Basic concepts and terminologies

Fluid: A fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied

shear stress. Fluids are a subset of the phases of matter and include liquids, gases,
plasmas and, to some extent, plastic solids. We can subdivide a fluid element
indefinitely. We define a fluid particle as the fluid contained within physically
infinitesimal volume. The fluid particle inside a closed surface which a move with
the fluid constitutes is said to be a fluid body and the closed surface is known as
the boundary of the fluid body.

Properties of Fluid

Density:
The Density is one of the fundamental properties of a fluid. The density of a fluid
is defined as the mass per unit volume. It is denoted by . mathematically, the
density at a point P may be written as follows,
m
Lim
v 0 v

Where, v= volume element around p

And m= mass of the fluid within v.
The reciprocal of density is called the specific volume. The density of water (at
temperature 277K) is 1000 kgm-3 and density of mercury is 13600 kgm-3.
Pressure: If a fluid is contained in a vessel then it will exert force at each point on
the surface it contained. The pressure at a point on the surface is known as the
normal force acted on the per unit surface area. It is usually denoted by P
Mathematically, the pressure at a point may be written as
 F
P Lim
s 0 s

Where, s = an elementary area around the point

And F= normal force due to fluid ones.

T emperature: The temperature is one of the basic properties of a fluid. This

property indicates that, if a particle is in touch with an another particle then some
thermal energy will move from one particle into the other particle. The temperature
is the result of heat. By this property many physical properties such as chemical
reactions, motion of fluids, pressure of liquids and gases, motion of molecules and
so on are influenced. When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium then they are
said to be of same temperature and the flow of energy Cheat) will be stopped
immediately.

Viscosity: The viscosity is one of the most important properties of fluid. It is the
property of a fluid by which when comes in contact, it adheres to another fluid or a
solid body. With this property a real fluid generates shear stress between two fluid
particles. This tangential or shear forces are also known as the fluid friction- Hence
it is the internal friction of fluid that results to the property viscosity.

Specific Heat: The specific heat of a fluid denoted by C is defined to- the amount
of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit of the fluid by one degree.
Mathematically,

Q
C
T
Where Q is the amount of heat added to raise the temperature by T.

Classification of fluids:
Fluids may be classified on the basis of the properties of fluid. Some of them are as
follows:

Compressible and incompressible fluid: The compressibility of a fluid is defined

as the variation of its density with the variation of its pressure. Mathematically, It
may be written as,

d
dp

(2.4)

Where, is called bulk modulus of the fluid.

Thus it is clear that compressibility is the measure of change of volume with the
change of pressure and temperature of a fluid. A fluid is said to be incompressible
if it requires a large variation in pressure to produce some small variation in
density. The remaining fluids are said to be compressible. The term hydrodynamics
is often applied to the science of moving incompressible fluid.

Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids: A fluid is called Newtonian if the

shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of angular deformation starting with

zero stress and zero deformation. Isaac Newton postulated that the shear stress, ,
between layers is proportional to the velocity gradient, u/y, in the direction
perpendicular to the layers.
 u

y

The c.g.s, physical unit for dynamic viscosity is the poise, named after Jean Louis
Marie Poiseuille. It is more commonly expressed, particularly in ASTM standards,
as centipoises e.g. Water at 20 C has a viscosity of 1.0020 cP.

1 P = 1 g-cm-1-s-1.

Here, the constant is known as the coefficient of viscosity, the viscosity, the
dynamic viscosity, or the Newtonian viscosity. Many fluids, such as water and
most gases satisfy Newton's criterion and are known as Newtonian fluids. Non-
Newtonian fluids exhibit a more complicated relationship between shear stress and
velocity gradient than simple linearity. In such cases proportionality may depends
on length of time of exposure to stress as well as on the magnitude of the stress.
Air, water are examples Newtonian fluid, and paints, coal tar, polymer solution,
etc. are all non-Newtonian fluids.

