instances, selective destruction during diagenesis.
Minerals of diagenetic origin commonly also occur, but they usually are
readily distinguished from the detrital minerals.
THE CLASSIFICATION
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Introduction
Texture in the broad sense covers grain size (size distribution and
statistical expressions thereof), grain morphology (form, sphericity, round-
ness, surface texture), and spatial relationships between grains (packing and
fabric). While all these parameters of texture usually would be measured in
a detailed study of the sedimentology of a rock unit or sequence, simple
expressions of grain-size distribution commonly are adequate for distinguish-
ing one mappable rock unit from another (Griffiths, 1958; Andrews, 1968)
and for distinguishing one hand specimen from another. Henee it is useful
to base a classification of sedimentary rocks, which is to be used both in the
field and in the laboratory, solely on simple measures of grain-s.ize distribu-
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tion.
It is widespread practice to subdivide the range of detrital grain sizes
into three groups: gravel, sand, and mud. These closely approximate natural
detrital populations (see Pettijohn, 1957; Spencer, 1963; Folk, 1966). It is
logical that a s~dimentary rock classification based on grain size be organised
around these three groups. Where appropriate, it is reasonable to also make
a distinction between silt and clay. Silt largely represents the finest products
of disintegration and in many ways behaves differently from clay, which
largely represents the finest products of decomposition.
The grain-size distribution of any detrital sediment can be represented on
one of two triangular diagrams. Use of triangles permits graphical plotting
of data for the purpose of sample-to-sample comparison. The relative pro-
portions of gravel, sand, and mud are plotted on one triangle, which is
subdivided into named textural categories. Sediment without gravel is plotted
on the other, which is subdivided into named categories according to the
relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay. By providing additional informa-
tion, such as the "average" size of gravel and sand, samples within one
textural category can be distinguished. The mode (most abundant size class)
is the measure of average size most readily determined in the field. Modal
size should be determined where appropriate and be appended to the name of
the textural category into which a sample falls. Similarly, standard deviation
(a measure of sorting) will further characterise individual size distributions.
A simple sorting measure that is applicable in the field should be applied
where appropriate.
It is important that organisation of the textural classification be related
to, and expressed in terms of, a generally accepted grain-size scale. The
scale most commonly used for sediments by English-speaking geologists is
the Udden (1898) grade scale as slightly modified by Wentworth (1922).
That grade scale, and its terminology (Table 1), are used throughout this
paper.
Size Nomenclature
Gravel-bearing Sediments
Gravel-bearing sediments consist of gravel (grains more than 2 mm in
diameter), with or without sand (grains 2'0-0'0625 mm in diameter) and/or
mud (grains less than 0'0625 mm in diameter). The ratio of gravel :sand :
942 NZ. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS VOL. 13
TABLE 1-Grainsize Scale (after Wentworth, 1922) Showing the Millimetre and
Equivalent Phi () Unit Limits to Each Size Class
General Terms
Millimetres Phi () Wentworth Size Class I for Size
Fractions as Used
in This Paper
I
I
I BOULDER
256 -8 ----------
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COBBLE
1
64 -6 ----------- - - - - - 1I GRAVEL
PEBBLE
I
4 -2
--- I
I GRANULE
2 - , - -1 ,
fine sand
0125 3
very fine sand
1),0625 4 -
I
I I
coarse silt
0'031 5
medium silt
u'0156 6 SILT MUD
fine silt
0'0078 7
very fine silt
0'0039-\ 8
I! \ CLAY
,
--
No.4 FOLK et at. - DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 943
Gravel G - crilvel
1> 2mm) ~G = sandy crave:!
lp."'y modI,1 me ot Ir,"-"cl t~, ou.no"'l
miG 10& muddy nndy zr.ivel
$JoK", moOebl Ill. ot Ulld onl, .",
IlfM, -h,uc.h.c:I Ir.. mG - muddy !travel
'WIlli'. ,rKuuble ujo bUlt UI C ... " IS = cr.i .... elly nnd
., -,IIYI:," (or "mudd,- .". u.p,led Ir~1
..
IllmS .h,h,ly , .... lIy muddy nnd
~ (, )M = .hlh,ly gra lly mud
,-'" S = nnd
(j mS ..... muddy sand
sM - nndy mud
M __ mud
...
