4 - Report On Gas Analysis in Cement Plant PDF

PRACTICAL GAS ANALYSIS
IN CEMENT WORKS
Report No. PT 98/14340/E (substitute for 93/4080/D)

Author: H. Nyffenegger
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SUMMARY
The measurement of individual process gas components in connection with emissions and
for the purpose of process optimisation is increasingly becoming one of the most important
procedures in cement works. Measuring techniques have advanced to the extent that there
is now virtually no such thing as a problem that cannot be solved technically with the
necessary specialised knowledge and means.
In principle, distinction is to be made between analysers that measure (in-situ) directly in

the measuring channel (process gas flow) and extractive measuring instruments.
Extractive measuring instruments measure in a partial gas flow that is prepared prior to
entering the analysers according to specifications (sampling). Extractive measuring
instruments are mainly used in process measurement, as the conditions with respect to
temperature and dust loading does not permit the use of the in-situ technique.
The point at which measurements are carried out is mainly a question of the measuring
problem involved. The most important sampling point for the control of preheater / calciner
kilns is normally after preheater, since there is the highest availability of the gas sampler.
The problems of sampling increase with increasing process temperature at the sampling
point. For gas sampling at the kiln inlet and up to gas temperatures in excess of 500C,
cooling and an emergency cooling or withdrawal system is required. Withdrawal devices
with compressed-air drives are more reliable for emergency use, so that preference is
given to electric drives.
The separation of dust from the sample gas preferably takes place as close as possible to
the entrance of the sampling probe. Sintered metal filters (alloyed steel) clog less quickly
than the usual ceramic filters. Compared to the filters outside the sampling probe, internal
filters require less maintenance and are smaller in volume. Wet sampling probes are
considered out-dated.
Three systems for gas sampling at the kiln inlet are described here in brief: Siemens type
FLK, Hartmann & Braun type 60 and type H (Holderbank probe). The latter has proved
reliable in use if daily maintenance is provided. For gas sampling below 500C, in addition
to standard products, proposals are submitted for the specific construction of sampling
probes.
The purpose of sample gas preparation is to supply the analysers with qualitatively and
quantitatively specified sample gas. The apparatus used for this purpose must be
generously dimensioned and equipped. This requirement applies in particular to the
sample gas pump, sample gas cooler and sample gas distribution. The temperature in the
measuring cabinet should be between 15 and 25C. A monitoring system must inform the
control system of any irregularities such as insufficient sample gas, system being
adjusted, etc.
The analyser room must provide the ambient conditions for the perfect functioning of the
instruments, i.e. free from vibrations, as close to the sampling point as possible, free from
dust and between 15 and 25C. As it also serves as a workroom for maintenance
personnel, it must offer sufficient space, good ventilation and a low noise level as possible.
The analysers used for the determination of individual components in the sample gas are
based on different physical effects such as light absorption. Paramagnetism, flame
ionisation and solid-state electrolysis. The instrument functions and theoretical
relationships will be dealt with only insofar as they are of significance for practical
application.
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When choosing analysers, the manufacturing company is not as important as the

specifications and local services offered.
The majority of gas components (CO, NO, SO2, CO2) can be measured with NDIR (non-
dispersive infrared analysers). They are simple, sturdy, robust, durable and maintenance-
friendly. Disturbing cross-sensitivities to CO2 and water vapour are appropriately
corrected.
When measuring SO2 with NDIR analysers by the classic method, undefinable quantities of
SO2 are absorbed in the sample gas cooler. Corrections are possible by acidifying the
condensate in the sample gas cooler or using hot NDIR analysers. Preference is given to
the use of in-situ analysers.
Oxygen cannot be measured with light-sensitive analysers. The most reliable analysers
are still considered to be those that exploit the magnetic properties of oxygen. The life of
solid-state electrolytic systems such as zirconium dioxide probes is limited and depends on
the gas composition. Improved electrochemical measuring cells have been more widely for
the past few years and have a useful life of three years. They are small, lightweight,
require a minimum degree of evaluation and are therefore used more and more in
extractive multi-component analysers.
The flame ionisation detector is used for measurement of the total hydrocarbons (VOC =
Volatile Organic Compounds). The increasing requirements for continuous measurement
of the VOC - in connection with alternative fuels - are maintenance-intensive.
Microprocessor technology makes it possible to use well-known and new measuring