Viscous and Inviscid Fluids: If a force is applied to a fluid then stresses can be of
two types namely, Normal stress and shear stress. The normal force per unit area is
said to be the normal stress or pressure while the tangential force per unit area is
said to be the shearing stress. A fluid is said to be viscous when normal as well as
shearing stresses are exist. Syrup and heavy oil are treated as viscous fluids. On the
other hand, a fluid is said to be inviscid when does not exert any shearing stress
whether at rest or in motion. Water and air are the examples of inviscid fluids.
Different types of flow: Matter exhibits deformation under the forces. It is flow if
deformation continually increases without limit under the action of forces, however
small.
Unsteady and Steady Flows: The flow is said to be steady if the flow properties,
such as velocity, density, pressure, temperature etc. do not changes with time.
Mathematically, this can be expressed as

p t
0
t

Where, p is the property of fluid which is a function of time.

On the other hand, in case of unsteady flows properties will be changed with time.

Rotational and Irrotational Flows : When a fluid in motion, it can flow in two
ways, such as fluid particles may or may not rotate with respect to its own axis. If
it rotates, the flow is rotational, otherwise, it is irrotational. For irrotational flow,
we can find stream function.

Uniform and Non-uniform Flows: A flow is said to be uniform if the fluid

particles possess equal velocities at each section of the flow. On the other hand, a
flow is said to be non-uniform if the fluid particles possess different velocities at
each section. These terms are usually used in connection with flow in a channel.

Laminar and Turbulent Flows: A flow is said to be laminar if each fluid particle
traces out a definite curve and the curves traced out by any two different fluid
particles do not intersect. On the other hand, a flow is said to be turbulent if each
fluid particle does not trace out a definite curve and curves traced out by fluid
particles intersect.

Line of flow: A line whose direction coincides with the direction of the resultant
velocity of the fluid is called the line of flow.

One dimensional flow: A flow, in which the variation of velocity,

Pressure etc. transverse to the main flow direction are neglected ,is called one-
dimensional flow. In this case the flow pattern varies only in the direction of flow.

Two dimensional flow: A flow, in which the velocity vector q is everywhere at

right angles to a certain direction and independent of displacements parallel to that
direction, is called two-dimensional flow. The components of q (u, v, w) in this
flow are (u, v, 0), where u, v, are independent of z. The flow pattern is identical in
lanes perpendicular to the z- axis.

Three dimensional flow: A flow, in which the fluid velocity components (u, v, w)
in mutually perpendicular directions are the functions of space coordinates and
time x, y, z, t, is called three dimensional flow.

Maple -13:

Maple is a general purpose computer algebra system that is designed to solve

mathematical steady conduction, two-dimensional steady conduction, transient
conduction, oscillatory conduction, extended surfaces and special functions. The
use of Maple facilitates and enhances the learning process by removing the tedium
of algebraic manipulations and providing a powerful numerical and graphical tool
for study of steady analysis and design. A.AZIZ[14] Heat conduction with Maple
Highlights of this book include: - An overview of Maple to give the reader a quick
working knowledge - Examples drawn from traditional and contemporary topics in
heat conduction - Presents symbolic analytic, numerical and graphical solutions
simultaneously - Coverage of special functions, similarity analysis etc.

2.7.1 The Equation of Continuity:

The most general form is

divV 0
t

div V 0
t
Or, (2.5)
For Compressible and steady Mow it can he expressed as

div V o
(2.6)

For Incompressible or steady flow, it becomes

div V 0
(2.7)

The simplified form is,

u t w
0
x y z
(2.8)

Stream function

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The stream function is defined for two-dimensional flows of various kinds. The
stream function can be used to plot streamlines, which represent the trajectories of
particles in a steady flow. Streamlines are perpendicular to equipotential lines. In
most cases, the stream function is the imaginary part of the complex potential,
while the potential function is the real part.

Considering the particular case of fluid dynamics, the difference between the
stream function values at any two points gives the volumetric flow rate (or
volumetric flux) through a line connecting the two points.