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,-v
Q.,1lJ
gM
Gco1a~-;
944 N.Z. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS VOL. 13
Gravel-free Sediments
Size distributions of gravel-free sediments and sedimentary rocks are
plotted on a triangular diagram (Fig. 2) according to the proportions of
sand (2'0-0'0625 mm), silt (0'0625-0'0039 mm), and clay (less than
0'0039 mm). The apices of the triangle are then 100% sand, 100% silt,
and 100% clay respectively. The triangle is subdivided to give 10 textural
classes.
This triangular diagram is a direct expansion of the bottom tier of Fig. 1.
Again the procedure for determining the class to which a sample belongs is
simple. First determine the percentage of sand in the sample. Four categories
are represented by tiers on the triangle: more than 90%, 50-90%, 10-50%,
and less than 10% sand. Next determine the ratio of silt to clay. Boundaries
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at 2:1 and 1:2 silt to clay subdivide each of the three lower tiers of the
triangle into three classes. The upper tier consists of one class only, the
sand class.
The above procedure can be carried out in the field. The only problem
that will sometimes arise is that of determining the proportion of silt to
clay. Where this problem occurs the sample is best described as "muddy"
Sand
(0' 0625-:-2' Omm) S = sand
Modal size of sand to be specified zS = silty sand
for cross-hatched area.
For examples of usage see Table 3.
mS = muddy sand
cS = clayey sand
sZ = sandy silt
sM = sandy mud
sC = sandy clay
Z = silt
M = mud
C = clay
~
",""
...
~
l",v
Q..'lJ
10%1 ( (fll! ( I If
(I / ( (/(/( ( \
(\ ( / ( ( ( ( ( ( ( \
C M z
Clay 2: I Silt
00039mm) Clay: Silt (0 0039 - 0 0625mm)
Usage
From the preceding discussion it is readily seen that cne only need deter-
mine the percentage range of a size fraction and not the precise percentage to
assign a sample to its textural class. Thus the nomenclature may be applied
in the field by using nothing more sophisticated than a hand lens and a
grain-size comparator (see Lewis et al., 1970). The use of comparison
charts for percentage estimation (Fig. 3) helps to overcome the ever-present
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Auxiliary Information
One may stop at simply assigning each sample its textural name according
to the procedure outlined above. In field studies, many geologists may not
desire to obtain more detailed textural information. Nevertheless, with little
extra effort very useful additional information can be obtained by specifying
the modal size in the gravel-, sand-, and mud-size fractions. This information
should be obtained wherever pra,ctica:ble because it is valuable in determining
gross depositional trends in a rock unit or sediment body. Use of the mode
is also valuable because it serves to distinguish among the wide range of
sediment types represented in anyone textural class. For example, a granular
coarse sandstone and cobbly fine sandstone both belong to the gravelly sand-
stone class, yet they are distinctly different and have quite different geologic
significance.
In specifying the modal size, the gravel, sand, and mud fractions are
considered independently of each other. The modal grain diameter of each
is expressed in terms of the equivalent Udden-Wentworth size grade, for
example boulder as in boulder conglomerate, or fine sand as in granular
fine sand. The diameter of the modal size in the gravel fraction is always
determined regardless of the proportion of gravel in the sediment. The
modal size of the sand fraction is determined only for the very sandy gravel-
bearing sediments (cross-hatched area of Fig. 1). It is determined for the
sand fraction of all gravel-free sediments (cross-hatched area of Fig. 2).
For the muddy gravel-bearing sediments (stippled area of Fig. 1) one
should specify whether the mud is dominantly silt, dominantly clay, or an
946 N.2. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS VOL. 13
i..-
1% 5%
~ ~
r: ..
I ....
- I . .: ,. '
.. --
~
~
I
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10%
.
.
IT
.,
.-.
t;J~
~ ""
.. I~_.
25%
.....
.. :.=-. -
30%
: I .1
equal to sub-equal mixture of silt and clay. In the first instance, for example,
one would then specify silty gravel rather than muddy gravel, in the second
instance clayey gravel rather than muddy gravel, and in the third instance
the term muddy (sensu stricto) gravel would be retained. In the field when
it is not practicable to specify the dominant size of the mud fraction, the
unmodified term muddy gravel would be used. Confusion can arise in the
usage of "mud" (i.e., sensu lato or sensu stricto), therefore "mud (s.s.)" or
"true mud" could perhaps be used when referring to the restricted usage.