methods and therefore to measure several components simultaneously. For the
installation or replacement of measuring instruments, only the use of multi-component
analysers is possible.
The GM 31 in-situ analyser of Messrs Sick enables three gas components to be measured
simultaneously. Compared with the earlier GM 21 (SO2 and dust) and GM 30 (additionally
NO) series, the GM 31 does not offer dust measurement.
The AR 620 and AR 650 series of Opsis are modern emission measuring instruments.
Depending on the type and number of components to be measured, infrared or ultra-violet
light used to the two together. The analyser or analysers are connected to the receiver at
the measuring channel via glass-fibre cable (light conductor). Control, monitoring and
evaluation is carried out by a standard PC. The analysers have been used several times
with good experience.
The new gas analysers with lasers are expected to have a promising future. These are in-
situ analysers that offer the benefits of high sensitivity, short response times and high
stability. They could provide the ideal preconditions for CO monitoring, but are (still)
relatively expensive.
Of the extractive measuring instruments, good experiences have been made with the
CEMAS FTIR analyser of Hartmann and Braun. The analyser can be programmed with all
IR selectable components. In order not to alter the originality of the sample gas, all gas
conducting parts are heated.
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Recording the measured values with strip chart recorders should still suffice for a general
overview. However, in the majority of countries, digital evaluation of emissions is required
according to specific criteria. In the field of process optimisation, the measured values are
also only useful when available in the required form, e.g. as mean values, spreadsheet for
further evaluation, etc. At the kiln inlet, averaging or damping for lump fuel (tyres) feeding
in precalcining is absolutely necessary. In modern plants, the measured values can be
partly or wholly processed by the process control system.
The reliable functioning of each measuring instrument depends largely on the maintenance
provided. Visual checks and function tests must be carried out according to the age of the
measuring instruments and the specifications of the supplier.
Personnel must be suitably trained. Critical spare parts such as the sample gas pump,
filters valves, seals, etc., must be carried in stock.
The gas analysers must be checked according to the manufacturers instructions and
emission measurements carried out in compliance with the local requirements and
corrections made as necessary. If test gas should (still) be required, this must be obtained
in good time. Any fault signalling devices must be checked for proper functioning.
Theoretically, maintenance can be reduced by appropriate automation. Adjustment via

internal analyser reference devices has proved highly disadvantageous in this respect.
However, if solenoid valves should be required for the application of test gas, their
usefulness is negligible or negative. Solenoid valves in sample gas are highly susceptible
to faults. For this reason, sample gas changeover from two or more measuring points to
the same analyser group is not considered worthwhile.
The accuracy of gas analysis as a whole is often overestimated, whereby the analysers are
least to blame in this respect. Significant errors occur when sampling (representative) due
to sorptions and reactions in sample gas preparation.
Gas analysis also has special monitoring functions for protection against explosions in the
electrostatic filter and coal pulverising mills. Simple monitoring of the CO content is usually
not sufficient for the protection of the electrostatic filter. The consequences are
unnecessary shutdowns of the filter. In addition, reference is made to a new analyser of
Messrs Sick, which has been designed specially for this task.
Finally, a table is provided showing the various conversion factors from ppm to mg/m3 for
the relevant gas components.
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Table of contents
1. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 9
2. PURPOSE ..................................................................................................................... 10
3. DEFINITIONS.............................................................................................................. 11
4. MEASURING METHODS.......................................................................................... 13
4.1 In-situ measurement.................................................................................................. 13
4.2 Extractive measurement............................................................................................ 14
4.3 Measuring points....................................................................................................... 15
5. GAS SAMPLING ........................................................................................................ 19
5.1 Kiln inlet (measuring point A) .................................................................................. 19
5.1.1 Preheater kilns (cyclone preheaters and grate preheaters kilns) ....................... 19
5.1.2 Wet kilns and long dry kilns ............................................................................. 22
5.1.3 Special instructions for gas sampling at the kiln inlet ...................................... 22
5.2 Other measuring points (B to G)............................................................................... 26
5.2.1 Kiln inlet chamber and riser duct (measuring point B)..................................... 26
5.2.2 Lower cyclone stages (measuring point C)....................................................... 26
5.2.3 Upper cyclone stages (measuring point D) ....................................................... 26
5.2.4 Downstream of cyclone or grate preheaters (measuring point E)..................... 27
5.2.5 Downstream of electrostatic filter (measuring points F, G).............................. 27
5.2.6 Coal pulverising mill......................................................................................... 28
6. GAS SAMPLING PROBES ......................................................................................... 31
6.1 Sampling probes in the temperature range 900 to 1500C ....................................... 31
6.1.1 Siemens type FLK............................................................................................. 31
6.1.2 Harman & Braun type 60S (formerly type 13) ................................................. 32
6.1.3 Hartmann & Braun type H (Holderbank probe)............................................ 33
6.2 Sampling probes in the temperature range 500 to 900C ......................................... 34
6.3 Sampling probes in the temperature range below 500C.......................................... 34
7. SAMPLE GAS PREPARATION ................................................................................. 37
7.1 Sample gas pipe ........................................................................................................ 37
7.2 Sample gas coolers.................................................................................................... 38
7.2.1 Specifications of a suitable sample gas cooler.................................................. 39
7.3 Sample gas pump ...................................................................................................... 39
7.4 Flow control and distribution.................................................................................... 40
7.4.1 Simple gas control............................................................................................. 41
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7.4.2 Electronic gas volume control........................................................................... 42