Since streamlines are tangent to the velocity vector of the flow, the value of the
stream function must be constant along a streamline. If there were a flux across a
line, it would necessarily not be tangent to the flow, hence would not be a
streamline.

The usefulness of the stream function lies in the fact that the velocity components
in the x- and y- directions at a given point are given by the partial derivatives of the
stream function at that point. A stream function may be defined for any flow of
dimensions greater than or equal to two, however the two dimensional case is
generally the easiest to visualize and derive.

Taken together with the velocity potential, the stream function may be used to
derive a complex potential for a potential flow. In other words, the stream function
accounts for the solenoid part of a two-dimensional Helmholtz decomposition,
while the velocity potential accounts for the irrigational part.

Two dimensional stream function

The sign of the stream function depends on the definition used.

One way is to define the stream function for a two dimensional flow such that the
flow velocity can be expressed as:

u v

0,0,
Where

if the velocity vector u=(u,v,0).

In Cartesian coordinate system this is equivalent to

u v
y x
; ;
Where and are the velocities in the and coordinate directions, respectively.

Derivation of the two dimensional stream functions

Consider two points A and B in two dimensional plane flow. If the distance
between these two points is very small: n, and a stream of flow passes between
these points with an average velocity, q perpendicular to the line AB, the volume
flow rate per unit thickness, is given by:

As n 0, rearranging this expression, we get:

Now consider two dimensional plane flow with reference to a coordinate system.
Suppose an observer looks along an arbitrary axis in the direction of increase and
sees flow crossing the axis from left to right. A sign convention is adopted such
that the velocity of the flow is positive.

Boundary layer

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In physics and fluid mechanics a boundary layer is the layer of fluid in the
immediate vicinity of a bounding surface where the effects of viscosity are
significant. In the Earth's atmosphere, the planetary boundary layer is the air layer
near the ground affected by diurnal heat, moisture or momentum transfer to or
from the surface. On an aircraft wing the boundary layer is the part of the flow
close to the wing, where viscous forces distort the surrounding non-viscous flow.

Laminar boundary layers can be loosely classified according to their structure and
the circumstances under which they are created. The thin shear layer which
develops on an oscillating body is an example of a Stokes boundary layer, while
the Blasius boundary layer refers to the well-known similarity solution near an
attached flat plate held in an oncoming unidirectional flow. When a fluid rotates
and viscous forces are balanced by the Coriolis effect (rather than convective
inertia), an Ekman layer forms. In the theory of heat transfer, a thermal boundary
layer occurs. A surface can have multiple types of boundary layer simultaneously.

Boundary layer equations

The deduction of the boundary layer equations was one of the most important
advances in fluid dynamics (Anderson, 2005). Using an order of magnitude
analysis, the well-known governing Navier Stokes equations of viscous fluid flow
can be greatly simplified within the boundary layer. Notably, the characteristic of
the partial differential equations (PDE) becomes parabolic, rather than the elliptical
form of the full NavierStokes equations. This greatly simplifies the solution of the
equations. By making the boundary layer approximation, the flow is divided into
an inviscid portion (which is easy to solve by a number of methods) and the
boundary layer, which is governed by an easier to solve PDE. The continuity and
NavierStokes equations for a two-dimensional steady incompressible flow in
Cartesian coordinates are given by

Where and are the velocity components, is the density, is the pressure, and
is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid at a point.

The approximation states that, for a sufficiently high Reynolds number the flow
over a surface can be divided into an outer region of inviscid flow unaffected by
viscosity (the majority of the flow), and a region close to the surface where
viscosity is important (the boundary layer). Let and be stream wise and
transverse (wall normal) velocities respectively inside the boundary layer. Using
scale analysis, it can be shown that the above equations of motion reduce within
the boundary layer to become
And if the fluid is incompressible (as liquids are under standard conditions):

The asymptotic analysis also shows that , the wall normal velocity is small
compared with the stream wise velocity, and that variations in properties in the
stream wise direction are generally much lower than those in the wall normal
direction.

