Bulacan State University

College of Architecture & Fine Arts

City of Malolos

1st Semester AY 2012-2013

Archt. Danilo S. Faustino II

Instructor

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MODULE 1 Sessions 2 - 3
INTRODUCTION
A.
BACKGROUND
- Building Construction, procedures involved in the erection of various types of structures.
The major trend in present-day construction continues away from handcrafting at the building
site and toward on-site assembly of even larger, more integrated subassemblies manufactured
away from the site.

- Another characteristic of contemporary building, related to the latter trend, is the greater
amount of dimensional coordination; that is, buildings are designed and components
manufactured in multiples of a standard module, which drastically reduces the amount of
cutting and fitting required on the building site.

- A third trend is the production or redevelopment of such large structural complexes as

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shopping centers, entire campuses, and whole towns or sections of cities.

- Architecture involves a complex process of design as well as consideration of suitable

materials for a specific purpose.

- choice of materials is related to three factors:

1. availability
2. physical properties
3. techniques for processing and assembly
4. cost

- cost of material is affected by:

1. demand
2. rarity value
- decisions on which material to use depends not purely on the physical
property but rather considers the techniques and skills necessary for
assemblage

- consideration for geography; it can dictate different attitudes for

construction

- for example:
Geographical Location Conditions Result
New York City Rocky base Skyscrapers
Los Angeles/Japan Likelihood for Innovations in
earthquakes construction methods;
expansion joints
Egypt/London Clay soil Brick construction
Philippines Timber and stone Timber structures

- climatic conditions

B.
Terminology
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION is the manner in which materials are ordered, assembled and
united into a whole based on standard construction techniques.

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY is a general term including all processes and materials used to
assemble a complete building.

1 Tomasetti, Richard L. "Building Construction." Microsoft Encarta 2006 [CD]. Redm ond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2005.
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Equivalent of Building Construction Terms in Vernacular
English Vernacular

Adobe anchor --------------------- Liyabe

Aligned --------------------- Kalinya
Alignment --------------------- Asintada
Alternate or staggered --------------------- Uno sinotra
Anchor --------------------- Liyabe
Architect --------------------- Arkitekto
Astragal --------------------- Batidura
Balusters --------------------- Baluster, barandilla
Beam --------------------- Biga
Banisters --------------------- Barandilya
Barrel bolt --------------------- Trankilya
Baseboard --------------------- Rodapis
Bath tub --------------------- Baniera
Bolt --------------------- Pierno
Bottom chord --------------------- Tirante, estunyo
Brace --------------------- Pie de gallo
Brick --------------------- Tisa
Brick (cement) --------------------- Landrillo
Canopy --------------------- Media agua
Cabinet hinge --------------------- Espolon
Carpenter --------------------- Karpintero
Carpentry --------------------- Karpinteria
Cast iron --------------------- Pundido
Ceiling --------------------- Kisame
Ceiling board ---------------------
Ceiling joist --------------------- Kostilyahe
Cement --------------------- Semento
Cement brick --------------------- Ladrilyo
Cement tiles --------------------- Baldosa
Chain bolt --------------------- Baral de cadena
Collar --------------------- Sinturon
Column --------------------- Kolumna, haligue
Concrete --------------------- Konkreto
Concrete slab --------------------- Larga masa
Concrete beam --------------------- Biga
Conductor --------------------- Alulod
Contractor --------------------- Kontratista
Corr. G.I. sheet --------------------- Yiero canalado galbanisado
Closed stringer --------------------- Escalera
Crushed stone --------------------- Escombro
Diagonal brace --------------------- Sinturon
Door --------------------- Pinto
Door fillet --------------------- Batidora
Door head --------------------- Sombrero (pintuan)
Door jamb --------------------- Hamba pintuan
Door sill --------------------- Umbral
Drawbore pin or drawpin --------------------- Punsol
Earth fill --------------------- Escombro
Eave --------------------- Alero/barakilan/sopo
Electrician --------------------- Elektrista
Engineer --------------------- Inhinyero
Exterior siding --------------------- Tabike
Faucet --------------------- Gripo
Fascia board --------------------- Senepa
Feet --------------------- Piye
Fill --------------------- Tambak
Filler --------------------- Tapal, dagdag
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English Vernacular
Floor joist --------------------- Soleras
Fillet --------------------- Batidura
Flooring --------------------- Sahig, suelo
Floor sill --------------------- guililan
Flash --------------------- Alahado
Foreman --------------------- Kapatas, Maestro de Obra
Foundation / footing --------------------- Pundasyon
Framework --------------------- Balangkas
Gable roof --------------------- Dos aguas
Girder --------------------- Guililan
Girt --------------------- Sepo
Gravel --------------------- Graba
Grill --------------------- Rehas
Groin --------------------- Eskina, espolon
Groove --------------------- Canal
Gutter --------------------- Alulod, canal
Handrail --------------------- Gabay
Head --------------------- Sombrero
Hinge --------------------- Bisagra
Hip --------------------- Kadena ng bubungan
Hip roof --------------------- Kwatro aguas
Inch --------------------- Pulgada
Jamb --------------------- Hamba
Joist --------------------- Suleras
King post --------------------- pindulo
Laborer --------------------- Piyon
Landing --------------------- Mesa, pahingahan
Lavatory --------------------- Lababo
Laying of CHB or adobe --------------------- asinta
stone
Lean-to roof --------------------- Sibe
Level --------------------- Lebel
Machine bolt --------------------- Pierno pasante
Mason --------------------- Kantero
Masonry --------------------- Kanteria
Meter --------------------- Metro
Mitre/miter --------------------- Canto mesa
Masonry fill --------------------- Lastilyas
Mortar --------------------- Paupo
Mortar joints --------------------- Kostura
Moulding --------------------- Moldura
Nailers --------------------- Pamakuan
Nails --------------------- Pako
Nail setter --------------------- Punsol
Newel post --------------------- Tukod
Nut --------------------- Tuerka
Nicolite bar --------------------- Estanyo
Oakum --------------------- Estopa
Open stringer --------------------- Hardinera
Painter --------------------- Pintor
Panel --------------------- Bandeha
Panel door --------------------- De bandeha
Pattern --------------------- Plantilya
Pea gravel --------------------- Grabita
Pendulum (king post) --------------------- Pendulon
Pickwork --------------------- Piketa
Pig lead --------------------- Tingga, estopa
Plain G.I. sheet --------------------- Yiero liso galbanisado
Plain G.I. strap --------------------- Lingueta
Plank board --------------------- Senepa
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English Vernacular
Plaster --------------------- Palitada
Plastered course --------------------- Kusturada
Plug --------------------- Tapon
Plumb bob --------------------- Hulog
Plumber --------------------- Tubero
Plumbing --------------------- Tuberia
Plumb line --------------------- Hulog
Post --------------------- Poste, haligi
Projection --------------------- Bolada
Purlin --------------------- Reostra, parikilan
Putty --------------------- Masilya
Quarter round --------------------- Mediacana
Queen post --------------------- Sobre pindulo
Quion --------------------- Kunyas
Rabbet --------------------- Vaciada
Rafter --------------------- Kilo, tahilan, tukod bubong
Reinforcing bar --------------------- Cabilla, bakal
Ridge roll --------------------- Caballete
Riser --------------------- Senepa, takip silipan
Rivets --------------------- Rimatse
Roof --------------------- Atip, bubong
Sand --------------------- Buhangin
Scaffolding --------------------- Andamiyo, plancha
Scratch coat --------------------- Rebokada
Screw --------------------- Turnilyo
Septic tank --------------------- Poso negro
Shape --------------------- Korte
Sheet --------------------- Plantsa
Shower --------------------- Dutsha
Sidings --------------------- Tabika
Sink --------------------- Prigadero
Sketch plan --------------------- Krokis
Slab (rough) --------------------- Larga masa
Slope --------------------- Bahada
Solder --------------------- Hinang
Spacing --------------------- Biento
Split knob --------------------- Poleya
Stairs --------------------- Hagdanan
stake --------------------- Staka
Stringer (open) --------------------- Hardinera
Stringer (closed) --------------------- Madre (de escalera)
Stucco --------------------- Palitada
Stud (vertical) --------------------- Pilarete
Stud (horizontal) --------------------- Pabalagbag, trabe anzo
Temper (metal work) --------------------- Suban, subuhan
Thread --------------------- Roskas
Tinsmith --------------------- Latero
Tinsmithing --------------------- Lateria
Top chord --------------------- Kilo, tahilan
Transom --------------------- Espeho
Tread --------------------- Baytang, perdano
Trellis --------------------- Pergola
Truss --------------------- Truss, kilo
Varnished --------------------- Varnisado
Wainscoating tiles --------------------- Asolehos
Washer --------------------- Pitsa, tsapa
Water closet --------------------- Inidoro
Window --------------------- Bintana
Window grill --------------------- Rehas
Window head --------------------- Sombrero bintana
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 English Vernacular
Window jamb --------------------- Hamba bintana
Window sill --------------------- Pasamano
W.I. strap --------------------- Planchuela
Wood grain --------------------- Haspe
Wiring knob --------------------- Poleya
Wood plank --------------------- Tabla
Wrought iron strap --------------------- Plantsuela

C.
Advantages of knowing materials of building construction:
- aid in designing
- specifications of materials for construction
- preparation of bill of materials

D.
Performance Characteristics of Materials
a. Structural Serviceability
- resistance to natural forces
- structural adequacy
- physical properties (strength):
a. compression
b. tension
c. shear
d. torsion
e. modulus of rupture
f. indentation
g. hardness
- availability
- ease of installation
b. Fire Safety
- Fire Resistance: capacity of a material or an assembly of materials to withstand fire;
also characterized by the ability of a material to confine fire
- Fire Endurance: a measure of the elapsed time a material is capable to withstand fire
- Flame Spread: depends on flammability of the surface of the material
- Flame Spread Rate/Index: measure of how fast fire will spread in a material; also refers
to the numerical designation or classification of a material
- Smoke Development index/Density: numerical classification based on test method
ASTM E84
- Toxicity: testing of materials for amount or level of produced lethal gases
c. Habitability
Characterized by:
Thermal Efficiency
- Thermal Expansion: change in size or dimension of a material due to exposure to
temperature change
- Thermal Transmittance or Heat Transfer: heat flow from the warmer side to the
cooler side of a material or an assembly of various materials; also U or U-value; overall
coefficient of heat transfer; U = 1/ R1+R2+R3+
- Thermal Resistance: measure of the impedance of flow of heat through a material
or an assembly of materials; also R or R-value; reciprocal of heat transfer
- Thermal Conductance (C or C-factor): time rate at which heat flows through a
material with a known thickness in one hour when the temperature difference between
the surfaces is 1F; expressed as (heat flow rate) (distance) / (area) (temperature
difference);
Btu per (hour) (square foot) (F per inch)
Btu: British thermal unit
Note: Btu conversion to SI units
1 Btu = 1055 joules or 0.293 watt-hour or 251.9 calories
1 Watt = 3.4 Btu/h
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 1 Btu: quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1lb (0.45 kg) of water
from 59.9F (15.3C) to 60.5F (15.8C) at constant pressure of 1 atmosphere.
- Thermal Shock: sudden stress in a material as a result of abrupt change in
temperature
Acoustic Properties
- Sound Absorption
- Sound Transmission
- Noise Reduction Coefficient

Water Permeability
- Dimensional changes
- Chemical Attack
- Efflorescence and leaching
- Blistering
- Freeze-thaw
- Water vapor transmission
- Dew point
- Relative humidity/Moisture

Hygiene, Comfort and Safety

- toxicity
- slip resistance
- mildew resistance
- air infiltration
d. Durability
- resistance to wear
- weathering
- adhesion of coatings
- mechanical properties
e. Compatibility: reaction of materials when put together to form a composite material;
considerations in terms of chemical composition and physical properties of materials

MODULE 2 Sessions 4 5
WOOD AND WOOD PRODUCTS
A. KEYWORDS
Wood: xylem
Log:
Lumber: term applied to wood after it is sawed or sliced into boards, planks, etc.
Timber: piece of lumber five inches or larger in its smallest dimension
Flitch: thick piece of lumber
Slab: kind of lumber cut tangent to the annual rings of wood running the full length of the log and
containing at least one flat surface
Kerf: the path cut through the log

B. BACKGROUND
The use of timber or wood for building construction dates back to thousands of years ago.

C. CHARACTERISTICS/PROPERTIES
C.1 GENERAL PROPERTIES
a. Classification of Wood according to:
1. Growth
- endogenous
- exogenous

2. Density
- Hardwood: flooring, stairs, paneling, furniture and
interior trim
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 - Softwood: general construction

3. Leaves
- Needle-shaped (conifers)
- Broad-shaped (deciduous)
4. Color
- white
- yellow
- red
- brown
- black

5. Grain
- Straight (summer)
- cross
- fine
- coarse (winter)

b. Components
- cell: cellulose
- lignin: covering of cells

c. Properties of Wood
- Hardness: resistance to indentation; dependent on
weight of wood
- durability: ; resistance to decay; lifespan of wood
- strength: ability to resist stress and strain
- flexibility: bending capability of wood before breaking

C.2 PARTS OF A TREE

a. crown
b. leaves
c. trunk
d. root
e. root hairs

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C.3 STRUCTURE OF WOOD
a. Pith: black sticky substance
b. heartwood: central core of log
c. sapwood: portion near periphery; lighter in color than
heartwood
d. cambium: new wood fibers between old and new bark
e. modular rays: cells arranged perpendicular to the axis
which bind the entire structure together
f. annual rings: annual growth of wood; concentric circles
around the pith
g. inner bark: inner covering
h. outer bark: outer covering of the log that protects the
internal layer

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10
C.4 MOISTURE IN WOOD
Freshly cut lumber begins to lose moisture immediately if the surrounding air
is less than 100 percent relative humidity.
Wood loses water by evaporation until equilibrium is reached between the
moisture content (MC) in the wood and that in the air.

Water is held by wood cells in two ways:

a. free water in the body of the cell; and
b. water bonded amidst the structure of the cell walls

Fiber saturation point: condition of wood wherein free water has

evaporated leaving only the bonded water.
- 30% moisture content in the sapwood
- 20% moisture content in the heartwood

Green wood: moisture content of wood is at or above the fiber

saturation point
Air-dry lumber:
- hardwoods: 20-25 percent moisture content
- softwoods: 15-20 percent moisture content
- minimum attainable level: 12-15 percent moisture
content
Surface dry:
- 19 percent or less moisture content at the time of milling
Kiln dry:
- 15 percent or less moisture content
- Usual: 12 percent moisture content

C.5 WOOD DEFECTS

Decay caused by the attacked of fungi
1. dry rot presence of moisture in wood caused by fungi
in seasoned wood
2. wet rot usually takes place sometime in the growth of
the tree caused by water saturation.