7.5 Sample gas filters ...................................................................................................... 44
7.5.1 Coarse filters ..................................................................................................... 44
7.5.2 Fine filters ......................................................................................................... 44
7.5.3 Valves................................................................................................................ 44
7.5.4 Pressure control valve ....................................................................................... 45
7.6 Adjustment ................................................................................................................ 45
7.7 Further information on sample gas preparation ........................................................ 45
7.7.1 Sample gas discharge ........................................................................................ 45
7.7.2 Tightness test..................................................................................................... 45
7.7.4 Analyser room................................................................................................... 46
7.8 Space requirement..................................................................................................... 48
7.9 Location .................................................................................................................... 48
7.10 Climatic conditions ............................................................................................... 48
8. ANALYSERS ............................................................................................................... 49
8.1 Infrared absorption.................................................................................................... 50
8.1.1 Space case, sulphur dioxide (SO2) ........................................................................ 50
8.2 Ultra-violet absorption .............................................................................................. 51
8.3 Paramagnetism .......................................................................................................... 51
8.3.1 Oxygen analysers .............................................................................................. 51
8.4 Flame ionisation (FID).............................................................................................. 52
8.5 Solid-state electrolytic systems................................................................................. 52
8.5.1 Zirconium dioxide............................................................................................. 52
8.5.2 Other electrochemical measuring methods ....................................................... 53
8.6 Multi-component measuring systems ....................................................................... 53
8.6.1 Sick GM 31 ....................................................................................................... 53
8.6.2 OPSIS AR 620; ER 650 .................................................................................... 54
8.6.3 LDS 3000 diode laser of AltOptronic (Sweden)............................................... 55
8.6.4 Advance Cemas FTRI of Hartmann & Braun................................................... 57
9. RECORDING AND EVALUATION........................................................................... 58
9.1 Trend curves, recorders............................................................................................. 58
9.3 Data logging.............................................................................................................. 61
10. MAINTENANCE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE .................................................... 62
10.1 Visual checks ........................................................................................................ 64
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10.2 Adjustment checks, cleaning................................................................................. 64

10.2.1 Tightness checks ............................................................................................... 64
10.3 Replacement of wearing parts............................................................................... 64
10.3.1 Sample gas pump .............................................................................................. 64
10.3.2 Cleaning sintered metal and ceramic filters...................................................... 65
10.3.3 Fine filters ......................................................................................................... 65
10.3.4 Gas analysers..................................................................................................... 65
10.4 Function test.......................................................................................................... 65
10.5 Test gases .............................................................................................................. 66
10.5.1 Mixing test gases............................................................................................... 66
10.6 Fault signals .......................................................................................................... 67
10.7 Automated maintenance equipment...................................................................... 67
11. MEASURING ERRORS .............................................................................................. 68
11.1 Sample gas sampling............................................................................................. 68
11.2 Sample gas preparation ......................................................................................... 68
11.2.1 Sorption and chemical reaction......................................................................... 68
11.2.2 CO reduction ..................................................................................................... 68
11.2.3 NO2 formation in the probe and sample gas preparation system...................... 68
11.2.4 SO2 reduction in the probe and sample gas pipe............................................... 68
11.2.5 SO2 reduction of the filter dust of the sampling probe ..................................... 69
11.2.6 Interaction with a liquid .................................................................................... 69
11.3 Volumetric errors due to the solubility of accompanying components ................ 69
11.4 Gas analysers......................................................................................................... 69
12. SPECIAL FUNCTIONS OF GAS ANALYSIS ........................................................... 71
12.1 CO monitoring for protection of electrostatic filter .............................................. 71
12.1.1 Basic concept of filter shutdown....................................................................... 71
12.1.2 Optimisation of CO measurement..................................................................... 71
12.1.3 Specifications .................................................................................................... 72
12.1.4 Shutdown procedure ......................................................................................... 72
12.1.5 Special devices.................................................................................................. 74
12.1.6 Laser analysers.................................................................................................. 74
12.2 Monitoring of coal pulverising mills .................................................................... 74
12.2.1. Limiting values ................................................................................................. 74
13. CONVERSION FACTORS .......................................................................................... 75
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14. LITERATURE .............................................................................................................. 77