Since the static pressure is independent of , then pressure at the edge of the
boundary layer is the pressure throughout the boundary layer at a given stream
wise position. The external pressure may be obtained through an application of
Bernoulli's equation. Let be the fluid velocity outside the boundary layer, where
and are both parallel. This gives upon substituting for the following result

with the boundary condition

For a flow in which the static pressure also does not change in the direction of the
flow then
So remains constant.

Therefore, the equation of motion simplifies to become

These approximations are used in a variety of practical flow problems of scientific

and engineering interest. The above analysis is for any instantaneous laminar or
turbulent boundary layer, but is used mainly in laminar flow studies since the mean
flow is also the instantaneous flow because there are no velocity fluctuations
present.

Viscosity

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by

shear stress or tensile tress. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal notion of
"thickness". For example, honey has a higher viscosity than water.

Viscosity is due to friction between neighboring parcels of the fluid that are
moving at different velocities. When fluid is forced through a tube, the fluid
generally moves faster near the axis and very little near the walls, therefore some
stress (such as a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube) is needed to
overcome the friction between layers and keep the fluid moving. For the same
velocity pattern, the stress is proportional to the fluid's viscosity.

A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid
fluid. In the real world, zero viscosity is observed only at very low temperatures, in
superfluid. Otherwise all fluids have positive viscosity. If the viscosity is very high,
such as in pitch, the fluid will seem to be a solid in the short term. In common
usage, a liquid whose viscosity is less than that of water is known as a mobile
liquid, while a substance with a viscosity substantially greater than water is simply
called a viscous liquid.

NavierStokes equations

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Continuum mechanics

In physics, the NavierStokes

equations, named after Claude-Louis
Navier and George Gabriel Stokes,
describe the motion of fluid
substances. These equations arise
from applying Newton's second law
to fluid motion, together with the
assumption that the stress in the fluid is the sum of a diffusing viscous term
(proportional to the gradient of velocity) and a pressure term - hence describing
viscous flow.

The equations are useful because they describe the physics of many things of
academic and economic interest. They may be used to model the weather, ocean
currents, water flow in a pipe and air flow around a wing. The NavierStokes
equations in their full and simplified forms help with the design of aircraft and
cars, the study of blood flow, the design of power stations, the analysis of
pollution, and many other things. Coupled with Maxwell's equations they can be
used to model and study magneto hydrodynamics.

The NavierStokes equations are also of great interest in a purely mathematical

sense. Somewhat surprisingly, given their wide range of practical uses,
mathematicians have not yet proven that in three dimensions solutions always exist
(existence), or that if they do exist, then they do not contain any singularity
(smoothness). These are called the NavierStokes existence and smoothness
problems. The Clay Mathematics Institute has called this one of the seven most
important open problems in mathematics and has offered a US$1,000,000 prize for
a solution or a counter-example.

Derivation of the NavierStokes equations

The derivation of the NavierStokes equations begins with an application of

Newton's second law: conservation of momentum (often alongside mass and
energy conservation) being written for an arbitrary portion of the fluid. In an
inertial frame of reference, the general form of the equations of fluid motion is:

NavierStokes equations (general)

where v is the flow velocity, is the fluid density, p is the pressure, is the
(deviatoric) component of the total stress tensor, and f represents body forces (per
unit volume) acting on the fluid and is the del operator. This is a statement of the
conservation of momentum in a fluid and it is an application of Newton's second
law to a continuum; in fact this equation is applicable to any non-relativistic

Continuum and is known as the Cauchy momentum equation.

This equation is often written using the material derivative Dv/Dt, making it more
apparent that this is a statement of Newton's second law:

The left side of the equation describes acceleration, and may be composed of time
dependent or convective effects (also the effects of non-inertial coordinates if
present). The right side of the equation is in effect a summation of body forces
(such as gravity) and divergence of stress (pressure and shear stress).