At this level of description then, the name for each sediment sample gives
a very good idea of its grain-size distribution. For example, instead of the
class name "gravelly sand" (gS), we now have the more precise information
that our sample is a "granular very fine sand".
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The sand fraction in many sediments consists not of one dominant grain
size, but of two dominant grain sizes, with very few grains of intermediate
size. Bimodality provides important clues to the history of a sand. Its
presence can be emphasised by inserting the word "bimodal" before the
term "sand" and specifying the two modes in terms of the equivalent
Udden-Wentworth size grades. Thus, instead of "silty sand" (zS), the
name may be, for example, "silty bimodal medium and very fine sand";
instead of "gravelly sand" (gS), "pebbly bimodal medium and very fine
sand". The grain-size name is modified where bimodality is marked, but
only in the textural classes included in the cross-hatched areas of Figs. 1 and
2. Bimodality in the gravel or the mud fraction does not have the same
significance as in the sand fraction and does not need to be specified.
Descriptive naming of a sediment or sedimentary rock could well stop at
this point. Nevertheless, for samples falling in the two sand classes Sand
zS of Fig. 2, it is useful to specify the size sorting of the sand plus coarse
silt fraction. The degree of sorting is a reflection of the energy level in the
environment of deposition. Three classes of sorting are readily determinable
in the field: well sorted, moderately sorted, and poorly sorted. The procedure
is as follows: if the central two-thirds of the grain-size range falls within
less than the equivalent of one Udden-Wentworth size grade, the sample is
well sorted; if it ranges over the equivalent of 1-2 Wentworth size grades
the sample is moderately sorted; if it ranges over more than the equivalent
of 2 Wentworth size grades, the sample is poorly sorted. These three sorting
classes are consistent with detailed classifications that sedimentologists would
use in studies involving laboratory analysis (e.g., Folk and Ward, 1957;
as reproduced by Van der Lingen, 1968).
In determining the size sorting of sand, there is one exception to the
above procedure. Some bimodal sands that would be considered poorly sorted
as a whole consist of two well sorted modes; for example, the desert floor
sand described by Folk (1968b). Such sands should be called "well-sorted
bimodal" sand; for example "well-sorted bimodal medium and very fine
sand".
Examples of usage of the textural classification are given in Tables 2 and 3.
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\Q
~
TABLE 2-Names .. Appliedto the Textural Classes Delinem:edin' Fig. 1. Modal size is specified.for the italicised terms, as shown in the 00
list of examples. If pebbles, etc., are predominantly irregular, "breccia" should be substituted for "conglomerate" and "gravel"
(g)mS slightly gravelly muddy salld slightly cOllglomeratic muddy salldstolle slightly cobbly silty fine sandstone o
tri
o'1:1
(g)M slightly gravelly mud slightly cOllglomera.tic mudstone slightly cobbly siltstone
well-sorted fine sandstone
~
S salld sands/olle n
[/)
mS muddy sand muddy salldstont? moderately well-sorted silty very fine sandstone
TABLE 3-Names Applied to the Textural Classes Delineated in Fig 2. Modal size is
specified for the italicised terms as shown on the list of examples. Sorting
category is specified for textural classes Sand zS only
mS I muddy sand muddy sandstone muddy bimodal fine and very fine
sandstone
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ro. A i
60
]1
>-
II>
41
Q..
E
'"
VI
50
:\
....0
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...41
.0
E
::>
Z
...
41
.0
E
::>
Z
~
.."
~
(j
mG msG
'.
~L- ~ (
\
.\
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,M emS '"S\
.\
(,)M
sM mS
Mud O
I
,II ,II I', 'Sand
Mud Sind II.UIO
FIG. 5- (Top) Plot of N ew Zealand gravel-b earing sedimen t samples. Based on published
a nd unpublished laboratory analyses. The class boundary at I : 9 mud: sand separates
... .
b eac h and river gravels from most others.
'-
HokK~",.
Holocene
Ny
l.Mu
" 9tl9\\,
.,.... tim,
HQlo(ene ml' int .helf ,
........'-..IIIfl'
............ ~ ....