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 Abnormal Growth
a. Checks cracks or length wise separation across the annual rings of growth
b. Knots irregular growths in the body which interrupts smooth curve.
c. Pitch pockets well refined openings between annual rings containing solid or
liquid pitch.
d. Heart shakes radial cracks originating at the heart of the logs
e. Wind shakes or cup shakes - cracks or breaks across the annual rings caused
by excessive bending
f. Star shakes composed of several heart shakes radiating from center of log in
a star-like manner
Wane is the lack of wood on the edge or corner of a piece
Warping any variation with the plain surface of the piece caused by unequal
shrinkage of the board.

Types of warping:
Cupping is a distortion of the board in which the face is convex/ concave
across the board.
Bowing is a distortion of the board in which the face is convex/ concave
longitudinally.
Twisting is a distortion of the board in which one corner is raised.

C.6 SEASONING OF LUMBER

- Drying of lumber; also conditioning or curing
- Methods:
1. Natural: one of the best methods but requires longer period
a. Sun drying
b. Air drying
2. Artificial: quick drying method
a. Forced air drying: se of fans to booster air circulation
b. Kiln drying: lumber is dried in a specially built room with controlled temperature
and humidity levels: 158 to 188 F
c. Radio frequency dielectric drying: fast method of drying lumber using a radio
frequency dielectric heat

Dielectric: any medium that insulates against electricity

- Advantages of Seasoned Lumber
Lessens the liability of wood to be attacked by fungi
Increased strength
Minimum shrinkage
Reduces checking and warping
Increased nail-holding power
Paint and preservatives hold longer
Reduction of weight
- Advantages of kiln-dried wood
Greater reduction of weight
Reduction of drying time
Control of moisture content
Kills fungi and insects
Less degrading of quality

C.6 TIMBER SPECIES OF THE PHILIPPINES AND THEIR MAIN USES

LOCAL NAME BOTANICAL NAME MAIN USES
Acacia Samanea Saman (S. A preferred wood for carving,
American, raintree) furniture, fancy cabinet work,
general construction
Afu Anisoptera Palosapis group Rotary cut veneer and plywood
Agoho Casuarina Marine piles, telegraph poles
Akle Serialbizia acle High quality furniture, cabinet
making, gunstock, carving,
sculpture, interior finish, and
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 LOCAL NAME BOTANICAL NAME MAIN USES
panels; Walnut substitute
Akleng - Parang Albizia procera Furniture, cabinet making, carving
house posts, bridges, mining
timber; Walnut substitute; strong,
durable
Almaciga Agathis Sawn timber, veneer, plywood;
Manila copal gum
Almon Shorea almon Rotary cut veneer, plywood,
cabinet and furniture making,
flooring, boat planking and
framing, pulp, paper, fiberboard,
sawn timber, general construction
Amugia Koordersiodendron Veneer and plywood
Anabiong Trema orientalis Pulp and paper, fiberboard
Api-api Avicenia Mangrove Veneer, plywood, decorative
plywood
Apitong Dipterocarpus spp. Sawn timber, veneer, mining
Especially D. gradilorus timber, transmission poles
Aranga Homalium Building construction
Bangtikan Parashorea Rotary cut veneer and plywood,
cabinet and furniture making,
flooring, boat planking and
framing, pulp, timber fiberboard,
sawn timber, construction
Bagras Eucalyptus deglupta Pulp, paper, sawn timber, core
stock and face veneer
Bakan Litsea
Bakauan Rhizophora mangrove Dissolving pulp, fiber wood,
(Bacawan) charcoal
Balakat Ziziphus Sawn wood
Balu Cordia
Banaba Largerstroemia Pulp and paper
Bansalagin Mimusops
Banuyo Wallaceodendron Decorative panels, veneer,
plywood, gunstocks, high grade
interior work, cabinet making,
carving, sculpture
Balete Kingiodendron Furniture, cabinet work, doors,
interior finish, house construction
Batikuling Litsea High-premium wood for furniture,
wood carving, novelties
Batitinan Lagerstroemia Pulp and paper
Benguet pine Pinus kesiya Transmission poles, sawn timber,
mining timber, resin, paper
Betis Madhuca betis
Binggas Terminalia Picker sticks for textile industry
Binuang Octomeles Pulp and paper, sawn timber
Bitanghol Calophyllum Pulp and paper, sawn timber
Bitaog Calophyllum
Bolon Alphonsea Sports goods, ash substitute
Bolong-eta Diospyros Picker sticks for textile industry
Dagang Anisoptera Palosapis group Rotary cut veneer and plywood
Dalingdingan Hopea Construction timber, bridges,
doors, floor boards, window
frames and sills, furniture,
agricultural implements
Dangula Teijsmanniodendron
Dao Dracontomelon Plywood, decorative sliced
veneer, furniture, carving
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 LOCAL NAME BOTANICAL NAME MAIN USES
Dita Alstonia Pulp and paper
Dungon Tarrieta Picker sticks for textile industry
Falcataria Albizia Sawn timber, pulpwood, plywood
Gisok-gisok Hopea Railways sleepers, posts
Gubas Endosperum Matches, pulp and paper, soft
sawn wood, filling for flash doors
Guijo Shorea Construction timber, sawn wood,
cabinet and furniture making,
bridges, dock piling, ship frames,
lorry bodies; naturally durable
Hagakhak Dipterocarpus Apitong
group
Igem Podocarpus Sawn timber and plywood
Ilang - ilang Sulfate plywood
Ipil Intsia High grade construction, furniture,
cabinet making, house post
Ipil-ipil Leucaena Pulp and paper, fuel, fodder
Kaatoan Bangkal Anthocephalus Pulp and paper, matches, wood
carving, telegraph poles
Kader Rotary cut plywood
Kalamansi Neonauclea
Kalantas Toona Plywood, veneer, cigar boxes
Kalunti Shorea Cabinet and furniture making,
flooring, veneer and plywood,
boat planking and framing, pulp,
paper, fiberboard, sawn timber,
general construction
Kalumpit Terminalia
Kamagong Diospyros Wood carving, inlays, novelties
Kamatog Erythrophloeum General construction and housing
furniture, cabinet works, apitong
substitute
Karaksan Linociera Bowling pins, bobbins
Katmon Dillenia
Kayugalu Sindora High quality furniture, cabinet
work, interior finish, musical
instruments, flooring paneling,
doors, window frames
Kupang Parkia Light temporary construction,
boxboards, wooden shoes,
dugout, canoes
Lanipau Terminalia Rotary cut veneer and plywood
Lauan, Phil. Shorea Sawn timber, peeled and sliced
Mahogany veneer and plywood, pulp and
paper, fiberboard, furniture and
cabinet making
Loktob Duabanga Sawn timber, pulpwood, veneer
and plywood
Lumbang, Aleurites Drying oil for fiberboard
Bagilumbang
Lumbayau Tarraietia Veneer, plywood, construction
timber
Magabuyo Celtis Pulp and paper, sports goods
Mahogany Swietenia (tropical America) Veneer, plywood, furniture,
paneling
Makaasim Syzigum
Malaanonang Shorea Building construction, veneer,
paneling
Malabayabas Tristania Railway sleepers, picker sticks,
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 LOCAL NAME BOTANICAL NAME MAIN USES
Molave substitute
Malaipil Intsia High grade construction, furniture,
cabinet making, house posts
Malakauayan Podocarpus Veneer, plywood, sawn timber
Malapapaya Polyscias Toothpicks, ice cream sticks
Malayakal Shorea Building construction
Malugai Pometia
Mamalis Pittosporum Pulp and paper, toothpick
Manggachapui Hopea Construction timber, bridges,
doors, floorboards, window
frames and sills, furniture,
agricultural implements
Manggasinoro Shorea Veneer, plywood; furniture and as
substitute for white lauan
Manggis Koompassia Veneer, plywood, interior finish,
narra substitute
Mangroves, Rhizophora Good charcoal
Tanbark
Maranggo Azadirachta
Mayapis Shorea Cabinet and furniture making,
flooring, veneer, plywood, boats,
pulp, paper, fiber board, sawn
timber, general construction
Mindoro Pine Pinus merkusili Sawn timber
Molave Vitex Highly valued for construction
timber and railway sleepers
Moluccan sau Albizia falcataria Sawn wood, pulpwood, plywood
Narek Hopea
Narig Vatica spp. Sawn timber, picker sticks
Narra Pterocarpus Sliced veneer, fine furniture,
cabinet work, interior finish, show
cases
Nato Palaquim Sawn timber, pulp and paper,
veneer and plywood
Pahutan Mangifera Rotary cut and sliced veneer,
plywood, decorative panels
palisay Terminalia Veneer and plywood
Palosapis Anisoptera Sawn timber, plywood
Panau Dipterocarpus Apitong
group
Para rubber Hevea brasiliensis Veneer, plywood, sawn wood,
pulp and paper
Philippine Mostly Almon, Batikan,
Mahogany group Tangile, Red and White
Lauan (shorea)
Salingkugi Albizia General construction, furniture,
cabinet work
Sangilo Pistacia High quality wood for furniture,
wood carving, novelties
Supa Sindora High quality furniture, cabinet
work, interior finish, musical
instruments, novelties, flooring,
paneling, doors, window frames
Taba Tristania Novelties
Taluto pulpwood
Tamayuan Strombosia Bobbins and picker sticks
Tangile Shorea Furniture, cabinet making, sliced
and rotary cut veneer, plywood,
pulp, paper, fiberboard, boat
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 LOCAL NAME BOTANICAL NAME MAIN USES
decks
Teak Tectona Fine furniture and veneers, boat
building
Tiaong Shorea Veneer and plywood, furniture
Tindalo Pahudia High valued for slice veneers,
cabinet making, furniture, interior
finish, doors, window frames,
stairs, floors; used like red narra
(Afzelia, Eperua)
Toog, Phil. Petershianthus Sawn timber, good sliced
rosewood decorative veneer, plywood, pulp
and paper
Tuai Bischofia Pulp and paper
Ulaian, Phil. oak Lithocarpus Picker sticks for textiles, sliced
veneer
Unik Albizia Light furniture, wood shoes, cigar
boxes, planking for light boats
Vidal lanutan Bombycidendron Sports foods as ash substitute,
bobbins, picker sticks
White nato Pouteria Veneer, plywood
Yakal Hopea, Shorea Sawn wood, construction timber
Yati Tectona grandis
Yemane Gmelina Sawn wood, plywood, pulp, paper

D. PREPARATION OF WOOD
1. Logging: harvesting
2. Lumbering: operation performed in preparation of wood for
commercial purposes
3. Sawing
- types of saw:
frame saw
band saw
sash gang or gang saw
circular saw
- methods or manner of sawing:
plain or bastard sawing
quarter or rift sawing
- saw cuts in timber conversion:
boxed heart
halved
quartered
slabbed

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 E. WOOD PRESERVATIVES
1. Pressure treated: when lumber is subjected to pressure and injected with chemicals or salts
to ensure it from rots
a. Wolmanized (wolman salt
b. Tanalized lumber
c. Permanized
d. Boliden
2. Hot and Cold treatment
3. piping
4. brushing
a. oily in nature
- coal tar creosote
- creosote petroleum solution
- pentachlorophenol solution
b. clean preservatives
- cremated zinc oxide
- copperized zinc chloride
- tanalith (wolman salt)
- sodium fluoride
- sodium arsenate

F. BY-PRODUCTS
D.1 LUMBER
Yard lumber used for ordinary light construction and finishing work. Commonly used for flooring, plank
siding, trim and moulding

Shop lumber it is intended for use in shops or in mills making sash, doors, and cabinets

Structural lumber is intended for use in heavy construction for load-bearing purposes and is cut into
timbers of larger size; derived from the wood of tree trunks

Live trunks support three functions:

o Support the crown of the tree
o Carry nutrients from root to crown
o Store nutrients

In hardwoods: performed by different types of wood cells

In conifers (with simple and regular structure): performed by a single cell
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 Finishes of Wood:
o S1S: planed on one side
o S2S: two sides planed
o S4S: four sides planed
o Rough: unplaned
o WOOD GRAIN

Edge grain - annual rings run approx. At right angle to the face

Flat grain - when the annual rings run more or less parallel to the surface

Angle grain - when the annual rings are at about 45 to the face

D.2 GLUE LAMINATED WOOD

- built up of small pieces of timber;
D.3 MANUFACTURED BOARDS
Manufactured boards are made of wood but do not appear in their natural
state. This type of building materials can be classified as a type of lumber as
they are the by-product in the manufacture of lumber. The complete
utilization of wood has lead to an expanded field of manufactured boards.

Veneer: thin sheets of wood (0.01 to 0.5 inches)

Sliced veneer
Rotary cut veneer

Types of boards:
Plywood is made of an odd number veneer sheets glued
together with the grains running at right angle to each other. It is
light in weight and strong that screw or nail can be driven close
to the edges without danger of splitting; 3 to 7 plies of wood with
grains at right angle to the adjacent layer

The diff. Types of plywood:

Soft plywood - the most common for structural use
Hardwood plywood are used for paneling and finishing where
usually on one face is hard finished.
Exterior or marine plywood is made for external use.
Hardboard is made from wood chips which are exploded into
fibers under stream of high pressure. The lining in the wood itself
binds pressed wood together with no fillers or artificial adhesives
applied. Pressed wood is equally strong in all directions but very
brittle. Its color varies from light to dark brown.
Particle board is manufactures from wood chips, curls, fibers,
flakes, strands, shaving, slivers etc. Bound together and pressed into
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 sheets and other molded shaped. Particle board has equal strength in
all direction of a given cross sectional area, it is not brittle and can
resist warping.

G. APPLICATION/CONSTRUCTION
- scaffolding or levers
- centering for masonry
- formwork and lining for concrete
- fixings for steelwork
- construction of roofs (including stone vaults and domes)
- piles for foundation on stable ground

H. BUILDING TECHNIQUES
1. HISTORICAL METHODS
a. Solid timber construction
- Building with logs set close together; also known as
blockwork; used for log cabin construction
b. Half timber construction: framework of structural timber
(usually hardwood) infilled with lathing or other materials;
prefabricated and assembled on the ground; developed to
become the balloon or platform framing.

2. MODERN METHODS
- Timber-framed structures are assembled from standardized
softwood components. Contemporary timber building methods
are:
a. Stick construction;
b. Balloon frame construction;
c. Platform frame construction; and
d. Volumetric construction
- Most everyday buildings can be built in other materials can be copied
entirely using wood materials but opposite is unachievable.
- Reason: the fibrous nature of wood, combined with the use of shaped
and pegged joints enable it to accommodate both linear and rotational
tension in structures.