Incompressible flow of Newtonian fluids

A simplification of the resulting flow equations is obtained when considering an

incompressible flow of a Newtonian fluid. The assumption of incompressibility
rules out the possibility of sound or shock waves to occur; so this simplification is
not useful if these phenomena are of interest. The incompressible flow assumption
typically holds well even when dealing with a "compressible" fluid such as air
at room temperature at low Mach numbers (even when flowing up to about
Mach 0.3). Taking the incompressible flow assumption into account and assuming
constant viscosity, the NavierStokes equations will read, in vector form:[15]
 NavierStokes equations (Incompressible flow)

Here f represents "other" body forces (forces per unit volume), such as gravity or
centrifugal force. The shear stress term becomes the useful quantity ( is
the vector Laplacian) when the fluid is assumed incompressible, homogeneous and
Newtonian, where is the (constant) dynamic viscosity.[16]

It's well worth observing the meaning of each term (compare to the Cauchy
momentum equation):

Note that only the convective terms are nonlinear for incompressible Newtonian
flow. The convective acceleration is an acceleration caused by a (possibly steady)
change in velocity over position, for example the speeding up of fluid entering a
converging nozzle. Though individual fluid particles are being accelerated and thus
are under unsteady motion, the flow field (a velocity distribution) will not
necessarily be time dependent.

Another important observation is that the viscosity is represented by the vector

Laplacian of the velocity field (interpreted here as the difference between the
velocity at a point and the mean velocity in a small volume around). This implies
that for a Newtonian fluid viscosity operates in a diffusion of momentum, in
much the same way as the diffusion of heat seen in the heat equation (which also
involves the Laplacian).

If temperature effects are also neglected, the only "other" equation (apart from
initial/boundary conditions) needed is the mass continuity equation. Under the
assumption of incompressibility, the density of a fluid parcel is constant and it
follows that the continuity equation will simplify to:

This is more specifically a statement of the conservation of volume (see divergence

and isochoric process).

These equations are commonly used in 3 coordinates systems: Cartesian,

cylindrical, and spherical. While the Cartesian equations seem to follow directly
from the vector equation above, the vector form of the NavierStokes equation
involves some tensor calculus which means that writing it in other coordinate
systems is not as simple as doing so for scalar equations (such as the heat
equation).

Stream function formulation

Taking the curl of the NavierStokes equation results in the elimination of pressure
. This is especially easy to see if 2D Cartesian flow is assumed ( and no
dependence of anything on z), where the equations reduce to:
Differentiating the first with respect to y, the second with respect to x and
subtracting the resulting equations will eliminate pressure and any conservative
force. Defining the stream function through

Results in mass continuity being unconditionally satisfied (given the stream

function is continuous), and then incompressible Newtonian 2D momentum and
mass conservation degrade into one equation:

Where is the (2D) biharmonic operator and is the kinematic viscosity, .

We can also express this compactly using the Jacobean determinant:

This single equation together with appropriate boundary conditions describes 2D

fluid flow, taking only kinematic viscosity as a parameter. Note that the equation
for creeping flow results when the left side is assumed zero.

In axisymmetric flow another stream function formulation, called the Stokes

stream function, can be used to describe the velocity components of an
incompressible flow with one scalar function.

Compressible flow of Newtonian fluids

There are some phenomena that are closely linked with fluid compressibility. One
of the obvious examples is sound. Description of such phenomena requires more
general presentation of the NavierStokes equation that takes into account fluid
compressibility. If viscosity is assumed a constant, one additional term appears, as
shown here:

Where is the volume viscosity coefficient, also known as bulk viscosity. This
additional term disappears for an incompressible fluid, when the divergence of the
flow equals zero.

No-slip condition

In fluid dynamics, the no-slip condition for viscous fluids states that at a solid
boundary, the fluid will have zero velocity relative to the boundary.

The fluid velocity at all fluidsolid boundaries is equal to that of the solid
boundary. Conceptually, one can think of the outermost molecules of fluid as stuck
to the surfaces past which it flows.