,...........
..
"'
41 u",plt\ Sand ., HoIoI:enf' nuury
",.
,,,
~ . ,,_
A1If'._~ "",...bll'l"-"
Hotoc:e-nt M.I<.h ........, ' It ....... L
Hotcxtnt dune
HoIocrnt r ..,.'
Holocene bh
o Q"attrn<lrf UUWKJIIUi.l1
,"f
ll.'"
Gravel-free Sediments
As described above, the triangular diagram on which mixtures of sand,
silt, and clay are plotted (Fig. 2) is simply an expansion of the bottom tier
of Fig. 1. The major class boundaries at 90%, 50%, and 10% sand separate
four major textural types: relatively mud-free sand, muddy sand, sandy mud,
and relatively sand-free mud. Figs. 6 and 7 are plots Df more than 300
GC01o.~-6
952 N.Z. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS VOL. 13
Sandstones
Introduction
Klein (1963) and McBride (1963) have reviewed some of the existing
classifications for describing sandstone composition and have pointed out
deficiencies in many of them. Convergent trends are apparent in the organ-
isation of the modern classifications, both in these reviews and in more
recent papers dealing with sandstones. However, no single classification is
in general use. Many re-define older terms, each of which therefore varies
widely in connotation. The classification for detrital sandstone composition
presented herein is in accord with recent trends and employs terminology
that is sufficiently new to cause no confusion with previous usage.
Frame of Reference
A sandstone is "any stone which is composed of an agglutination of
grains of sand, whether calcareous, siliceous, or of any other mineral nature"
(Lyell, 1837, pp. 456-7). In that definition, classification of a rock as a
No.4 FOLK et al. - DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 953
70
1/1
QI
0.. 60
E
t<I 50
VI
.....0 "10
...
QI
30
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.l 20
E
:::I 10
Z
0
separate classifications that are beyond the scope of this paper (for
example, the limestone classification of Folk, 1959). The presence of smaller
quantities of non detrital grains may be indicated by adding the name of the
grain-type as an adjectival modifier (e.g., fossiliferous) to the arenite name.
Post-depositional precipitates that act as cements must be ignored when
determining the basic arenite name. Their presence and character relate to
the diagenetic history of the rock. They should Ce noted as another modifier
of the arenite name, for example, carbonate-oemented, calcite-cemented,
iron-oxide-cemented, pyrite-cemented.
Numerous individual minerals or combinations of minerals and rock frag-
ments could be used as the fundamental criteria (end-members) of an
arenite classification. Choice of end-members is often dictated by the genetic
bias given to a classification. There are fewer problems in biasing a classifica-
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Proposed Classification
Most detrital sand grains are composed of the essential minerals quartz
(Q), feldspar (F), and rock fragments (R). It is thus reasonable to establish
a triangular (QFR) diagram with these three end-members (Fig. 8). Con-
cise, self-explanatory, and unequivocal names for arenites rich in these end
members are: quartzarenite, feldsarenite, and litharenite (from lithos, Greek
for "rock"). Quartzarenite and litharenite are McBride' 5 (1963) contrac-
tions of Gilbert's (in Williams et al., 1964) terms "quartz arenite" and
"lithic arenite"; usage here does not conflict significantly with their usage
(see also Chen, 1968). Feldsarenite is a term preferred by K. A. W. Crook
(pers. comm.) and by Lewis because of the existing diversity in both
descriptive and genetic connotations of the commonly-used term "arkose"
(Oriel, 1949; Klein, 1963; Huckenholz, 1963a; Dott, 1964). It is also con-
sistent with other names (,,--arenite" ending) and does not have conno-
tations of granitic source rocks as does the term "arkose".
Standardisation is necessary in assigning mineral grains to the poles of the
QFR triangle. At the Q pole are grouped all monocrystalline and poly-
crystalline quartz grains excluding chert (a rock fragment). While all poly-
crystalline grains might be considered rock fragments, practical difficulties
at present preclude consistent distinction between plutonic polycrystalline
quartz, sedimentary quartzite, and metaquartzite fragments (Blatt and
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Q
QUARTZARENITE
SUBFELDSARENITE SUBLITHARENITE
r-
~
:t
U
~
~
-.J
'Z~
rn
FI L
':1-1 1:1
l
1':1
\R
to scale
Q = monocrystalline and polycrystalline quartz (excluding chert)
F = monocrystalline feldspar
R = rock fragments (igneous, metamorphiC, and sedimentary, including chert.)