MODULE 3 Sessions 6 - 7
MASONRY AND MASONRY PRODUCTS
A. KEYWORDS
Masonry
Stone
Clay
Ceramics
Masonry units

B. BACKGROUND
Stones are considered as the oldest building material known to man. Building in stone evolved as a
result of satisfying two basic human needs: the secular and the sacred and has the following
advantages:
shelter from weather
protection from enemies
storage and industry

C. CHARACTERISTICS/PROPERTIES
19
C.2 GENERAL PROPERTIES
a. Building Stones
b. Masonry Units

Building Stones Classification:

1. Cut stone/dimension includes all stones cut or machined to a given size,
dimension or shape; produced in accordance with shop and working drawings.
2. Flagstone usually either thin or split from rock that cleaves by sawing into 1 to
4 thick.
3. Rubble rough stones of irregular shapes and sizes, used in rough, uncoursed
work in the construction of walls, foundations and paving.
4. Crushed stone

Building Stones:
1. Agrilite: a rock containing chiefly clay materials derived from claystone, siltstone
or shale. Commonly with faint shades of green; used for floor tiles, stair treads,
coping stones, interior wall base and exterior window sill.
2. Granite: an igneous rock having crystals or grains of visible size, consists mainly
of quartz, feldspar, and mica or other minerals.
3. Limestone: a rock of sedimentary origin composed principally of dolomite or
calcite or both.
a. Oolitic: a calcite-cemented calcareous stone formed of shells and shell
fragments
b. Dolomite: a limestone rich in magnesium carbonate; crystalline in character
c. Crystalline: a limestone which is predominantly composed of calcium
carbonate crystals
4. Travertine: a variety of limestone deposited by springs; for interior facing and
flooring
5. Marble: a metamorphic, recrystallized limestone composed predominantly of
crystalline grains of calcite or dolomite or both; mosaic structure
6. Serpentine: igneous rock with color ranging from olive green to greenish black
7. Sandstone: a sedimentary rock consisting usually of quartz cemented with silica,
iron oxide or calcium carbonate
8. Slate Rock: a hard brittle, metamorphic rock consisting of many clay minerals,
characterized by good cleavage along parallel lines

Clay
- made of very finely divided particles usually derived from aluminums silicate
rocks; can be plastic when wet and hard when fixed

Forms of Clay
1. surface clay
2. shale
3. fire clay

Classes of Clay
1. Calcareous: 15% calcium carbonate; yellowish
2. Non-calcareous: silicate of alumina with feldspar and iron oxide; red or salmon

Methods of Molding Clay

1. Stiff Mud Process
2. Soft Mud Process
3. Dry Process

Clay Deposits
1. Residual Clay: formed in place from the deteriorations of pre-existing rocks bay
various agents
2. Sedimentary Clay: transported by water and wind: marine clay, shales, lacustrine
clay
20
Steps for Manufacturing of Clay
1. Surface digging or Quarrying
2. Preparation and cleaning
3. Grinding and screening
4. Pugging: mixing to produce a plastic mass and homogenous material
5. Shaping and forming
6. Drying
7. Burning in kilns
Basic brickwork terminology:
Course is a horizontal layer of bricks or other masonry
units.
Bed joint is the horizontal mortar in every course.
Head joint is the vertical mortar in every masonry unit.
Stretcher is a brick laid with its face parallel to the wall and
its long dimension horizontal.
Header is a brick laid so as to bond two wythes together.
Wythe is a vertical layer of masonry units, one unit thick.
Soldier is a brick laid on its end with its face parallel to the
wall.
Rowlock is a brick laid on its face with its end visible in the
wall face.
Structural bonds for brickwork:
Running bond consists entirely of stretchers.
Common bond has a header course every sixth course
English bond alternates courses of headers and stretchers.
Flemish bond alternates headers and stretchers in each course

Joint tooling profiles for brickwork:

Weathered joint
concave joint
vee joint
Fluch joint
raked joint
stripped joint
Struck joint

Reinforced brick masonry

a reinforced brick wall is created by constructing two
wythes of brick 50 100mm apart, placing the reinforcing steel in
the cavity, and filling cavity with grout. Grout is a mixture of
cement, aggregates, and water.

Gypsum

A. Gypsum Plasters

1. Plaster of Paris made from selected white rock

- sets in about 15 to 20 minutes when mixed with water to form a paste
- used for small patching jobs on plaster walls and for making molds
- a plaster finish coat which hardens fast and free from shrinkage cracks is
produced when mixed with lime putty
2. Keenes Cement gypsum is dehydrated after being subjected to a 750 F
temperature. When the material is ground and added with alum produces keenes
cement.
- used for areas where sanitary conditions or excessive moisture makes it
necessary to specify a hard impervious, smooth surface since it is highly resistant to
moisture penetration
3. Casting Plaster made from specially selected rock and much finer than
plaster of paris

21
 - adaptable for ornamental molded plaster work
4. Hardwall Plaster a neat gypsum plaster which contains hair or fiber
- used for first or scratch and second or brown coatings on plastered walls and
ceilings
5. Finish Plaster mixed with hydrated lime and water for finish coat of plastered
surfaces
6. Cement Band Plaster used for application to concrete surfaces wherein any
finish of plaster may be applied
7. Prepared Finish Plaster no lime added
8. Texture Plaster used for rough surfaces
9. Acoustical Plaster calcined gypsum added with lightweight mineral aggregate
10. Joint Filler covering joints or plaster board

B. Gypsum Boards

1. Gypsum Wallboard with Kraft paper

2. Gypsum Lath 3/8 x 16 x 48
- used as a base for plastering; provides adhesion for gypsum plaster
- covered with paper on both sides
3. Gypsum Pre-cast Roof Decking

C. Gypsum Tile

1. Partition and Furring Tile (2 6 x 12 x 30)

2. Fireproofing Tile cover steel members

D. Gypsum Precast Wall Panels T & G; 2 - 6 x 2 x 10; with hexagonal core

cells

D. APPLICATION/CONSTRUCTION
Building Stones
Construction Methods:
Paneling consist of using slabs of stone cut to dimension and
thickness to cover back-up walls and provide a finished exterior.

Ashlar Facing use of cut stones either regular or irregular course

ashlar and broken ashlar

Rubble Work used as random when no attempt is made to produce

either horizontal or vertical course lines. Small spaces are filled with
spalls, small stones and used course rubble work.

Trim use of stone to cut for a specific purpose

Quoins stones laid at intersections of two walls. Emphasized by

using a contrasting color or by projecting beyond the vertical plane of
the wall.

As Jambs stones which form the sides of the window and door
openings.

As Sills stones which form the bottom of window and door

openings.

As Belts special stone courses built into a wall for a particular

purpose; provides relief to a large wall of one material or to provide
break in the vertical plane of a wall; also to provide change in
thickness of wall.

As Copings stone is cut to fit the top of a masonry wall; prevents

the passage of water into the wall, sheds water to either inside or
22
 outside and gives a finished appearance to the wall.

As cornices specially cut stones which are built into or projects

from a masonry wall.

As Lintels stones which bridge the top of the door and widow
openings.

As Stone Steps made to fit over an inclined concrete slab or to cap

steps casts in concrete.

As an Arch Stone cut to form some particular type of arch over a

door or window opening.

As Stone Flooring walks and patios made by covering the base of

stone concrete, brick or tile with flagstone; may either be random
flagstones, trimmed flagstones, trimmed rectangular and square.

Lion Gate, Mycenae, Greece

12th century BC

MODULE 4 Sessions 9 - 11
CONCRETE AND CONCRETE PRODUCTS
A. KEYWORDS
Concrete: Concrete is a mixture of inert materials of varying sizes which
are bound together with a cement paste. Concrete is an artificial
conglomerate stone which is made by uniting into the cement fine materials
of sand and coarse material such as broken stone, gravel, slag or cinders
and formed into a paste by the addition of water.

Cement
Aggregate
Placing
Setting
Hardening

B. BACKGROUND
The factors which make concrete a universal building material are so
23
 pronounced that it has been used, in more primitive kinds and ways than at
present, for thousands of years, probably beginning in the Egyptian
antiquity. The facility with which, while plastic, it can be deposited and
made to fill forms or molds of almost any practical shape is one of these
factors. Its high fire and weather resistance are evident advantages. Most
of the constituent materials, with the possible exception of cement, are
usually available at low cost locally or at small distances from the
construction site. Its compressive strength, like that of natural stones is
high, which makes it suitable for members primarily subject to
compression, such as columns and arches. On the other hand, again as
natural stones, it is a relatively brittle material whose tensile strength is
small compared with its compressive strength. This prevents its
economical use in structural members which are subject to tension either
entirely (such as tie rods) or over part of their cross sections (such as
beams or other flexural members).

To offset this limitation, it has been found possible in the second half of the
nineteenth century, to use steel with its high tensile strength to reinforce
concrete, chiefly in those places where its small tensile strength would limit
the carrying capacity of the member. The reinforcement, usually round
steel rods with appropriate surface deformations to provide interlocking, is
placed in the forms in advance of the concrete. When completely
surrounded by the concrete mass, it forms an integral part of the member.
The resulting combination of the tow materials, known as reinforced
concrete, combines many of the advantages of each: the relatively low
cost, good weather and fire resistance of concrete and the high tensile
strength and much greater ductility and toughness of steel. It is this
combination which allows the almost unlimited range of uses and
possibilities of reinforced concrete in the construction of building bridges,
dams, tanks, reservoirs and a host of other structures.

In more recent times it has been found possible to produce steels at a

relatively low cost, whose yielding strength is of the order of four times and
more than of ordinary reinforcing steel. Likewise, it is possible to produce
concrete two or three times as strong in compression as the more ordinary
concrete. Reinforced concrete is considered as one outstanding building
material that belongs to Modern Architecture.

Cement in concrete is the chemically active element. The other materials

which are chemically inert are called aggregates. Aggregates smaller than
inch is called fine aggregates and generally refers to the sand while
materials over inch in diameter are considered coarse aggregates and
this includes broken stone, cinders, slag, burned clay, expanded
vermiculite and perlite.

C. CHARACTERISTICS/PROPERTIES
C.1 GENERAL PROPERTIES
Inert Materials
1. Aggregates
a. natural sand or other material which have same
characteristics having clean, hard and durable grains free
from organic matter or loam
b. Coarse aggregates - crushed stone or gravel having
clean, hard, strong, durable uncoated particles free from
injurious amount of soft alkali or organic matter; elongated
or laminated; - 1.5 limestone, soft stones or adobe
stones are not allowed to be used
2. Water free from oils, acids or vegetable matters;
sea or blackish water is prohibited

24

cinder concrete burned anthrache coal used for
fireproofing

slag concrete blast furnace slag suitable for
lightweight construction

1 bag cement = 40 kg.

1 measuring box = 1 cu. ft.

1 U.S. gallon of water = two (2) standard pails; 3.62
liters

concrete conveyors
a. buckets
b. wheel barrow
c. buggies
d. chutes
e. conveyors
f. trans mixers

Concrete Mixtures
Class Use Ratio (c:s:g) Strength
AA Concrete under water retaining 1:1.5:3 4500 psi
walls
A Footings, columns, R.C. slabs 1:2:4 4000 psi
B Slab on fill, non-bearing walls 1:2.5:5 3500 psi
C Plant boxes 1:3:6 2500 psi

Concrete elements/ingredients/composition

Sand

Water

Gravel

Cement

Concrete strength depends on:

1. Correct proportioning
2. Correct mixing
3. Correct placing

Hydration crystallization
Proper curing (28 days)
1. Burlap jute sack (abaca / sack)
2. old news paper
3. sand

Testing of concrete
1. Slump Test

freshly mixed concrete

1/3 layer 25 times tamping
2. Compression test 14 & 28 days

Slump test- freshly mixed concrete is checked to ensure that the

specified slump is attained consistently; A standard slump cone is 12
inches high (0.30) and 8 inches (0.20) in diameter at the bottom and 4
inches (0.10) on top which is open on both ends.

The cone is filled in three equal layers, each being tamped or rodded
25 times with a standard 5/8 bullet nosed rod. When the cone has
been filled and leveled off, it is lifted carefully and the amount of slump
is measured.

Allowable deflection x or slump

25
 Beams and columns: 7.5 cm. (.075) 3
Slabs and tunnel inverts: 5.0 cm. (.50) 2
Tops and wall, piers, parapet & curbs: 5.0 cm. (.50) 2
Side walls and arch in tunnel lining: 10.0 cm. (.10) 4
Canal lining: 7.5 cm. (.075) 3
Heavy mass construction: 5.0 cm. (.50) 2

Compressive strength test- common quality-control test of concrete,

based on 7 and 28 days curing periods. Specimens are usually
cylindrical with a lenght equal to twice the diameter. Standard size is
12 inch. High and 6 inch. Diameter. Filling is done the same way as the
slump test but taken out from the mold in 24 hours. It is then sent to a
compression testing laboratory, by making the cylinder while still wet.
Some compressive stresses are 2,000 psi, 2,500 psi, 3,000 psi.

Some of the brands of portland cement

Island cement
Continental cement
Hi- cement
Union cement
Rizal cement
Filipinas cement
Pacific cement
Fortune cement
Republic cement
Northern cement

Brands of white cement

Prime white cement
Keene
Trinity
Snowcrete

 Mortar cement, sand & water.

 Grout cement and water mixture.
 Tyrolean finish rough plaster finish obtained by flinging plaster on a
wall w/ a hand operated machine.
 Efflorescence an encrustation of soluble salts caused by free alkalies
leached from mortar or adjacent concrete as moisture move through it.
 Adiabatic curing - the curing of concrete or mortar w/o the gain or loss
of heat during the curing period.
 Wheathered most waterproofed type of mortar joints for walls.
 Adobe brick large roughly moulded sun dried clay bricks of varying
sizes.
 Ashlar brick a brick whose face has been hacked to resemble
roughly hacked stone.
 Steam curing the curing of concrete or mortar in water vapor at an
elevated temperature at either atmospheric or high pressure.
 Zocalo low wall around a chalet-type house.
 Fortification eg.:wall of intramuros.
 Scratch coat initial scored layer of plaster work.
 Cinder block a light weight masonry unit made of cinder concrete.
 Mortar for block laying: 0.0125 m.
 Plastering thickness: 0.016 m.
 Mortar filler for hollow cell:
0.05 x 0.075 x 0.20 = 0.00075 cu.m.
 For 4 cell/block = 0.00075 x 4 = 0.003 cu.m. For 4 CHB
 Mortar cement + water + sand (e.g. CHB)
 Plaster cement + sand + lime + water
 Grout cement + cement-sand / chemicals + water (same as mortar
but with more water; e.g. tiles)
26
  Concrete cement + sand + gravel + water
 Universal Testing Machine (UTM) 4500 psi

Concrete Additives / Admixture

1. accelerator
2. retarder
3. air-entraining agents; resistance to deterioration; repeated freezing
and thawing cycle
4. dispersal agent prevents bleeding of water to the surface of
concrete
5. concrete hardener
6. water reducing admixture
7. concrete waterproofer
8. bonding agent for old and new concrete
9. concrete coloring agent
10. set inhibiting agent inhibit the set of cement paste
11. surface sealing agents prevents evaporation of water from new
concrete
12. gas-forming agent
13. non-skid surface
14. pozzolanic admixture

Construction Uses
1. cast-in place concrete
2. pre-cast concrete
3. pre-stressed concrete (pre-tensioned/post-tensioned refers to the
bars)

Concrete resist compression

Bars resist tension

Requirement for Aggregates

Aggregates must be clean, hard, strong, natural grave, well graded and of proper
shape, either rounded or of a more sharp, angular and rough particle because
otherwise they will require more sand of fine materials and therefore more cement.