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1. INTRODUCTION
Gas analysis is among the most important, but also the most sophisticated methods of
measurement in cement works. This is due to the constantly growing demands in the
field of gaseous emissions and related requirements. Gas analysis fulfils an equally
important function in the field of automation, where the reliable and exact measurement
of certain gas components plays an essential role.
Advances in the field of gas analysis have taken place parallel to the trend of demands,
so that one can hardly speak of technically unsolvable problems any longer. If
problems should nevertheless occur, they are mainly due to the following
Incorrect choice of equipment
Lack of specialised knowledge
Underestimation of expenditure involved (investment and/or maintenance

expenditure)
The aim of this report is to prevent problems of this kind occurring when renewing
and adding gas analysing apparatus.
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2. PURPOSE
The continuous measurement of the constituents of certain components in the gas flows
(gas analysis) in cement works consists of three areas of activity:
a: Emission measurements (pollutants, e.g. NO, SO2, CO, etc.).
b: Safety measuring systems (e.g. CO monitoring in filtering plants, monitoring of coal

dust silos, etc.).
c: Process measuring systems (e.g. O2, CO, NO) for optimisation of the combustion
process.
Important for all these activities is a high availability of the measuring equipment and
sufficient accuracy of the measured values. The report therefore attaches particular
importance to gas sampling and preparation, maintenance and quality assurance as
well as possible measuring errors. Finally, hints and practical advice are given, based
on many years of experience.
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3. DEFINITIONS
Indication delay (90% time) of an analyser or a measuring instrument: The time that
elapses from a sudden change in the gas concentration at the entrance of the analyser
or probe up to indication of 90% of this change.
Downtime: The time during which faulty conditions of the measuring instrument and
their correction unforeseeably make the generation of measuring or adjusting signals
impossible.
Accompanying gas: Sample gas without the gas components to be measured.
Extractive sampling: The sample gas is extracted as a partial gas flow from the
process gas prior to analysis and conditioned.
Gradient monitoring: Monitoring the gas concentration change gradient (e.g. control of
CO cut-off).
In-situ: The measuring instrument is located in or on the process gas duct; analysis is
carried out in the process gas (e.g. optical dust content measuring instrument or
zirconium oxygen probe).
Adjustment: Setting or adjustment of the gas analyser with test or zero gas with the
aim of adjusting the indication of the gas analyser as close as possible to the gas
concentration to be measured in the sample gas. With newer analysers, this can also
take place with built-in gas-filled glass cuvettes.
Calibration: For a given measuring instrument, determination of a valid relationship

between the indicated measured value or the value of the output signal and a reference
value that comes closest to the true measured quantity. Determination of the scale
divisions of a measuring instrument with the aid of a reference measuring method
(generally required only for officially specified continuous emission measurements).
Life zero: A specific quantity (normally mA) prevails in the electric output signal when
the analyser physically measures zero. The advantage of this system is that the
output signal is electrically set to zero only if the electrical measuring circuit fails.
Sample gas: That part of the process gas extracted from the process gas and passed
to the analyser for measurement.
Sample gas preparation: The entire equipment used for the qualitative and
quantitative preparation of the sample gas to ensure that the same conforms to the
specifications of the analysers.
Measuring equipment: All devices and instruments required for the measurement of
gas component concentrations.
Measured quantity: Physical quantity, the numerical value of which is to be determined

by measurement.
Measured component: The gas component in sample gas, the concentration of which
is to be measured.
Zero gas: Test gas used for the adjustment or readjustment of the zero of a gas
analyser.
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On-Line: The measured quantity is coupled directly with the process.
Test gas: Gas with a known composition for adjustment or readjustment of gas
analysers. It consists of the measured component and one or several accompanying
gases (e.g. nitrogen/ carbonic acid + measuring component).
Cross-sensitivity: Influence of the concentration of a disturbing component on the

measuring result of another gas component under identical measuring conditions.
Representativity: The correspondence of the measured signal with the definition of the
measured quantity, e.g. the composition of the gas at the kiln inlet measured at a point
in relation to the average gas composition over the entire cross-section.
Disturbing component: Component in the sample gas that falsifies the measured
value, e.g. if the gas analyser has a cross-sensitivity or chemical reactions distort
measurements.
Dead time of an analyser or measuring instrument: The time that elapses from a
sudden change in the gas concentration at the entrance of the analyser or probe up to
the start of the indication of this change.
Availability: The time during which the measuring instrument generates usable signals.
Supply pressure: The sample gas pressure necessary for supplying the analysers.
VOC Volatile Organic Compounds: Volatile organic hydrocarbons.
Maintenance time: Time required for maintenance of the measuring instrument

(planned preventative maintenance).
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4. MEASURING METHODS
4.1 In-situ measurement
In-situ measuring methods mainly offer the following advantages:
No gas sampling
Sampling forms a path in the measuring channel (as opposed to a point in

extractive methods)
Undelayed indication
Less maintenance
Good long-term stability
In-situ measuring methods are used increasingly in modern measuring techniques.