FIG. 8-Primary arenite triangle. The example given in the text is located by *.
956 N.Z. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS VOL. 13
poles of the triangle. (Quartzite grains with mica are polymineralic and may
be assigned to the R pole.) At the F pole are grouped all monocrystalline
f~dspars. At the R pole are grouped all recognisable rock fragments
(Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary). Granite plus gneiss grains ar':':
assigned to the R pole in this classification, an innovation on most previous
systems, including that of Folk (1968a) who placed them at the F pole.
Lewis urged the change because:
(1) The genetic bias of the classification leans towards source-rock
identification. Many New Zealand arenites contain feldspar grains that were
not derived from "granitic" rocks. It would be inconsistent to group at one
pole indicators of different source rock types.
(2) Boggs (1968) has shown that granite plus gneiss grains can be
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Refinement of Nomenclature
Names obtained from the primary triangle (Fig. 8) can be variously re-
fined, hence the primary triangle prmTides considerable flexibility for more
detailed nomenclature. In fact, the possibilities for detailed subdivision or
additional nomenclature are dependent only upon the ingenuity of the
worker and the demands of the particular suite of arenites on which he
is working. While we press for standardisation only in the use of the
primary triangle, we next present subdivisions that we feel are both
practical and useful.
958 N.z. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS VOL. 13
Because there are many types of rock fragments, and because these com-
ponents are the best guides to source rock lithology, it is ~seful to refi~e
the nomenclature of the "lith-" arenites (i.e., sublitharemte, feldspathlC
litharenite, and litharenite). Refinement is easily achieved by appending
the name of the most common rock fragment type to "-litharenite" or
"-sublitharenite" (or substituting a contraction for "lith-"). (In the case
of "lithic feldsarenite", replacement of the word "lithic"' by the appropriate
name appears r,easonable.) If sedimentary rock fragments predQminate, the
name used would be "sedimentary-litharenite" (or "sedarenite"). "IgneQus-
litharenites" could be named either "volcanic-litharenite" ("volcarenite") or
"plutonic-lith arenite" ("plutarenite"), depending on which class of com-
ponents predominates. Because of the difficulty in distinguishing between
gneiss and granite fragments in thin section (Boggs, 1968), it must be
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AbL.(-----~
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CHERTARENITE
I \ I \
(,., Chert
(VOLCARENITE or PLUTARENITE) CARBONATE - LlTHARENITE
(CALCL/THARENITE)
FIG. 9-Examples of second and third order arenite triangles that may be devised to
refine the nomenclature given in the primary triangle.
(the primary and secondary) or more triangles for anyone arenite sample.
Such multiple plots become cumbersome with a multitude of samples, and
the worker may choose to devise some other form of comparing suites or
representing composition in the detailed subdivisions.
Let us repeat-it is not necessary to use these or any other type of second-
or third-order triangle; their use may prove practical for certain studies. In
the main, use of the primary triangle (with addition of the predominant
R-type before "-litharenite") suffices for general descriptive purposes.
With regard to the outlined arenite scheme, a problem of particular
relevance to New Zealand, but also to other tectonically superactive areas,
lies in the abundance of arenites with a great paucity of quartz. Crook
(pers. comm., 1970) and D. S. Coombs (pers. comm., 1969 Conference
of the Geological Society of New Zealand), favour setting up formal
categories for these rocks. Although quantitative plotting of data on the
primary triangle adequately locates quartz-poor arenites, a worker may find
it useful to give them a name. For this essentially qualitative purpose, we
suggest that "quartz-poor litharenite" or "hyper-litharenite" be used. Until
sufficient data accumulate to define the most useful boundary for formal
categories, the individual should note at what Q-percentage he begins to
apply these names.
Examples of the application of the terminology to some New Zealand
arenites are given in Figs. 10 to 14. Thin sections were chosen from the
University of Canterbury collection to show examples of both "coal-
measure" and "greywacke" lithologies. Samples were selected for clarity
in photomicrography as well as lithologic variability. Many "greywackes"
were rejected because photomicrographs would be obscure.