Use of flat, laminated pieces of produces concrete of reduced strength. Aggregates

should be free from coatings of clay or other fine materials or organic impurities
because they may affect the setting of the cement paste. Grading of concrete is
accomplished by the use of a standard set of nine sieves: 1, , , and 3/8 inches
sizes and numbers 4, 8, 16, 30, 50 and 100.

Silt Test
To test the amount of clay or silt present in the sand:
A quart jar is filled in with 2 sand.
Fill the jar with full of clean water.
Shake the contents well and allow settling for several hours
(The fine material settles down on top of the sand forming a layer).
When the water is clear, measure the depth of the silt deposit (1/8 inches thick
deposit indicates the sand contains too much silt).

Setting
It is the condition which is a physical property of hydraulic cements that when
sufficiently gauged with water and then left undisturbed loses its plasticity and
reaches a state in which its form cannot be changed without producing rupture.
This is caused by the hydration and crystallization of the cement.

Hardening
Hardening or final setting is a gradual progress of crystallization which
increases the strength of the cement. Setting and hardening are two distinct
27
conditions. Setting takes place only in a few hours or even minutes whereas
hardening proceeds for months or even years.

Mixing Concrete
The best way of mixing concrete is by mechanical mixer for small or large
projects. It is by far superior to hand mixed concrete. Mechanical mixers are made
of drums or barrels rotated by gasoline engines. The drums have paddles inside
which stir or mix the materials inside while the drum rotates.

Sizes
Size is from 2 cu. ft. to 4 cu. yard

Time of Mixing
One minute per batch of 1 cu. yard; 15 seconds added for each extra cu. yard.

Ready Mixed Concrete

Concrete is done in a central mixing plant. The ready mixed concrete is brought to
the building site by truck with large revolving drums to prevent separation of
aggregates during transit.

Central Mixed Concrete

Concrete completely mixed with water before leaving the plant.

Transit Mixed Concrete

Mixed dry before starting and water added during transit. This method can be used
if exact time or distance of travel to the job site is known.

Advantages of Ready Mixed Concrete

Ready mixed concrete offers great convenience and economy to builders. The
mixing is done according to approved method and strict control resulting in a better
concrete.

Allowed Limit of Operation

The most appropriate time interval between the addition of cement and aggregates
or cement to aggregate is 1 hours.

Placing of Concrete
Samples of concrete are taken at the job as it is unloaded after 28 days and
submitted to a compression test. The samples are cylindrical 6 diameter and 12 in
height. Compressive load is applied until it fails. This load divided by the cross
sectional area (L/A) of the specimen gives the ultimate compressive unit stress in
#/sq.in.

After mixing, concrete should be placed in the forms as quickly as possible with a
minimum segregation or separation of aggregates.

Transporting of concrete may be done by bucket, wheelbarrows, carts or buggies,

chutes, spout and belt conveyors.

Chutes are used on large scale construction and a tower or steel mast with hopper
chutes which can be easily shifted up and down the mast, concrete is hoisted in
self-dumping buckets. Slope of the chutes is made to conform to the newness of
the concrete mix.

Pouring
This should be done with care so that aggregates are not separated, and
honeycomb are not formed and is avoided. Reinforcement should be well
embedded and all parts of the forms are completely filled. Avoid a fall of more than
4. Require sufficient tamping to eliminate air holes and spading along the sides of
the form to produce smooth outside surface, avoid pits and honeycomb and
reinforcement thoroughly embedded. Excessive tamping should also be avoided by
28
the proper plasticity of concrete. Concrete may be place by pumping through pipe
to the forms. It is required to have a working pressure of at least 300#/sq. in. The
hose should not be bent less than 45.6 with 7-8 hose diameter.

Gunnite
Gunnite is the placing of concrete by pneumatic gun. The concrete is place in the
forms under air pressure. Dry sand and cement are placed in the gun. The
pneumatic placing is applied to tanks, waterproofing, fireproofing of steel truss shell
construction and swimming pools.

Vibrators
Vibrators are machines that vibrates 13,000 vibrations/minute or also known as a
high frequency vibrator which is applied in the concrete mass or upon the outside
of the forms to compact concrete and reduce the amount of honeycomb and
surface irregularities.

Construction Joints
Construction joints are either horizontal or vertical planes separating the stoppage
of pouring operation. The planes of separation or construction joints should be
introduced where they will contribute to the minimum amount of weakness to the
structure.

In walls, horizontal construction joints and vertical construction joints known as

contraction joints are used if wall is very long. Beams, slabs and grade girders
where continuous pouring is particularly desirable but where discontinuity is
necessary, construction joints should be vertical and located where the shearing
stress is minimum.
Expansion Joints
Expansion joints are vertical joints in the concrete (actually separation planes) to
provide long buildings freedom to expand and contract due to temperature
changes, without which cracks are certain to appear. Location of expansion joints
depends upon the exposure.

Reinforcing bars should not be allowed to extend thru the joint. Double columns at
expansion joints and double footings may be required.

Seal joints from weather with flexible covers installed inside and out of the walls
and roof.

Curing
Right proportioning, correct mixing and careful placing of concrete can only be
successful when proper curing has been given due consideration.

Hardening of concrete depends in the reaction that takes place between water and
cement.

Concrete will continue to harden as long as the moisture is present.

Moisture Loss Prevention in Concrete

Since evaporation of moisture will take place particularly thru the exposed surface,
several methods may be employed:
Cover the surface with wet burlap and kept wet for seven (7) days.
Use of building paper
One (1) inch wet sand or sawdust
Continuous spraying of water
Steaming limited to factory products like concrete hollow blocks and other
precast units

MODULE 5 Sessions 12-14

29
 FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METALS
KEYWORDS
Ferrous- metal in which iron is the principal element
Nonferrous- containing no, or very little iron

The uses of metals depend on their properties.

FERROUS METALS:
Steel- a malleable alloy of iron and carbon produced by melting and refining pig
iron and/ or scrap steel; graded according to the carbon content.

Produce by three basic raw materials, iron ore, and limestone. Five particles of all
three basic ingredients of steel, which otherwise would be waste, are blended and
burned on a moving gate to cause the formation of clinkers. These are called
sinter, a high- grade blast-furnace charge material.

From these, raw materials which are melted into ingots place in molds, a great
variety of products used in construction are made. These include:

Cold-rolled sheets are galvanized (given a zinc coating). Pig iron is used to
make cast iron which is high in compressive strength but low in tensile strength,
and has little use for construction. However since it is cheap and easy to cast, it is
used for pumps, motors, engines and because of its corrosion resistance it is used
for pipes to some extent.

Cast iron is the simplest and cheapest product of iron; made by melting of pig
iron

Malleable iron is another form of cast iron

Wrought iron is produced when pig iron is melted in such a way as to remove
nearly all of the carbon and other impurities. It is easily worked and is tough and
ductile. Its main uses are for wire and metal ornaments.

Stainless steels are made with chromium or a combination of nickel and

chromium used in buildings of exterior walls panels, frames for doors expansion
joints, flashing, copings, fascia and gravel stops.

Copper- bearing steel has high resistance to corrosion and is used for making
sheet steel and metal lath.

IRON AND STEEL

- Iron ore is composed of iron combined with oxygen minerals and rocks
- Iron is made by removing the oxygen, minerals and rocks from iron ore
- Steel is made by removing carbon from pig iron
- Two main classes of Steel: carbon steel and alloy steel
- Carbon steel: wires, reinforcing bars, springs, tools
- Classes of Alloy steels:
o Constructional alloy steel
o High-strength low alloy steel
o Stainless steel
o Heat resistant steels
o Tool steels
o Electrical steels
Most alloy steels contain less than 1% carbon
- Smelting: process used to make iron
30
- Classification of iron ores:
1. High grade ore: 50% iron
2. low grade ore: less than 50% iron
a. Nematite: red ore contains 70% ferric Oxide when pure
b. Magnetite: magnetic oxide containing 72% iron
c. Limonite: brown iron containing about 60% iron
- Methods of mining iron ore: Open-pit and Shaft mining
- Blast furnace: a tall vertical steel stack (38 meters high) lined inside with fire
bricks used for smelting of iron ore
- Coke: generally the fuel used in producing iron
- Flux: material required to unite impurities of the ore
- Slag: fusible material formed by the combination of the flux and the impurities
- Charge: composed of coke, ore, and flux
- Steel is manufactured by:
o The Bessemer converter
o The open-hearth furnace
o Electric furnace
o New oxygen furnace

31
BLAST FURNACE
Forms of Steel

Cold rolled steel

Cold drawn steel

Billet steel

Structural steel

Structural Steel Shapes

32

Round

Square

Plates

Angular L

Channel c

I-beam

Tee

H

Wide flange

Zee

STEEL PRODUCTS
1. Rolled Structural Shapes
2. Sheet Piling
3. Steel Pipe
4. Reinforcing Steel
5. Welded Wire Fabric
6. Steel Wire
7. Bolts and Nuts
8. Steel Strapping
9. Open Web Steel Joists
10. Sheet Steel
11. Steel Studs
12. Pans and Domes

Rolled structural shapes

Sheet piling- sections are made to interlock and are available in several shape.
Steel pipe- seamless or welded small diameter pipe and electrically welded
large diameter pipe.
Reinforcing steel- made from new steel or from discarded railway- car
axles or rails.
Reinforcing steel comes in plain or deformed bars, that is, bars which have
lugs or deformations rolled on the surface to provide anchorage in concrete.

Sizes-start with no.2 or in. (divide a number of bar by 8 to get the equivalent in
inch diameter)

No. 2= = 6 mm.
No. 3= 3/8 = 10 mm.
No. 4= = 12mm.
No. 5= 5/8 = 16mm.
No. 6= = 20mm.
No. 7= 7/8 = 22mm.
No. 8= 1 = 25mm.
No. 9= 1 1/8 = 30mm.

Welded wire fabric- another type of reinforcing material. It consists of parallel,

longitudinal wires welded to transverse wires at regular intervals.
Steel wire over 150,000 uses for wire including pins, needles, nails, bolts,
cables, piano wire, fences.
Bolts and nuts (either hot forged or cold-formed from wire of the appropriate
diameter). For bolts, wire is fed into an automatic bolt-making machine which cuts
to length heads, trims, points, and in many rolls the thread.
Steel strapping made from high-tensile flat wire in a number of sizes. Used
for banding column forms to keep them from bulging under the pressure of freshly
poured concrete. After tightening, the two lapped ends is sealed.
Open web steel joists lightweight warren-type trusses made in several
different styles.
Sheet steel black and galvanized, can be used to manufacture corrugated
roofing and siding and formed steel decking.

33
 Steel studs lightweight, requiring minimum storage space and does not warp
or shrink. Fasteners do not pop, and joints stay closed. Much faster to install than
wood stud installation. Available in 1 5/8, 2 and 3 5/8 inches. Plumbing stacks
and electrical components fit easily into a steel-frame wall.
Pans and dones manufactured for use in forming one-way and two-way
ribbed concrete floor systems.

NON-FERROUS METALS
Aluminum its ore, bauxite, requires 10 kilowatt hours for each pound of metal
aluminum extracted. The reddish brown ore is washed and treated in a soda
solution to yield a chalky-white powder called alumna, containing a high
concentration of aluminum.

Aluminum foil used as a vapor barrier on walls and ceilings and as reflective
insulation.

Copper a lustrous reddish metal, highly ductile and malleable; has high tensile
strength, is an excellent electrical and thermal conductor, is available in a wide
variety of shapes; widely used for downspouts, electrical conductors, flashings
gutters, roofing, etc.

Copper alloys are brasses, and bronzes which contain primarily zinc and tin,
respectively, and the alloys containing nickel.

Brasses are used in architectural and hardware applications. Bronzes are used in
the production of springs.

Lead a soft, malleable, heavy metal; has low melting point and a high coefficient
of thermal expansion; very easy to cut and work, enabling it to be fitted over
uneven surfaces; used for roofing, flashing and spandrel wall panels.
Tin a lustrous white, soft and malleable metal having a low melting point;
relatively unaffected by exposure to air; used for making alloys and solder and in
coating sheet metal.

Structural shapes
The most common shapes of structural steel used in building construction are the
American standard forms such as:
Square bars
Round bars
Plate bars
Angle bars
Channels
I beam
T beam
H - column
Wide flange
Zee

Standard channel
The standard channel has the shape of unsymmetrical balance consisting of two
flanges on one side. It therefore requires lateral support to prevent its tendency to
buckle. The standard channels are generally used as elements of built-up sections
for columns and are also suitable for framing around floor openings, spandrels, and
lintels attributed to the absence of flange on the other side. The channel section is
identifird as c 15 x 20 which means that the channel has a depth of 20 cm. And
weights 15 kg. Per meter length.

Wide flange
Wide flange sections are designated as w 12 x 24 which means that the flange has
a depth of 24 cm. And it weighs 12 kg. Per meter length. All wide flange sections
are generally with parallel face flange except those with 5% slope inside face
34
produced by Bethlehem steel company. Comparatively, wide flange sections are
more efficient than standard i beam with respect to bending resistance.
Standard I-beam
The use of I-beam as a column is uneconomical, because the whirl or revolving
action of the structure about an axis through the centroid parallel to the web of the
I-beam is comparatively small.

H-bearing piles
H-bearing piles although suitable for pile driving on deep excavations are much
more suitable than the I-beam for columns.

Zee sections
The zee section is another structural form in a letter z which is not frequently used
in building construction except on the fabrication of steel windows and other
frames.

Wrought iron a commercially pure iron of fibrous nature, valued for its
corrosion resistance and ductility.
Cast iron an iron alloy usually including carbon and silicon which has high
compressive strength but low tensile strength.
Welding is the process by which two metals are so joint that there is an
actual union of the inter-atomic bonds.
Extrusion the process of producing metal shapes of a constant cross section
by forcing the hot metal through an orifice in a die by means of a pressure ram.
Red oxide protective coat for iron.
Lap seam a joint formed by overlapping the edges of metal sheet or plates
and joining them by riveting or soldering or bracing.