Two different measuring principles are in the foreground:
Solid-state electrolytic and
Optical systems
Stabilised zirconium dioxide is a typical solid-state electrolyte with whose properties

oxygen can be measured directly in the process (similar to thermocouples) (see
chapter 8.5.1). This measuring method has proved reliable in the cement industry.
In individual cases, the useful life of the zirconium sensors was unsatisfactory, as
their activity was destroyed by certain accompanying gases.
Optical instruments are flanged directly on to the gas channel to be measured (e.g.
chimney). These consist of a transmitter (normally light) and a receiver or reflector
arranged opposite. While passing through the channel, the light beam emitted from
the transmitter (infrared, ultraviolet or laser) is changed by certain gas components.
After appropriate processing, this change results in the measured quantity (see
chapter 8.6).
Optical measuring instruments (8.6.1, 8.6.2, 8.6.3) are used mainly for the
measurement of pollutant emissions, e.g. dust content, SO2, NO, etc. The range of
instruments available for measuring further gas components is increasing in line with
technological advances. The application of optical measuring in-situ instruments is
restricted by two factors; the dust content and the given length of the measuring path,
which is in direct relation to the sensitivity. For use in the cement works, these
restrictions mean that they only function in pure gas and their application is limited
solely to the measurement of emissions, although good experience has been made
in this respect. Thanks to improved representativity, in-situ measuring methods are
technically superior to extractive methods.
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Investments in-situ instruments are generally higher compared with extractive

measuring instruments. As will be shown later, additional investments in in-situ
measuring methods are justified under certain conditions. The level of maintenance
is normally less, but partly more sophisticated than extractive measuring instruments,
from a technical point of view.
The measured values of in-situ instruments are always based on gas in an

operational condition. However, values in a standard condition are usually required,
.i.e. at 0C, 1013mbar, dry. For conversion to the standard condition, the parameters
pressure, temperature and moisture must be known or additionally measured.
4.2 Extractive measurement
The measuring procedure is subdivided into different stages:
Sample gas sampling
Sample gas supply
Sample gas preparation
Analysers
With the exception of the dust content, the majority of components can be measured
by the extractive method. In-situ measuring instruments offer the following
advantages:
Several analysers can be connected to the same sample gas preparation

apparatus.
The positioning of dust and heat-sensitive analysers is more flexible.
Adjustment and calibration is simpler (with built-in reference cuvettes or test gas).
Drying the gases during gas preparation by means of cooling to a dew point of about
3C can be disturbing for certain components. These are logically water vapour
(H2O) sulphur dioxide (SO2) and certain hydrocarbon compounds (VOC) (see chapter
8.4).
To exclude disturbing influences during sample gas drying, there are instruments
with operating temperatures that are far above the dew point (up to 250C). The
components of these instruments are subject to increased load when exposed to
these temperatures, which inevitably leads to an increased susceptibility to faults.
Experiences made with an instrument of this type are described in chapter 8.6.4.
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The multiple advantages of extractive measuring instruments, compared with in-situ

measuring methods, are confronted with a slightly higher level of maintenance,
although the maintenance necessary for the extractive measuring method is less
demanding than that required for in-situ measuring instruments.
4.3 Measuring points
Figures 1 to 3 show the typical measuring points at various kiln systems (cyclone
preheaters, grate preheaters and wet kilns). The associated tables show the usually
measured components as well as the purpose of their measurement. The choice of
measuring point at the kiln system at which measurements are to be made, depends
primarily on the purpose of measurement.
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G
E
F
Fig. 1 Measuring Points at Cyclone Preheater Kilns
Purpose Components A B C D E F G Remarks
Process Control O2 CO NO CO2 Without Precalcination
Process Control O2 CO NO CO2 With Precalcination
CO-Monitoring O2 CO NO Without Precalcination
CO-Monitoring O2 CO NO With Precalcination
Emissions O2 CO NO Without Precalcination
Emissions O2 CO NO CO2 With Precalcination
Emissions SO2 NO HC etc All Kiln Systems
Suitability: Good Measuring Points: A Kiln Inlet (Probe in rotating Part)

B Inlet Chamber, Riser Duct
Satisfactory (Probe not in rotating Part)
C Lower Cyclon stages (Calcinator)
Bad D Upper Cyclon stages
E After Cyclon preheater
Standby (Reserve) F After the Filter before Fan
G Stack (After Filter and Fan)
Unsuitable
Table 1 Cyclon-preheater Kilns