960 N.Z. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS VOL. 13
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FIG. 11--P oorly sorted coarse sandstone: mica feldsarenite (mica plagioclase-felds-
arenite or mica plagarenite). Lower Tertiary coal measures; Gates of Fiordland.
UC4512. Under crossed nicols. (In other views within the thin-section are
plutonic igneous rock fragments; a representative classification of the whole
arenite would be mica lithic feldsarenite. White and some grey grains are quartz;
black patches are mainly holes in the slide. Feldspars a re twinned; obscure grains
are mica.)
For quantitative plots, triangular diagrams again seem best as they are
easiest to construct.
Lutites are predominantly composed of quartz, feldspar,
and clay minerals. (Shaw and Weaver, 1965, have shown this to be true
even for claystones.) A primary triangle with these three poles can be
subdivided into three fields with boundaries at ratios of 1 : 1 between each
component. (c. S. Nelson, University of Auckland, has used this triangle
and found it satisfactory.) Secondary, even tertiary, triangles may be derived
from each apex to suit the requirements of the individual worker; for
example, at the clay lutite apex a secondary triangle could be formed with
end-members of illite, montmorillonite, kaolinite, or whatever proves useful.
Rudites are predominantly composed of quartz and sedimentary, igneous,
and metamorphic rock fragments . Because there are four common "end-
members", simple diagrams for quantitative plotting are difficult to devise.
A tetrahedron could be imagined, from which triangular "slices" could be
taken at stated values of one component. In this case, class boundaries at
ratios of 1 : 1 between end-members are probably best until sufficient data
are obtained to delimit more practical boundaries. Second- and third-order
triangles could be constructed from the poles of the triangular slices.
962 N .Z. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS VOL. 13
etc., are not applicable because they imply a mode of origin rather than
clast composition. Contractions for other compositions may be useful. (Note:
the term "calcirudite" should be avoided for detrital carbonate rocks; as
with "calcarenite" and "calcilutite", it is widely used for rocks whose
particles have been formed within the basin of deposition. "Calclithrudite",
a K. A. W. Crook term (pers. comm.) 1970), is acceptable.)
The auxiliary term "polymictic" (see Pettijohn, 1957) will prove useful
if clasts of more than one lithologic type are present. The connotation of
the term would be dependent on the final "-rudite" name. For example.
"polymictic ignirudite" would imply that various igneous rock types pre-
dominate among the clasts, but that clasts of metamorphic and/or sedi-
mentary rocks are also present.
Gravel-size fragments of muddy sediment are commonly generated
within a basin of deposition by the erosion of existing deposits. These
fragments may be practically indistinguishable from detrital clasts of sedi-
mentary rock, as in many New Zealand "greywackes". Because of the prob-
lems involved in recognising the genesis of some clasts, and because
"rudite" has already been widely used for some nondetrital gravels (e.g.,
calcirudite), it would seem best not to restrict "rudite" to detrital gravels
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C'ONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
Geo1ogy-7
968 N.Z. JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS VOL. 13
POTTER, P. E. 1955: The petrology and ongm of the Lafayette Gravel. Part 1.
Mineralogy and petrology. J. geol. 63 (1) : 1-38.
POTTER, P. E.; PETTIJOHN, F. J. 1963: "Paleocurrents and Basin Analysis". Springer-
Verlag, Berlin. 296 Pp.
REED, J. J. 1951: Marine sediments near Sumner, Canterbury, New Zealand. N.Z. JI
Sci. Technol. B33 (2): 129-37.
1952: Sediments from the Chatham Rise. Part 1: Petrology. N.z. JI. Sci.
T echnol. B34 (3): 173-84.
RODGERS, J. 1950: The nomenclature and classification of sedimentary rocks. Am. J.
Sci. 248 (5): 297-311.
ROSENFELD, M. A.; JACOBSEN, L.; FERM, J. C. 1953: A comparison of sieve and thin
section technique for size analysis. J. Geol. 61 (2): 114-32.
SHAW, D. B.; WEAVER, C. E. 1965: The mineralogical composition of shales. J. sedim.
Petrol. 35 (1): 213-22.
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ADDENDUM