Joining steel members

Steel shapes can be joined into a building frame with any of three fastening
techniques.

Rivets
A rivet is a fastener consisting of a cylindrical body and a formed head which is
brought to a white heat, inserted through holes in the members to be joined, and
hot-worked with a pneumatic hammer to produced a second head opposite the first
head.

Process of riveting:
A. A hot steel rivet is inserted in holes through the two members to be joined,
B. Its head is then held with hand hammer with a cup-shaped depression,
C. While a pneumatic hammer drives a rivet set repeatedly against the body
of the rivet to form the second head,
D. The rivet shrinks as it cools, drawing members tightly together.

Bolts
The bolts commonly used in steel frame construction fall into two general
categories:
1) Carbon steel bolts or common bolts are similar to the ordinary machine bolts
that can be purchased in hardware stores.
2) High-strength bolts are heat treated during manufacture to develop the
necessary strength. It is usually tightened using pneumatic or electric impact
wrench.

A major problem in high-strength bolting or friction-type connections is how to verify

the necessary tension has been achieved in all the bolts in a connection.

Several ways to achieved proper tightening:

Turn-of-nut method
Load indicator washer
35
 Tension control bolts

Process of tightening a tension control bolt:

A. The wrench holds both the nut and the splined body of the bolt, and turns them
against one another to tighten the bolt,
B. When the required torque is achieved, the splined end twists off in the wrench,
C. A plunger inside the wrench discharges the splined end into a container.

Welding
Welding can join the members of a steel frame as if they were a monolithic whole.
Welded are stronger than the members they join in resisting both shear and
moment forces.

Typical welds used in steel frame construction:

Fillet weld
Double fillet weld
Double-bevel groove weld
Single-bevel groove weld with backup bar
V-groove weld
V-groove weld with backup bar
Puddle weld
Partial-penetration single-bevel groove weld

BASIC SYMBOLS
Back
Fillet
Plug or slot
Groove or butt
Square v
Bevel u
Flare v
Flare bevel
The arrow
The reference line carries the descriptive symbols the arrow points to the weld
The basic weld symbol is located on either side of the reference line as follows:

Symbols on the top of the reference line refer to welds on the side of the joint
opposite the arrow

Symbols on the bottom of the reference line refer to welds on the same side of the
joint as the arrow

Supplementary symbols
Field weld this weld be done in the field during erection. Other welds are done
earlier in the fabricators shop.

Weld all around this indicates that the weld should be carried fully around the
perimeter of the joining pieces.

Backup bar as indicated in this example, a backup bar to support the first pass of
the weld must be placed on the side of the joint opposite the arrow.

Spacer small metal spacers are used to maintain a gap between the pieces to be
joined, prior to welding.

A sharp bend near the end of the arrow indicates that the arrowhead is pointing
toward the grooved side of the bevel or j-grooved joint.

36
 MODULE 6 Sessions 15-16
GLASS AND GLAZING
KEYWORDS
Glass
Melting
Annealing
Oxidizing
Glazing

GLASS: solid super cooled liquid ceramic material characterized by

transparency, brittleness, hardness, thermo plasticity and chemical alertness

The major ingredient of glass is sand (silicon dioxide). A hard brittle inorganic
substance, ordinarily transparent or translucent; produced by melting a mixture of
silica, a flux and a stabilizer; while molten maybe blown, drawn, rolled, pressed or
cast to a variety of shapes.

During its manufactured, ordinary window glass is annealed, cooled slowly under
controlled condition, to avoid locked-in thermal stresses that might cause it to
behave unpredictably in use.

Naturally occurring glass, such as obsidian, has been used since the Stone Age.
According to Pliny the Elder, the Phoenicians made the first glass. Pliny wrote:
"The tradition is that a merchant ship laden with nitrum (soda and potash) being
moored at this place, the merchants were preparing their meal on the beach, and
not having stones to prop up their pots, they used lumps of nitrum from the ship,
which fused and mixed with the sands of the shore, and there flowed streams of a
new translucent liquid, and thus was the origin of glass." That the Phoenicians
used glass as a glaze for pottery was known as early as 3000 BC. However, there
is archaeological evidence to support the claim that the first glass was made in
Mesopotamia. Glass beads, seals, and architectural decorations date from around
2500 B.C.

The color of "natural glass" is green to bluish green. This color is caused by
naturally occurring iron impurities in the sand. Common glass today usually has a
slight green or blue tint, arising from these same impurities.

Glassmakers learned to make colored glass by adding metallic compounds and

mineral oxides to produce brilliant hues of red, green, and blue - the colors of
gemstones. When gem-cutters learned to cut glass, they found clear glass was an
excellent refractor of light.

The earliest known beads from Egypt were made during the New Kingdom, about
1500 BC and came in a variety of colors. They were made by winding molten glass
around a metal bar and were highly prized as a trading commodity, especially blue
ones because they were reported to have magical powers.

GLASS can be:

Blown
Drawn
Rolled
Cast

- Special kind of glass have other oxides as major ingredients

- Melting point of glass: 1723 C

STRUCTURE OF GLASS
- It is an arrangement of atoms quite like that in the liquid state, therefore, a long
37
range order
- In a crystal, the atoms are arranged in regular repeating pattern
MELTING
- Production of glass articles begins with batch mixing of raw materials (sand
and limestone) and then undergo a process of melting.
- Melting is done in pots for small production; contains about 1 to 2 tons of glass
- For large production in factories, batches of pots can be melted at the same
time in a central furnace

HEAT TREATMENT
- After forming, glass must be slowly cooled or annealed usually in long oven
called a lehr
- Purpose of annealing is to reduce the internal stress which can be great
enough to crack the glass during cooling
- Opposite method of annealing is dis-annealing or tempering
- In tempering, glass is rapidly chilled by a blast of air or by immersion in liquid;
by-product: tempered glass

- to lower melting point of glass to a convenient level, soda (Na2O) is added in

the form of sodium carbonate or nitrate; but resulting glass has no durability

- lime (CaO) is then added to form the basic soda-lime-silica glass composition

- Commercial glass contains other oxides such as aluminum and magnesium

oxides as ingredients to help in oxidizing, fining or decolorizing glass.

Thicknesses of glass
Glass is typically manufactured in a series of thicknesses ranging from
approximately 2.5mm, through 3mm, is called single-strength, or 6mm to 22mm, is
called double-strength, and on special order, 25mm is available.

Types of Glasses
Window glass / heavy sheet glass
Plate glass ground and polished on both sides and a perfectly flat plane
Wired glass hexagonal twisted wire or diamond shaped welded wire mesh is
embedded; fire resistant
Heat Absorbing and Glare Reducing Glass
Insulating Glass two or more sheets of glass of various types separated by a
captured air space
Patterned Glass semi-transparent with geometric linear designs
Structural Glass ground and polished opaque colored glass for surfaces of walls
Laminated Glass two or more layers of plate glass with a layer or more of
transparent / pigmented plastic sandwiched between
Tempered Glass reheated to below softening point and suddenly cooled
Corrugated Glass rolled glass with patterns on both sides forming corrugations
Mirrors reflecting surface of thin coat of metal

GLASS BLOCKS
Types:
Hollow Block

Types:
Functional blocks directs or diffuse the daylight that passes through them to
improve the illumination of the building interior
Light directing block directs incoming light upward toward the ceiling; used above
eye level
Light diffusing clock diffuses light evenly throughout the interior of the room
General Purpose block
Size: 8 x 8 inches and 12 x 12 inches; 4 inches thick
Decorative or Architectural Glass available in a wide range of styles and patterns;
provides almost unlimited design versatility when used in window, openings and
38
facades, as interior walls and divider paneling and ceiling; method of attachment is
by gluing to a plywood background using rugby.

Solid Glass Block

Insulation
Horizontal reinforcement at every 2 in height
inch mortar joint slightly concave in surface
inch clearance at heads and jambs for installation of expansion materials

Types of clear glass

1. Tempered glass
Tempered glass is produced by cutting annealed glass to the required sizes for
use, reheating it to approximately 1200 degrees Fahrenheit, cooling both its
surfaces rapidly with a blast of air while its core cools much more slowly. Its
four times as strong in bending and more resistant to thermal stress and
impact.

2. Heat-strengthened glass
The heat strengthened process is similar to tempering, but its, about one-third
as high as tempered glass in terms of bending and strength.

3. Laminated glass
It is made by sandwiching a transparent vinyl interlayer between sheets of
glass and bonding the three layers together under heat and pressure. When it
breaks, the soft vinyl holds the shards of glass in place rather than allowing
them to fall out of the frame.

4. Patterned or rolled and rough cast glass

Hot glass can be rolled into sheets with many different surface patterns for use
where light transmission is desired but vision must be obscured for privacy.

5. Spandrel glass
Special opaque glasses are produced for covering the spandrel area (the
bands of wall around the edges of floors) in glass curtain. It is usually
tempered or heat-strengthened to resist the thermal stresses that can caused
by accumulations of solar heat behind the spandrel.

6. Wired glass
A rolled glass into which a wire mesh is inserted during the process of
manufacturing

The wire greatly increases the resistance to shattering through impact. Its use
for safety glazing, when it breaks from thermal stress, the wires hold the sheet
of glass together.

Tinted and reflective coated glass

Solar heat buildup can be problematic in the inhabited spaces of buildings with
large areas of glass, especially during the warm part of the year. This is use to
reduce glare and cut down on solar heat gain.

1) Tinted glass
Tinted glass is made by adding small amounts of selected chemical elements
to the molten glass mixture to produce the desired hue and intensity of color in
grays, bronzes, blues, green, and gold.

2) Reflective coated glass

Reflective coated glass appear as mirror from the outside on a bright day and
at night, with lights on inside the building, they appear as dark but transparent
glass.

39
3) Insulating glass
A second sheet of glass applied to a window with airspace between the sheets
cuts this rate of heat loss in half. Two kinds of edges seals are fused glass
edges and a metal spline and organic sealant.

Glass products
I. Glass blocks
Comparable in many ways to unit masonry but have the added feature of
transmitting light. They are made into two separate halves, which are heat-
sealed together to form a hollow unit with reasonably high thermal efficiency
and sound insulation. The edge surfaces of the block are coated with a gritty
mortar bond.

Two types:
1. Functional blocks direct or diffuse the daylight which passes through
them to improve the illumination of the building interior.

Three styles of functional blocks:

A. A light directing block directs incoming light upward toward the
ceiling. Used always above eye level.
B. A light diffusing block diffuses incoming light evenly throughout the
interior of the room.
C. General Purposes block

2. Decorative or architectural glass available in a wide range of styles and

patterns. These glass masonry units provide almost unlimited design versatility
when used in window, openings and facades, as interior walls and divider paneling.

GLAZING
- installation of glass; fitting of glass into suitable frames in order to form a
window which will admit light into a building
- in the middle Ages and up to the 17th century, this meant the use of leaded
lights with small areas of glass fastened together with special formed strips of lead
- the making of large sheets of glass caused an increase in the size of panes
and window areas
- the development of the use of steel, reinforced concrete and construction of
th
cast-iron buildings in the 20 century altered the small area used for glazing

METHOD
- previously, the normal process of glazing windows into a wooden or metal
frames uses the diamond for cutting as well as straight edges and measuring tools;
for setting out glazing knife, hacking knife and hammer
- additional materials: putty, priming or paint glazier sprigs, leather or synthetic
rubber strip
- putty: whiting and linseed oil; should be kept moist for workability

Glazing Materials
Wood Sash Putty cement of fine powdered chalk (white or lead oxide) white lead
mixed with raw linseed oil
Metal Sash Putty - made of material that adheres to non-porous materials
Elastic Plastic Compound made from selected oil and color pigments; remains
plastic and resilient for a long time
Polybuthane Tape non-drying mastic compound
Polysulfide Elastomer sealing compound made of two parts synthetic rubber
Compression Materials extruded or molded shapes made of rubber neoprene,
vinyl or other plastics

40
 MODULE 7 Sessions 19-21
PLASTICS AND PLASTIC PRODUCTS
Plastic substances such as salt water, natural gas, wood and water; derived from
the Greek word plastics meaning to form product of synthetic origin capable of
being shaped in some stage of manufacture which is not rubber, wood, metal or
leather

Composition
Monomers simple chemicals which are capable of reacting with one another
Polymers monomers built up into chain-like molecules of high molecular weight

Materials in producing plastic:

o Raw materials: cellulose, coal and petroleum
o Plasticizers
o Stabilizer and antioxidants
o organic peroxides
o colorants
o flame retardants
o fillers and reinforcements

Types of Plastics
1. Thermosetting plastics
2. Thermoplastics

Thermosetting Plastics
o melamine and urea resistant to chemical and electrical potential heat
o Epoxy adhesive qualities, special panels
o Alkyds molded electrical parts, paints
o Phenolic paints, baked enamels, adhesives, impregnating resins
o Polyester large glass fiber reinforced translucent panels
o Urethane coatings, self-adhesive foams

Thermoplastic resins may be softened by heat and regain their original

properties after cooling
o Acrylics skylights, paints, adhesives, lighting fixtures
o Cellulosic paints, lacquers, transparent sheeting
o Polyethylene (PE) water vapor barriers
o Polysterine lighting diffusers
o Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) vinyl resilient flooring, paints

Plastic sheets
sheets flat, corrugated and other deformed shapes used in skylights
film damp proofing
foam insulating piping and refrigerated areas
Plastic laminates
Kraft paper with phenolics
Aluminum foil to dissipate heat and laminate flame proof
Pattern sheet with melamine
final hard wearing surface sheet of melamine

MODULE 8 Sessions 22-23

THERMAL AND MOISTURE PROTECTION

41
 Waterproofing a method of protecting surfaces against the destructive effects
of water.
Three types of waterproofing:
 Integral type medium in powder form is added and mixed with the
aggregates of concrete. In this case, one pack of usually .908 kilos is added to
one bag of kilos cement. Some of the known brands are sahara and sakura.
 Membrane type recommended for use where direct rain, or standing
water are eminent, there are about 14 uses. The materials used depending on
the manufacturer is either asphalt paper laid with hot asphalt, impregnated
asbestos felt, sometimes thick polyethylene sheets is also used. Other
materials are performed self sealing asphalt.
 Fluid applied a fluid applied elastomeric coating based on heavy solids
elastomer compound formulated to waterproof and preserve the substrate, like
concrete, wood, bricks and steel. The waterproofing is monolothic, seamless,
flexible and elastic over a wide temperature range, withstands extreme thermal
movement, settling and cracking. It resists puncture and tearing abrasive
overlayments. This elastomeric fluid can be applied by roller, brush, spray or
squeegee.