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Fig. 2 Measuring points at the grate preheater kilns
Process control O2 CO NO CO2
CO-monitoring O2 CO NO
Emissions O2 CO NO
Emissions O2 CO NO CO2
Emissions SO2 NO HC etc
Suitability: Good Measuring points: A Kiln inlet (probe in rotating part)

B Kiln inlet (probe not in rotating part)
Satisfactory E After the grate preheater
F After the filter, before the fan
Bad G Stack, after the filter and the fan
Unsuitable
Table 2 Grate preheater kilns

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Fig. 3 Measuring points at wet kilns and long dry kilns
Process optimization O2 CO NO CO2
Emissions O2 CO NO CO2
Emissions SO2 NO HC etc
Suitability: Good Measuring points: A Kiln inlet (probe in rotating part)

E before the filter
Satisfactory F After the filter, before the fan
G Stack, after the filter and the fan
Bad
Unsuitable
Table 3 Wet and long dry kilns

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5. GAS SAMPLING
5.1 Kiln inlet (measuring point A)
At the rotary kiln itself, only the measuring point at the feed end of the kiln is
realisable with reasonable effort. The components normally measured there are
needed as reference quantities for an optimal combustion process (usually O2, CO,
NO).
To prevent distortion of the measured signals due to false air from the kiln inlet seal,
the probe tip must be located distinctly within the rotating part. The sampling
conditions at the kiln inlet vary considerably, depending on the type of kiln (preheater
kilns, long dry kilns and wet kilns).
5.1.1 Preheater kilns (cyclone preheater and grate preheater kilns)
Process conditions at the sampling point

Gas temperature 1000 to 1300C
Dust content >100g/m3 (cyclone preheater)
Dust content >5/g/m3 (grate preheater)
Dew point temperature 35 to 40C
The process gas contains large proportions of alkalis, chlorides and sulphates that
are subject to high local and time variations. Depending on the process and raw
material situation, the alkali compounds combine with the dust to form strongly
adherent deposits. To counteract their effects to make gas sampling possible at all,
elaborate measures are necessary from a measuring point of view.
Owing to the high temperatures, the provision of external cooling is necessary for all
types of sampling probes in the area of the kiln inlet.
Mounting sampling probes
The principle mounting arrangement is shown in Figure 4. Owing to the wide range
of kiln systems available, it is impossible to define an exact mounting point for all
types of kilns in advance. The following criteria play a dominant role:
Available space
Accessibility
Direction of rotation of the kiln
Internals in the kiln inlet chamber

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According to experience, the gas composition at the kiln inlet is not homogeneous.
In consequence, the sample is only representative of the average gas composition to
a limited degree, irrespective of where the probe is positioned. The measuring point
or sampling point in the rotating part of the kiln, as will be shown later, cannot be
determined primarily on the basis of measuring criteria. An individually adapted
interpretation of the measured values (averaging), correlation with disturbance
variables, etc.) is far more important here than the position of the probe (see chapter
9).
The mounting position shown in Figure 4 is for reference only. Positions and
dimensions can vary considerably from plant to plant. The undisturbed, reliable
function of the probe and the warranty that no false air will be drawn in from the kiln
inlet seal always has the highest priority.
The probe must be easily accessible. If necessary, special platforms must be

erected. A lifting device placed above the probe will considerably facilitate
maintenance. The minimum distance between the platform railing and probe axis
should be about 1.3m (at least on one side).
As the probe consists of relatively long sections, the access way must not be too
narrow. The mounting position should be accessible via steps not ladders.
Pokeholes, which must be operated regularly, are located in the immediate vicinity of
the probe. It must be ensured that the sampling probe does not interfere with the
working space provided for maintenance personnel.
In principle, the probe must be mounted on the side where the direction of rotation of
the kiln shell is directed downwards. If conditions do not permit, the other side can
also be selected, provided the probe can be positioned at a sufficient distance to the
material bed.
Meal inlet pipes, pokeholes, measuring connections, etc., mostly restrict free
selection of the mounting position, the main aim is to minimise hindrance of
maintenance personnel.
The inevitably cooled probe surfaces encourage the formation of deposits in the kiln
inlet chamber. These deposits not only hinder subsequent removal of a probe, they
can negatively influence the geometry of the kiln inlet chamber and also cause
pressure loss. To prevent this happening, it is recommended to regularly blow-out
the gap between the pipe and probe by means of a mounted air cannon. The pipe
must be dimensioned, so that a gap of about 25mm is produced between the probe
and inner pipe wall.
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Retraction device
N Kiln inlet seal

B X A
E
E
ca L+1.5m L
A = 0....300 mm = 30....45
B = Min. 500 mm L = Nominal length of the probe
C = B + wall thickness N = Inclination from horizontal axis
E = Min 200 mm X = As short as possible
Fig. 4 Mounting of the gas sampling probe at kiln inlet