Roofing felts the base felts used in built-up roofing are available in two basic
type asbestos felts and organic or rag felts. They look alike, superficially, but
they differ widely in service.

Asbestos:
 Asbestos felts composed primarily of asbestos fiber, a non-rotting, non-
wicking inorganic mineral fiber.
 Identical expansion and contraction properties to finishing felts.
 Minimum stretch and shrinkage or wetting or drying which means minimum
distortion.
 Loses strength slowly while aging.
 Excellent resistance to burnout in hot climate.
 Rat resistant.

Organic:
 Organic felts composed of fibrous organic materials. Subject to
deterioration by oxidation and to wicking.
 Different expansion and contraction properties from finishing plies.
 Maximum stretch and shrinkage on wetting and drying which means
maximum distortion.
 Loses strength rapidly while aging.
 Poor resistance to burnout in hot climate.
 Poor resistance to rot.

Damp-proofing protection from the outside is provided by water repellent

materials which turn water aside and force it to return to the earth. The dampness
that sometimes occurs inside the building can be caused by penetration of
moisture from the outside or by consideration of water vapor generated on the
inside.

Materials used as vapor barriers:

 Polyethylene film thus is chemically inert plastic, unaffected by acids,
alkalis and caustics, produced in rolls of 3 to 20 ft. Wide. Common thicknesses
are 2,3,4 and 6 mil (1mil = .001 in.) This film is useful not only as vapor barrier
for walls, ceilings and floors but also as a barrier to prevent the passage of
moisture from the earth upward through a concrete slab lain on the ground.
Polyethylene film can be applied vertically in 36 in. Wide strips to studding on
16 in. Centers with a full overlap on alternate studs. Films are stapled to studs.
Overlaps and extensions to floors and wallings shall be 6 in.
 Aluminum foil used as vapor barrier as a single sheet, or as a thin layer
of foil laminated to a heavy backing of asphalt-impregnated kraft paper. This is
also done with two layers of foil laminated with asphalt cement.
42
  Kraft paper coated with asphalt or wax. Sometimes two layers of paper are
cemented with a continous layer of asphalt. Another materials used for damp-
proofing of concrete walls is weatherkote bituminous emulsion, by shell.

Clear protective treatments for masonry, concrete this is a clear, invisible

silicone water repellent specially formulated for application on masonry and bricks
(standard silicone repellent) and for limestone and concrete that seeps much
rainwater (special formulated silicone repellent). The silicone liquid is applied by
brush or low pressure spray and does not affect the color or naturalness of the
material.
Anay (termite) proofing by soil poisoning it is important to poison the soil
against anay (white ants) in order to stop the termites from infesting the main
posts, walls and flooring.
Wood preservative (powder post termites) a chemical liquid painted and
applied to lumber to preserve it for years. It protects wood against powder post
beetles (bukbok) powder poet termite (unos), decay causing fungi, such as sap
stain and dry rot.
Fireproofing a clear liquid applied easily on wood, plywood, lumber and other
board that retains the natural beauty, gives added strength and protects materials
against fire, weather, decay, insects and warping. Since the liquid penetrated into
the wood, when there is fire. It reacts by dispersing the flame, preventing
progressive burning.
Ratproofing a method of protecting rooms against the intrusion of rats and
other small destructive animals from gnawing the wooden parts of the house,
habitating on ceilings and floors of houses and buildings.
Rustproofing a method of protecting the ferrous materials like steel, iron from
rusting or corrosion.
Floor protection when floors are subjected to wear and tear, or from chemical
abrasions and heavy use, a special kind of material should be used to protect the
flooring.
Descalers, paint and chemical strippers when an old house having ole paint
is in need of repainting, paint remover is applied to the surface which softens and
lifts the paint. For cleaning of buildings from stains, rust, algae or even cement
build up from forms or equipment, etc. A chemical stripper or descaler is used.
Control, protect and manage for buildings that need total control of the
incoming and outgoing individuals for the protection of the building as a whole from
robbers, stealers, etc. There are so many equipments which can be installed.

MODULE 9 Sessions 24-25

ADHESIVES AND SEALANTS

Adhesive a substance that joins two surfaces together. The true nature of
adhesion depends mainly upon the force exerted on mutually attractive surfaces
and the mechanical bond theory being a contributory factor.

Selecting adhesives checklist:

1. Maximum strength of bond
2. Maximum setting or drying time
3. Ease in application
43
4. Ability of bond to resist stresses and strain
5. Economical in use
6. Low working cost
7. Good keeping qualities and uniformity and regularity of supply
8. Freedom from health hazards
9. Freedom from corrosion or coloring action

Shelf Life the length of time that adhesives will last in storage

Pot Life the length of time that mixed adhesive will remain effective before it
starts to set or becomes chemically ineffective

Bonding surfaces to be joined must be closely fitted and free from dirt, grease
and moisture

Hard smooth surfaces such as glass and metals are more difficult to bond than
absorbent materials.

Advantages of adhesive bonding:

1. Ability to bond variety of metal
2. Fabrication of complex shapes
3. Appearance of finished products improve by smooth external joint surfaces and
contour
4. Versatility of adhesive forms and methods of applications permit their adoption
to varied applications
5. Economic and rapid assembly; concurrent bonding of many component
6. Strength of assembly is often higher and lower cost
7. Uniform distribution of stresses
8. Weight reduction can be affected by the use of a adhesive instead of bolts
9. Elongation qualities allow stresses to be absorbed
10. Ability to join heat sensitive materials
11. Prevention or reduction of galvanic corrosion
12. Good sealing and insulation properties

Disadvantages
1. Often difficult to provide for adequate inspection of adhesive bond
2. Difficulty in dismantling bonded structure for repair
3. Tendency to creep under sustained loading
4. Degradation of bond by heat and cold
5. Poor electrical and thermal conductivity of many adhesives

Mostly all materials have at least two common characteristics: cohesiveness and
adhesiveness

Cohesiveness the ability of particles of a material to cling tightly to one another

Adhesiveness ability of material to fix itself and cling to an entirely different

material

Types:
1. Glue
- Animal Glue
- available in either solid or liquid form
- solid glue is melted and applied hot; slow setting; allows time for
adjustment to the glue joint
- has excellent bonding property with wood, leather, paper or cloth
developing up to 12,000 psi in shear
- moderated resistance to heat and cold
44
- poor resistance to water
- blood Aluminum Glue
- a special animal glue made for use particularly with leather and paper
- moderated bonding power with wood
- fair resistance to both heat and cold
- poor resistance to water
- Casein Glue
- Made from protein materials
- Dry powder to be mixed with water
- Has good bonding power to wood-to-wood or paper-to-wood
applications
- Starch and Dextrin Glue
- Available in both dry and liquid state
- Good bond with paper or leather; fair bond with wood
- Asphalt Cement
- Thermoplastic material in nature; made from asphalt emulsions or
asphalt cutbacks
- Good bond to paper and concrete
- Used mainly for roofing applications and laminating layers of wood
fiberboards
- Cellulose Cements
- Thermoplastic in nature; good bond to wood, paper, leather and glass
- Developing up to 1,400 psi in shear with wood
- Moderate resistance to heat and cold
- Good resistance to water
- Chlorinated rubber adhesives
- Usually a liquid; has good bond to paper; fair bond to wood, metal and
glass
- Moderate resistance to heat, cold and water
- Poor resistance to creep
- Natural rubber adhesives
- Usually latex emulsion or dissolved crepe rubber
- Have good bond with rubber, leather and fair bond with wood, ceramic
or glass
- Strength up to 350 psi in tension with wood
- Nitrile or Buna N rubber adhesive
- Available in both thermoplastic and thermosetting types
- Good bond with wood, paper, porcelain, enamel and polyester film and
sheet
- Neoprene rubber adhesive
- Essentially thermoplastic in nature; have excellent bond with wood,
asbestos board, metals, glass and some plastics
- Strength up to 1,200 psi in shear
- Urea formaldehyde Resin Glue
- Available in powder form to be mixed with water and also in liquid form
which requires the addition of a hardener
- Thermosetting in nature
- Excellent bond to wood, leather or paper having a shear strength up to
2,800 psi
- Phenolic Resin Glue
- Available in dry and liquid form
- Thermosetting with excellent bond to wood and paper
- Melamine Resins
- Thermosetting manufactured in powder with a separate catalyst
- Excellent bond to wood or paper
- Excellent resistance to heat, cold, creep and water
- Resorcinol Resins
- Liquid form with separate catalyst

45
- Good bond with wood or paper
- Shear strength up to 1,950 psi with wood
- Very good resistance to heat, cold and creep
- Generally used where a waterproof joint is required
- Epoxy Resins
- Thermosetting in nature; manufactured in liquid form with separate
catalyst
- Excellent bond with wood, metal, glass and masonry
- Widely used in the manufacture of laminated curtain-wall panels of
various kinds
- Polyvinyl resin adhesives
- Emulsion form
- Good bond with wood, paper, vinyl plastics and reasonably good bond
with metals
- Sodium silicate adhesives
- Liquid form; excellent with paper and glass; reasonably good bond with
wood or metal

2. Sealers products which are used to seal the surfaces of various materials
against the penetration of water and other liquids or in some cases to prevent the
escape of water or other liquids or in other cases to prevent the escape of water to
the surface.
Types:
- Liquid Asphalt
- Either in cutback form or as an asphalt emulsion
- Used to coat the outer surface of concrete below ground level to
prevent the penetration of water to the interior through the pores in the concrete
- To seal inside surface of concrete or wooden water tanks
- As a sealer or primer to concrete slab before asphalt tile adhesive is
applied
- Polysulfide polymers
- Has excellent adhesive qualities; highly flexible; applied by either hand
or spray
- Used in exterior walls of foundations, between two courses of concrete
slab floors, roof decks, swimming pools waterproofing and under roof flashing
- Solution of Sodium Silicate
- Used to seal the inside surface of concrete liquid containers
- Wax Compounds
- Made in the form of emulsions to be sprayed over the surface of newly
placed concrete
- Liquid Silicones
- Used as sealers over concrete brick and tile masonry to prevent the
penetration of water into the surface
- Oils and Turpentine
- Used to seal wood surfaces before the application of paint or varnish
- Penetrate into and absorbed by wood fibers so that the vehicle in
paints and varnish will not be similarly absorbed
- Synthetic Plastic Products
- Sealers for wood which form a film over the surface and allow better
bonding of synthetic lacquers to wood
- Thin Solutions of Animal and Casein Glues
- Used to coat the surface of plaster and gypsum board under paint
- Epoxy Resin Formulation
- Used as sealers over concrete, wood or old terrazzo surfaces before
epoxy resin terrazzo is applied

3. Glazing and Caulking Compounds

- Similar materials but when used for sealing glass are termed as glazing
compounds
46
- Properties of caulking materials:
a. It must be able to adhere to the surfaces with which it becomes in
contact
b. It must remain workable over a considerable range of temperature
c. It must be able to form tough, elastic skin over a surface, while the
interior of a mass remains flexible
d. It must be able to stretch or elongate with changes that may occur in
the width of the joint
e. It must have good movement in either extension or compression from
that mean
f. It must be able to recover well after having been extended or
compressed
g. It must have very low sensitivity to water
h. It must have low volatility
i. It must be able to provide good service performance
- Five Groups of Calking compound:
a. Mastics
o Group of caulking compounds which includes linseed-oil putty,
linseed oil- isobutylene caulks, mastic glazing and calking compounds
o With a recovery of 0 to 10 percent
b. Elastomastics
o Includes butyl caulks having a solvent base, acrylic caulks with
solvent or emulsion base, and acrylic calks which are 100% solid, one and two part
polymer captan
o With a recovery of 10 to 49 percent
c. Elastomers
o Include on and two part polysulfides containing 100% solids, vinyl
chloride polymers and butadiene-styrene copolymers
d. Elastoplastics
o Include neoprene and hypolon caulks with a solvent base
e. Plastics
o Include high molecular weight calking materials which are specially
treated to be extruded as plastics or cellular sheets or strips

- Materials for calking:

a. Linseed oil putty
o Mastic glazing and caulking compounds are composed of a
number of materials blended to produce a substance which has a longer life than
putty and which may have elongation rate p to 10%. These are made up of:
a. Drying oil
b. Non- drying oil
c. Drier
d. Solvents
e. Mineral stabilizers
f. Filler

b. Asphalt and polybutylene caulking compounds

c. Polysulfide elastomers
d. Silicone mastic caulking
e. Butyl, neoprene and hypalon mastic caulkings
f. Cellular sponge sheet and strips

MODULE 10 Sessions 26-29

ARCHITECTURAL FINISHES
A. PAINTS AND COATINGS
 Paints
 Varnishes
47
 Enamels
 Shellac
 Lacquers
 Stains
 Fillers
 Sealers
 Silicone Water Repellant

The purpose of a finish is to protect, preserve or visually enhance the surface

to which it is applied. Finishes include plastic laminated surface coverings
such as plastic laminated and vinyl of fabric wall covering.

Paint generally refers to opaque or clear film-forming material that acts as a

shield or barrier between the building material and those elements or
conditions that may adversely affects or deteriorate. The paint film must
resist deterioration due to sunlight heat, temperature variations, water or
moisture vapor, mildew and decay chemicals and physical abrasion. Paint
may also serve to make surfaces more sanitary, improve heating and lighting
effects, and promote human comfort and safety.

When using paint, the physiological effects of color and surface texture must
be considered. Certain colors may be stimulating while others are relaxing.
White and light colors reflect size of form and space. Dark color can inhibit
the perception of form and may be used for contrast. Flat paint finishes
soften and distribute illumination evenly. Glossy finishes reflect light and can
cause glare, but they also provide smooth, easily cleaned, non-absorptive
surfaces.

Most paints are carefully formulated to meet specific application that use
requirements and are ready-mixed for application except for thinning, stirring,
or the addition of an activator or catalyst. It is always advisable therefore to
follow the paint manufacturers recommendations in the application and use
of paint or other protective coating.
Considerations in the selection and use of paint include:
Surface preparation
- The foundation of any paint system must be properly prepared to ensure
proper adhesion of the paint film to its surface.
Type of paint
- Paint must be compatible with the material to which it is applied.
- Specifications include the paint vehicle, finish color, exposure, and
manufacturer and/or trade name.
Film thickness
- The dry film thickness (dft) is more important than the number of coats.
- Multiple thin coats are generally more effective than a single thick coat.
- A minimum of 2 coats is required to produce 5 mil dft.
Coverage
- A paints coverage can be estimated by its percentage of volume solids:
- Ie. Paint with 100% volume solids:
(no thinner)
1 gal covers
1600 sf (149 m2) @ 1 mil dft
800 sf ( 74 m2) @ 2 mil dft
400 sf ( 37 m2) @ 4 mil dft

-paint with 50% volume solids

(50% thinner)
1 gal covers
800 sf (74 m2) @ 1 mil dft
400 sf (37 m2) @ 2 mil dft

Method
48
- Depending on the type of paint and the material to which it is being
applied. Coatings may be brushed, rolled or sprayed on.
Drying
- The time and conditions necessary for a paint to dry must be checked.

Paint generally consist of:

Pigment finely ground solids that provide the paints coverings or hiding
power or its color.

Vehicle liquid medium to carry the pigment in suspension during

application; consists of binders and solvents.

Binder serves to form the paint film and cause it to adhere to the surface
being painted.
Binders are largely responsible for the protective quality and durability of
the paint or protective coating.
Solvents or thinners acts drying agents.
Depending on the type of solvent used, paint may dry or harden by
oxidation, evaporation, chemical action, or by thermosetting action at
elevated temperatures.

Paints may be classified according to:

Material to which it is applied
Wood, metal masonry, concrete, plaster, etc.,
Surface finish texture
Gloss, semi-gloss, egg shell, satin, flat

Color
Depends on the type of paint and the manufacturer.
Exposure
Exterior or interior

Characteristics:
Pigmented coating
Lacquer and enamel paints
Clear coatings
Varnishes, lacquers, shellac, sealers
Rust inhibitive coatings
Zinc-pigmented coatings
Zinc, silicon, alkyd, or asphalt or base coatings
Asphalt or tar coatings that form non-permeable barriers against water
and oxygen to protect submerged ferrous metal and to waterproof masonry
surfaces.

Cement mortar coatings

Mixture of Portland cement, lime and water used to damp proof masonry
materials and protect exposed steel
Plastic and synthetic rubber coatings
Coating resistant to mildew, mold, fumes, marine environments etc.,

Paints may be classified according to its vehicle or binder:

Alkyds
Oil modified resins that harden by oxidation and evaporation.
The most common paint vehicle
Fast drying a harder than ordinary time, lowers the gloss, and improves
the paints wetting properties, durability and elasticity to resist blistering.
Have good drying properties, durability and water resistance for exterior
exposures, and good color retention.
Asphalt
Coatings with a vehicle of both petroleum and natural asphalts are used
49
to protect wood, steel masonry, concrete and as roof coating.
Have good water resistances but thermoplastic in nature.
Addition of aluminum glazes helps to reflect the suns rays.
Addition of epoxy resins minimizes the cold flow and maximizes the
chemical-resistance of asphalt.

Chlorinated rubber
Used in coatings highly resistant to alkalis, acids, chemicals, and water
May be removed by coal tar solvents
Has limited resistance to prolonged heat exposure
Used in swimming pools, water treatment plants

Epoxy catalyzed
Two component coatings consisting of a pigmented primer or enamel
and an activator or catalyst.
Mixed just prior to use has limited pot life
Produces by chemical action a dense, hard film similar to baked enamel.
Has excellent resistant to solvents, chemicals, physical abrasion, traffic
wear, a cleaning materials
Have good adhesion properties, color retention and stain resistance.
Has good durability for exterior exposure but may chalk.

Paint mixture containing a vehicle with or without pigment; provides

protection, decoration, sanitation, identification
Binder nonvolatile part
Solvent volatile part
Drying processes: evaporation, oxidation, condensation, polymerization or
any combination of these
Enamel paints which use varnish as vehicle

Vehicle consist of 85 to 90 percent drying oil; 10 to 15 percent thinner and

drier; drying oils: linseed oil, soya-bean oil, fish oil, dehydrated castor oil,
tung oil, and perilla oil

Pigment classified into two basic groups:

natural obtained from animal, vegetable and mineral resources
synthetic phtalo-cyanines (coaltar derivatives) similar to those used to
make dyes

Thinners volatile solvents

Causes paint to flow better; most common is turpentine which is made from
distilling gum from a number of pine trees

Driers organic salts of various metals such as iron, zinc, cobalt, lead,
manganese and calcium; added to paint to accelerate oxidation and
hardening of the vehicle

Types of Paints
1. Oil paint oil base paint
Parts:
Body - solid, finely ground material
Pigment (for white paints)
Products used for paint body: white lead, zinc oxide, Lithopone and
Titanium white

2. Alkyd paint
3. synthetic resin
4. alkyd resin
5. Metallic paint
6. Luminescent paint
50
7. Resin-Emulsion paint (latex) water as thinner
8. Intrumescent paint (fire retardant)
9. Polyesterepoxy coatings
10. Paints for Metal Surfaces
11. Priming Paints red lead, litharge, lead chromate
12. Finish Paints red sulfate, zinc dust

Application of Paint
1. Surface preparation
2. Primer
3. First coat
4. Final top coat

Industrial Application
 flow coating
 pressure feed spray
 special spray systems
 airless spray
 hot airless spray
 hot airless recirculation
 electrostatic spray
 electrodepositing
 powder coating
 coil coating roller
 plywood coating roller
 curtain coater
 lithographic roller

Surface Preparation Problems

 Adhesion insufficient or unskilled preparation of the surface may result in
defective adhesion. Surface should be cleaned, dried and sand all glossy coats
prior to applying subsequent coats and allows sufficient time for each coat to dry
hard.
 Alligatoring is the word used when the splits and checks in the top coat
are larger but do not extend through to the wood. It is caused by too soft an
undercoat and too much oil, insufficient drying time between the coats, or the use
of impure oil or other vehicles, using cheap paints as undercoat. Can be avoided
by proper thinning of paint and allowing plenty of drying time between coats of
paint.
 Bleeding discoloration of coating caused by soluble color in the
underlying surface; bleeding of knots and resinous wood causes a dissolving action
of some of the resin causing paint to turn yellowish. Paint over wood preservative,
bitumen or colors soluble in oil.
 Blistering and Peeling usually caused by moisture under the paint film,
sometimes the result of poor workmanship and design in building which permits
water to enter around the casing of doors, windows, corner boards. Wood touching
the ground, preventing ventilation under the house, also causes this condition. The
only remedy is to remove the old paint, correct the condition and allow the wood to
dry thoroughly, and then repaint as new wood.
 Chalking progressive powdering from the surface inward
 Corrosion on metal windows, gates, fences and other structures. Caused
by the acidic solder or welding flux, steel beads, sharp edges protruding, mill
scales, non-removal of rust and other contaminants.
 Cracking and Scaling when cracks in paint go through the wood,
moisture enters and the paint scales off. It is caused by using poor cheap paints
which becomes hard and brittle, cannot follow the normal expansion and
contraction of wood.
 Deadening loss of luster
 Dirt discoloration caused by dust, industrial soot, fumes, oils and
greases.
 Fading is the result of either a chemical change in the pigment especially
51
in cheap paints or the deterioration of the weak binders. Use permanent colors for
exterior painting.
 Mildew may form on paint when there is excessive moisture, warmth and
shade. It forms readily on soft paint films. Before repainting surface, wash off with
fungicidal washing compound.
 Moisture blush clouding of the lacquer film
 Orange peel rough appearance resembling the peel of an orange
 Peeling problems on galvanized iron gutters, downspouts. Caused by the
direct application of house paints without the proper primer.
 Pin holding
 Run and Sags irregularities of surface due to uneven flow of varnish or
paint; occur because paint has been over-thinned with cheap thinner and applied in
uneven thickness. Can be avoided by brushing good paint to a thin, even film.
 Spotting paint may be less glossy or faded in spots if too few coats of
paints are used, so that in places the porous surface beneath absorbs too much of
the oil in the finishing coat. Spotting will never occur when sufficient paint is
properly applied.
 Stains from knots bleeding from knots is caused by the oil in the paint
dissolving out substances in the knot.
 Stains from screens insoluble copper compounds which wash down from
copper or bronze screens may discolor paint.
 Tackiness adhesive property of incomplete dried coating
 Washing inferior paint pigments soluble in water or which form soluble
compounds by chemical reaction after the paint has been applied, are affected by
rain which causes washing.
 Wrinkling paint applied too thick may wrinkle in drying. Avoid by keeping
paint well stirred and thinned so that it will brush out to a thin, even film.

Types of Wood Stains

1. Oil Stains
2. Water Stains
3. Spirit (Alcohol) Stains

Types of Transparent Finishing Materials

1. Shellac and Wax
2. Varnish
3. Lacquer

Shellac only liquid protective coating containing a resin of animal origin

used as a seal coat over stains and fillers

Stains material used to apply color to wood surfaces

Fillers finishing materials used on wood surfaces to fill the pores and
provide a perfectly smooth and uniform surface for varnish or lacquer
Types:
 Paste filler used on open-grained woods
 Liquid filler used on closed-grained woods
 Checking term used when the top coat breaks into tiny irregular areas.
If slight, it does not affect the durability of the paint. It is cased by too soft an
undercoat, can be avoided by giving plenty of drying time between properly
thinned coats of paint.

B. FLOORING MATERIALS
Wood
o Wood strip flooring
o T & G 1 thk; 4 6 width; nailed to 2 x 3 / 2 x 4 sleepers
o Ship lap
o Plank flooring square edge 8 or more
o Block flooring 2 x 2 x3
52
 o Parquet flooring 12 x 12; 18 x 18; thk
Concrete Products
o Single, monolithic slabs can be covered by a non-skid topping
o Pre-cast non-skid concrete floor tile; 8 x 8, 12 x 12, 16 x 16
o Granolithic & Terrazo flooring
o Granolithic 1 part cement mortar, 1 part sand, 1 part crushed stone
o Terro cement, marble chips, sand
Clay
o Clay Tile Flooring
o Glazed tiles (vitreous, low water absorption)
o Unglazed tiles
o 1 x 12 x 12; 16 x 16
o x 4 x8
Resilient materials
o Asphalt tile
o Thermoplastic binders, asbestos or other fibers, inert fiber materials,
inert color pigments
o 9 x 9; 12 x 12
o adhesives cutback asphalt cement or clay emulsion asphalt cement
Vinyl tile and sheet
o Types: solid vinyl, vinyl asbestos, thin vinyl layer
o Colorful, texture, rough, durable, easily maintained, grease resistant
o Linoleum tile and sheet
o Vinyl in-laid wear with backing covered with thick layer of wearing
surface
o 1/16; 332; 1/8
Rubber tile and sheet
o Made of natural rubber
o 3 ft. wide rolls
o Cork tile
o 6 x 6; 9 x 9; 12 x 12
o not used for heavy traffic areas
Building Stones
o Pebble washout
o Non-slip
o Used for balconies, stairs, walks
o Marble
o Crazy cut marble with granite chips & white cement
o Granite tile

C. WALL MATERIALS
Wood
o Siding Boards external wall covering installed vertically or horizontally
and fastened to the structure - V-cut, S-cut, T&G
o Building Boards
o Plywood layers or piles of wood bonded together permanently with
grain of one or more layers at 90 to the grain of intervening layer or piles of
wood bonded together permanently with grain of one or more layers at 90 to
the grain of intervening layer.

o Veneer thin sheets glued together

o Hardboard (lawanit) paneling material made by reducing wood chips
into fiber, refining the fibers and then pressing them under heat in hydraulic
pressure into densed rigid panels
o Types: standard, panel, tempered
Insulating fiber
Chip board
Particle board
Gypsum board
Asbestos-cement board
Cork board
53
 Paper board
Wall Paper

Steel and Non-Ferrous Metals

o Steel wall tile thin gauge sheet steel coated with porcelain enamel - 4
x 4 ; 5 x 6; 3 x 6; 10 x 10
o Aluminum, copper zinc wall tile & door and window trims
Glass
o Glass Blocks for light diffusing and light directing
o Structural Glass interior partitions, dividers, screens
o Plate glass mirrors, architectural glass
Plastics
o Wall vinyl (roll)
o Plastic wall tile
Concrete and Stone Products
o Stucco plaster
o French trowel
o Anay finish
o Broom finish
o Spatter
o Rolling stones/drift wood finish
o Grooved finish rusticated joints
o Brick Veneer
o Artificial stone veneer cast stone made by casting colored mortar into
molds resembling tough hewn stones

Natural stone veneer sandstone, marble, granite, adobe slate

Terra-cotta china clay tiles; structural tiles used as back-up wall or facing
bricks
Wash-out finishes
o Pebble
o Glass (white, green and blue cement)
o Shell and granite stone
o Synthetic adobe; grounded brick waste
o Bush hammered
o Pean- hammered
o Sand blasted finish

D. CEILING AND ACOUSTICAL MATERIALS

o Acoustical Tiles wood, cane, asbestos fiber; x 12 x12
o Regular drilled
o Random drilled
o Fissure pattern
o Striated pattern
o Rockwool or fiber glass blanket
o Sprayed-on Acoustical Materials
o Plaster with vermiculite or perlite aggregate
o Coating of mineral fiber mixed with an adhesive
o Cork board 1/3 3 x 12 x 36

MODULE 11 Sessions 30-31

ROOFING MATERIALS
TYPES OF ROOF
There are several forms of roof and numerous varieties of shapes that one has to
be familiar with:
1. Shed or lean-to roof - is considered as the simplest form of roof consisting of
54
one single slope.
2. Gable or pitch roof - the most common type and economical form of roof made
of triangular sections consisting of two slopes meeting at the center of the ridge
forming a gable.
3. Saw tooth roof - is the development of the shed made into a series to lean-to
roof covering one building. This is commonly used on factories where extra light is
required through the window on a vertical side.
4. Double gable roof - is a modification of a gable or a hip and valley roof.
5. Hip roof - is also a common form used in modern houses having straight sides
all sloping toward the center of the building terminating at the ridge.
6. Hip and valley roof - is a combination of the hip roof and an interesting gable
roof forming a t or l shaped building. This type of roof form however, has a variety
of modification which are not illustrated.
7. Pyramid roof - is a modification of the hip roof wherein the four straight sides
are sloping towards the center terminating at a point.
8. Gambrel roof - is a modification of the gable roof with each side having two
slopes.
9. Butterfly roof - is a two shed roof where the slope meet at the center of the
building.
10. Mansard roof - where the sides of the roof slope steeply from each side of the
building towards the center forming a flat deck on top
11. French or concave mansard roof - is a modification of the mansard roof where
the sides are concave.
12. Dome - is a hemispherical form of roof usually used on observatories.
13. Conical roof or spire - is a steep roof of circular section that tapers uniformly
from the circular base to a central point.