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5.1.2 Wet kilns and long dry kilns
Process conditions at the sampling point:

Temperature wet kilns 150 to 200C
Temperature long dry kilns 250 to 500C
Dust content wet kilns about 40g/Nm3
Dust content long dry kilns about 300g/Nm3
Dew point temperature long dry kilns 35 to 40C
Under these conditions, gas sampling is much simpler than for kilns with preheaters.
No cooling of the probe is necessary and the measured signal has improved
representativity, as better intermixture of the gases takes place due to the internals
(chains, crosses). With regard to positioning, mounting conditions, etc. roughly the
same conditions apply as for kilns with preheaters.
5.1.3 Special instructions for gas sampling at the kiln inlet
Cyclone and grate preheater kilns
The above process conditions show that gas sampling from this difficult environment
requires particular measures:
Owing to the high temperature, the sampling probe must be cooled.
A filter system must ensure that the large amounts of diversely structured dust is
removed prior to sample gas preparation
Very often, deposits build up at the sampling system and clog the probe entrance,
so that measures must be taken for their prevention.
Probe cooling
Liquid cooling is used for all known probes. The cooling medium, which is usually
water, transfers the heat in a closed system to water-air or water-water heat
exchanger to prevent calcareous deposits. The energy produced varies
considerably. Depending on the condition of the probe surface, a large amount
(clean surface) or small amount (dust or deposits on the probe) must be removed.
Based on experience, an energy flow of maximum 30kW per probe meter must be
removed within the kiln (probe with 10cm outside diameter). In extreme cases, the
energy flow varies between 1kW and 30kW per probe meter.
According to experience, the risk of deposit formation increases with reducing probe
or cooling circuit temperature. As a countermeasure, some probes are operated at
higher temperatures. This takes place by controlling the cooling circuit or by
internally heating the probe.
If a water-air heat exchanger is used, it must be taken into account in dimensioning
that the maximum cooling capacity is still sufficient even with heavy clogging of the
heat exchanger surfaces. It is also recommended to add an anti-freeze to the water
in cold regions.
-23-
In order to better control incrustations and deposit build-up in and on the probes,
cooling systems were developed which enable the probes to be operated at higher
temperatures. An example is the steam jacket probe. This probe functions as a heat
conducting tube, whereby the heat of evaporation of water is used as a heat carrier
to the directly flanged-on heat exchanger (condenser).
The probe temperature is 120 to 150C, the internal pressure is 1.5 to 5 bar. The
probe only functions properly if it can be mounted almost vertically (less than 30
from the vertical axis). This requirement virtually excludes the mounting method
shown in Figure 4 in an almost horizontal position, so that its possible applications
are very restricted.
If a synthetic heat carrying liquid is used instead of water, the probes can be
operated at even higher temperatures (up to 200C) (see chapter 6.1.1).
Safety and maintenance equipment
In the event of failure of the cooling system, the probe would be damaged within a
few minutes. Countermeasures are essential. For emergency cooling purposes,
water supplied from storage tanks can be used and feed directly into the probe circuit
if required. Emergency cooling systems of this kind must also function in the event of
a total power failure. Pneumatically operated withdrawal devices have proved more
reliable than emergency cooling systems (see Figure 5). Since compressed air can
be stored without problems, pneumatic operation has the advantage that the probe
can be withdrawn from the danger, zone even in the event of a total power failure,
within a reasonable time. The automatic insertion and withdrawal device also has
further significant advantages:
Regular insertion and withdrawal prevents the formation of deposits on the probe and
their build-up.
Maintenance is considerably facilitated.
All connections to the probe (hoses, cables, etc.) must be flexible.
Dust filtration in the probes
With dry filtration, the sample gas is withdrawn from the process by suction in an
unpurified condition. Dust separation takes place inside the probe or at its outer end.
The produced dust must be removed from the filter from time to time. Whether this
takes place manually by replacing the filter element or automatically by blowing back
into the sampling space, the sample gas flow is always interrupted. This interruption
has a negative effect on the availability of the measuring instrument. To prevent
condensation of any kind, the filter must have a minimum operating temperature of
150C.
Rail with hose guide device
Suspension point
-24-
Drive Chain
Pneumatical drive
Gas Probe
Shutter flap
Mounting flange
FIG. 5 Probe extraction device