TYPES OF ROOF FRAME

The three types of roof frame commonly used are:
1. Rafters type
2. Truss type
3. Laminated type

The various kinds of rafters for roof constructions are:

1. Common rafters - are rafters extended at right angles from the plate or girts t
the ridge
2. Hip rafters - are rafters laid diagonally from the corner of a plate or girts to the
ridge
3. Valley rafters - rafters placed diagonally from the plate or girts at the
intersection of gable extension with the main roof
4. Octagonal rafters - are rafters placed on an octagonal shaped plate at the
central apex or ridge pole
5. Jack rafters - any rafter which does not extend from the plate or girts to the
ridge

Jack rafters are classified into:

a. Hip jacks
b. Valley jacks
c. Cripple jacks
 Jack rafters framed between hip rafters and girts are called hip jacks.
 The frame between the ridge and valley rafters is called valley jacks.
 Frames between the hip and the valley rafters are called cripple jacks.
Truss is a built-up frame commonly employed on a long span roof unsupported
by intermediate columns or partitions. Truss is a design of a series of triangles
used to distribute load, stiffen the structure and flexibility for the interior spacing as
well as strength and rigidity.

Types of Trusses
A. Light Trusses B. Heavy Trusses
1. Pitched Truss 1. Howe Truss
2. Scissors Truss 2. Belgian Truss
55
3. Sawtooth Truss 3. Fink Truss
4. Howe Truss 4. Prat Truss
5. Raised Chord Truss 5. Scissors Truss
6. 1 Storey Frame Truss 6. Cambered Fink Truss
7. Flat Truss 7. Sawtooth Truss
8. Bowstring Truss 8. Flat Pratt Truss
9. Utility Truss 9. Flat Howe Truss
10. Warren Truss

Purlins the structural member placed on top of a rafter or top chord of a truss that
supports the roof sheating.

The term roof means the top covering of a building that serves as a protective
covering from the weather.

Roofing classification according to the materials used:

o Fiber
o Wood
o Metal
o Slate
o Tiles
o Reinforced concrete
o Plastics
o Fiberglass
Metal roofing is the most common materials in building construction, this are
classified as follows:
o Galvanized iron
o Aluminum
o Tin
o Titanium copper zinc
o Copper
o Stainless steel
o Lead
Among the metal roofing enumerated, galvanized iron sheet is the most commonly
specified considering the advantages that it offer.

 Galvanized iron roofing is either plain or corrugated. The thickness is

measured in terms of gauge from ga. 14 to ga. 30. Gauge 26 is the most
commonly used for roofing.
 The standard commercial size width is 0.80 m. With length that ranges from
1.50 to 3.60 m.
 Plain g.i. sheet commercial standard size is 0.90m. X 2.40m. Its also used for
roofing, gutters, flashing, ridge, hip and valley rolls, downspout, and strap for
riveting.

Corrgated G.I.roofing fasteners:

o Nailing
o Riveting

 Pantile a roofing tile which has the shape of s laid on its side.
 Mission tile a clay roofing tile, approx. Semi-cylindrical in shape laid in
courses with the unit having their convex side alternately up and down.
 Roman tile a channel shaped, tapered, single lap roofing tile.
 Galvanized zinc coated materials.
 A frame a 3-piece rigid structural frame in the shape of the upright capital a.
 Chord a principal member of a truss.
 Batten wood strips to support roof tiles.
 Split ring chord splice connectors for trusses

MODULE 12 Sessions 32-33

HARDWARE
56
Hardware - metal products used in construction, such as bolts, hinges, locks, tools,
etc. They are classified as:
Finishing hardware hardware, such as hinges locks, catches, etc. That has a
finished appearance as well as function, especially those used with doors,
windows, and cabinets, maybe considered part of the decorative treatment of a
room or building.
Rough hardware in building construction, hardware meant to be concealed,
such as bolts, nails, screws, spikes, rods, and other metal fittings.

Some finishing hardware brands:

1. Sargent 7. Rabbit
2. Stanley 8. Universal
3. Yale 9. Eagle
4. Corbin 10. Master
5. Schlage 11. Alpha
6. Kwikset 12. Yeti

Door an entrance way

Types of door:
Flush a smooth-surfaced door having faces which are plane which conceal
its rails and stiles or other structure when used inside, it is of hollow core, when
used for exterior it is of solid core.
Panel door a door having stiles, rails and sometimes muntins, which form
one or more frames around recessed thinner panels.

Kinds of door:
Swinging door
Overhead swing-up garage door a rigid overhead door which opens as an
entire unit.
Overhead roll-up garage door a door which, when open, assumes a
horizontal position above the door opening, made of several leaves.
Roll-up door (solid or see-through aluminum shutters) a door made up of small
horizontal interlocking metal slats which are guided in a track: the configuration
coils about an overhead drum which is housed at the head of the opening, manual
or motor-driven.
Accordion door a hinged door consisting of a system of panels which are
hung from an overhead track. When the door is open, the faces of the panels
close flat against each other. When the door is closed, the edges of adjacent
panels butt against (or interlock) each other to form a solid barrier.
Bi-folding door - one of two or more doors which are hinged together so that
they can open and fold in a confined space.
Revolving door - an exterior door consisting of four leaves (at 900 to each
other) which pivot about a common vertical axis within a cylindrically shaped
vestibule, prevents the direct passage of air through the vestibule, thereby
eliminating drafts from outside.
Sliding door - a door mounted on track which slides in a horizontal direction
usually parallel to one wall.
By-passing sliding door - a sliding door which slides to cover a fixed door of the
same width or another sliding door.
Sliding pocket door - a door which slides inside a hollow of the wall.
Dutch door - a hinged door which is divided to two. The upper part can be
opened while the lower portion is closed.
French door
Finishing hardware:
A. To hung a door
Hinge- a movable joint used to attach support and turn a door about a pivot,
consists of two plates joined together by a pin which support the door and
connect it to its frame, enabling it to swing open or closed.

Types of hinges:
57
 1. Butt hinge - consists of two rectangular metal plates which are joined with a
pin, in large hinge, the pin is removable, in small hinges, it is fixed.
Fast pin hinge - a hinge in which the pin is fastened permanently in
place.
Full surface hinge - a hinged designed for attachment on the surface of
the door and jamb without mortising.
Loose joint hinge - a door hinged having two knuckles, one of which
has vertical pin that fits in a corresponding hole in the other, by lifting the
door up, off the vertical pin, the door may be removed with unscrewing the
hinged.
Loose pin hinge - a hinge having a removable pin which permits its two
parts to be separated.
Paumelle hinged - a type of door hinge having a single joint of the pivot
type, usually of modern design.
Olive knuckle hinge - a paumelle hinge with knuckles forming an oval
shape.

2. Spring hinges - a hinge containing one or more springs, when a door is

opened, the hinge returns it to open position automatically, may act in one
direction only, or in both directions.
Double action - excellent for use in restaurants, hospitals, kitchens, the
door opens by just pushing it with the shoulder or feet.
Single action

3. Pivot hinge - the axle or pin about which a window or door rotates.
Vertical spring pivot hinge- a spring hinge for a door which is mortised
into the heel of the door, the door is fastened to the floor and door head
with pivots.

B. To fix one sash

Types of bolt and fastener:
Chain head and foot bolt
Door or barrel bolt
Flush bolt
Chain door fastener

C. To lock the door

Lockset a complete lock system including the basic locking mechanisms and
all the accessories, such as knobs escutcheons, plates, etc.
Button a small rejecting member used to fasten the frame of a door or
window.
Knob a handle, more or less spherical usually for operating a lock.
Escutcheon a protective plate surrounding the keyhole of a door.
Plates a thin flat sheet of material.
Strikes a metal plate or box which is set in a doorjamb and is either
placed or recessed to receive the bolt or latch of a lock, fixed on door.
Lip strike the projection from the side of a strike plate which the bolt of a
lock strikes first, when a door is closed; projects out from the side of the strike
plate to protect the frame.

Different types of lockset for each room:

Entrance lockset with a key and universal button which when pushed
stays put and locks the door.
Bedroom lockset same as the entrance lockset but simpler in design.
Toilet lockset without a key has a button that is pushed to lock inside.

Kind of lockset:
Integral lock a type of mortise lock having its cylinder in the knob.
58
 Cylinder lock a bored lock which has a cylindrical case into which a
separate latch case fits.

Latch a simple fastening devise having a latch bolt, but not a dead bolt contains
no provisions for locking with a key.
Night latch key operated latch with safety pin.

Lift latch a type of door latch which fastens a door by means of a pivoted bar that
engages a hook on the door jamb, a lever which lifts the pivoted bar used to
unfasten the door.

Rabbeted lock a lock or latch in which the face is flush with the rabbet on a
rabbeted door jamb.

Roller latch a type of door latch has a roller under spring tension instead of a
beveled spring bolt, the roller engages a strike plate, having a recess formed to
receive.

Screen door latch a small locking or latching device used on screen doors and
generated by a knob or lever handle, sometimes equipped with a dead bolt.

Hasp a fastening device consisting of a loop or staple and a slotted hinge plate
normally secured with a padlock.
Key-padlock a device which fastens in position and maybe operated by a key.

Magnetic padlock a kind of lock which opens by using the corresponding magnet
which goes with it.

Hasplock a kind of hasp that has a built-in locking device which can be opened
only with a key.

Bored lock a lock intended for installation in a circular hole in a door.

Cremone bolt used to fasten upper and lower door.

Dead bolt a type of door lock, the bolt, which is square in section is operated by
the door key or a turn piece.

Types of automatic door closer:

Pneumatic type
Semi-concealed overhead type
Concealed type
Overhead liquid type

Types of cabinet hinged door:

Flush
Overlapping
Offset

Types of cabinet hinges:

Butt hinges
Common butt
Loose pin
T-hinge
Piano hinge
Decorative hinge
Offset hinges used for hanging lipped or overlapping doors, available in semi-
concealed and surface-mounted styles.
Pivot hinges made for both flush and overlapping doors.
Invisible hinges dont show from the front and is expensive. They can be
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used for both flush and overlapping door.
Flush counter hinge for a drop down door that can be lowered to serve as
work surfaces require hinges that lay flush in the surface, mortise them into both
surfaces, they dont show when the door is closed. A dropdown door also requires
a chain or stay support to hold the doors weight when its open.

Catches for closing of cabinet doors in place

Kinds of catches:
Friction catch any catch which when it engages a strike, is held in the
engaged position by friction.
Magnetic catch a door catch flat that uses a magnet to hold the door in a
closed position.
Bullet catch a fastener which holds a door in place by means of a projecting
spring arctuated steel hall which is depressed when the door is closed.

Types of knobs:
Screw-in knob
Bolt-on knob
Flush knob
Flush ring
Pull

Other finishing accessories:

Grab bar a hand grip usually installed in shower, which may be used for
steadying are self.
Self bracket any over hanging member projecting from a wall or other body to
support a weight.
Metal bracket used to support any cabinet or shelf.
Spring door closer attached above a screen door to automatically close it.
Door stopper to prevent the door with its lockset from harming the wall or
tiles.

Rough hardware:
Nails
Common wire nail with head and for strength.
Finishing nail without head and for better appearance
Masonry or concrete nail used for concrete, mortar and brick surface
sizes, 1, 1 , 2 , 2 , 3, 3 , 4, 6

Other common hammer driven fastener

Scotch nails
Brads
Staples
Tacks
Screws
Classified by gauge (diameter), length, head type, and metallic make-up.

Types of screw head

Flat head screw
Oval head screw
Philips head
Sheet-metal screw
Round head screw
Lag screw

Washers
Flat
Counter sunk
Flush

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Bolts
Bolts have threaded shafts that receive nuts.
To use them, a hole is drilled, pushing a bolt through and adding a nut.
Bolts tightened with screw while holding the nut with a wrench.

Nuts
Flat square nut
Hex nut
Square nut
Acorn nut
T nut
Knurled nut
Wing nut

Hunger bolts for hanging fixtures from walls.

U-bolts to attach flat surface to round poles and pipes.

Joinery brackets
Mending plate
T-plate
Flat corner plate
L-bracket

Terms:
Awning an architectural projected window.
Bay window a window which projects outside the main line of a building.
Hopper window a window sash which opens inward and its hinged at the
bottom.
Oriel window a projected window beyond building wall carried by a corbel.
Batten door - a door w/out stiles which is constructed of vertical boards held
together by horizontal battens.
Stile vertical frames of a panel door.
Transom window over a door.
Door jamb finished frame surrounding a door.
Anchor bolt a steel bolt usually fixed in a building structure with its threaded
portion projecting.
Plate bolt a bolt in a building foundation which secures the plate or sill.
Machine bolt a threaded bolt having a straight shank and a conventional
head such as a square, hexagonal, button or countersunk.
Carriage bolt a bolt with neck for non-rotating mounting.
Lag screw common hardware fastener for truss braces.
Knob bolt a door lock with a spring bolt controlled by one or both knobs and
dead bolt controlled by a key.
Backset the horizontal distance from the face of a lock or latch to the center
of the knob or lock cylinder.
Gusset a plate attached to side of a joint for increase holding power.
Brad a thin nail with small head.
Kerf in a suspended acoustical ceiling, a groove cut into the edges of
acoustical tiles to receive splices or supporting members of the ceiling suspension
system.
Perforated tape a type of tape used in finishing joints between gypsum board.
Sahara used for waterproofing.
Parquet inlaid wood flooring usually set in simple geometric pattern.
Vinyl tile a floor tile composed principally of polyvinyl chloride.
Bevel the angle with one surface of a body makes with another surface when
they are not at right angle.
Chase a continuous recess built into a wall to receive pipes, ducts, etc.
Gypsum board material used in drywall construction.
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 Plough a groove extended along the edge or face of the wood member being
cut parallel to grain.
REFERENCES

Ching, Francis D.K. and Cassandra Adams. Building Construction

Illustrated, 3rd ed. 1999.
nd
Ching, Francis D.K. Building Construction Illustrated, 2 ed. N.Y.: Van
Nostrand Reinhold, c1991.
Ching, Francis D.K. Visual Dictionary of Architecture. 1995.
Edwards, Allen. How Buildings Work. 1990.
nd
Fajardo, Max Jr. B. Simplified Methods on Building Construction, 2
ed. Manila: 5138 Merchandising, c1993.
Huth, Mark W. Understanding Construction Drawings, 2nd ed. N.Y.:
Delmar Publishers, c1996.
Merritt, Frederick and Jonathan Ricketts. Building Design and
th
Construction Handbook, 5 ed. 1994.
National Association of Home Builders Research Center. Wood Frame
House Construction, 2nd ed.
National Building Code of the Philippines. 2005.
National Structural Code of the Philippines, vol. 1. 1999.
Phelps, John and Tom Philbin. Complete Building Construction. N.Y.:
Macmillan Publishing Company, 1986.
Rosen, Harold J and Tom Heineman. Architectural Materials for
Construction.
Salvan, George S. Architectural Building Materials.
Sherwood, Gerald E., editor. Wood Frame House Construction, 2nd ed.
Tagayun, Vicente. Estimating Bill of Materials. 2002.
Watson, Donald. Time-Saver Standards for Building Materials and
Systems. 2000.

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