-25-
With wet filtration, the sample gas flows through a water curtain at the probe tip. This
produces a slurry of water and dust, which together with the sample gas discharges
through the wet probe, which in contrast to the dry probe is inclined outwards. The
slurry discharges, the gas is dried and passed to the analysers.
Wet filtration has the disadvantage that various gas components are also dissolved
in water. SO2 is completely washed out and the CO2 concentration reduces to an
uncontrollable degree. As a result of this change in the total composition, the relative
contents of the other gas components increase, so that the composition of the
sample gas is no longer correct. If the injector water circulates in a closed system,
the circulated water becomes acidic and behaves virtually inert towards CO2.
However, susceptibility to corrosion of all parts coming into contact with the water
must be observed.
The level of maintenance necessary with wet filtration is slightly less and above all
technically less demanding than with dry filtration. However, in view of the distortion
of measured values and the reliable dry systems that are currently available, its
application is no longer recommended.
Filter cleaning
The dust separated in the dry filter must be removed from time to time. The degree
of clogging of the filter, including the gas sampling probe, can be determined by
means of a vacuum gauge arranged between the filter and sample gas pump. The
maximum permissible value for cleaning differs from plant to plant and must be
individually determined.
Compressed air is normally used for cleaning and removing the dust from the filter. If
the filter is arranged at the outer end of the probe, cleaning should take place in two
stages.
1. Loosening the dust via the sample gas pipe.
2. Blowing out the dust via a separate compressed-air pipe.
The compressed air must be free from oil and water. Oil in the purging air produces
incorrect CO in the filter and excessive moisture encourages encrustation of the filter.
With regard to gas sampling, the conditions for the wet kiln and long dry kiln are
considerably simpler than for preheater kilns. The lower temperatures usually
obviate the need of probe cooling. The lower dust load enables the use of simpler
filter systems without special cleaning, as used following the heat exchanger in the
case of dry kilns (see chapter 6.3).
-26-
5.2 Other measuring points (B to G)
5.2.1 Kiln inlet chamber and riser duct (measuring point B)

Dust content 200 to 1200g/m3 (N.tr.)
In the kiln inlet chamber and riser duct, as at the rotary kiln inlet, local and time-
related concentration differences can be expected. Above the meal inlet of the
lowest cyclone, there is no longer any danger of a deposit build-up through circulated
materials. However, the gas composition no longer corresponds at this point with the
gas composition in the rotary kiln inlet. It is distorted by the reduction of CO in the
riser duct and through dilution with false air and CO2 from deacidification of the
burned product.
When burning secondary fuel, the measuring point must be arranged below the
secondary fuel inlet.
With regard to gas sampling, virtually the same conditions apply as at the kiln inlet.
This applies similarly to a large extent to sampling from the calcining chambers of
grate preheater kilns.
5.2.2 Lower cyclone stages (measuring point C)
From a measurement point of view, gas analysis in this area is virtually pointless,
particularly in plants with pre-calcining. However, if measurements are still carried
on a frequent basis, these are not for measurement reasons, but the more
favourable conditions with regard to sampling (deposit formation and temperature)
than further below, e.g. in the rotary kiln inlet. A cooling system is necessary in any
event.
5.2.3 Upper cyclone stages (measuring point D)

-27-
Protection of the electrostatic filter against explosions due to impermissible CO

concentrations, presupposes a rapid reaction of the gas analysis (see chapter 12.1).
For this task, gas sampling below the uppermost cyclone stage is preferable, as the
residence time of the main gas flow in the uppermost cyclone stage prolongs the
reaction time of the monitoring device. Two-section preheater systems should
always be provided with two complete measuring instruments (one for each section).
The sampling conditions are relatively simple. No cooling is necessary. In order to

achieve rapid reaction times, the maximum amount of gas must be drawn in (60 to
300 l/h). However, as the amount of gas increases, so too does the dust content in
the sampling system, so that, depending on the particular system, it must be
separated by the filter and blown back again. More suitable for this purpose are
probes whose filters are located directly in the gas flow (internal filter probes) than
those with external filters (see chapter 6.3).
5.2.4 Downstream of cyclone or grate preheaters (measuring point E)

Gas temperature for rotary kilns with cyclone preheaters 300 to 400C
Gas temperature for rotary kilns with grate preheaters 100 to 150C
Dust content for rotary kilns with cyclone preheaters 20 to 70gm/3 (N.tr.)
Dust content for rotary kilns with grate preheaters 2 to 10g/m3 (N.tr.)
Dew point temperature for rotary kilns with cyclone preheaters 35 to 45C
Dew point temperature for rotary kilns with grate preheaters 50 to 65C
At the point, similar conditions prevail for gas sampling as in the riser duct
(measuring point D). In the case of grate preheaters, this point approximately
corresponds with the conditions downstream of the grate, but less dust loading. To
be taken into account for CO monitoring in grate preheater kilns is the fact that no
cooling tower is usually available to delay the residence time of the gases in a
positive sense. For this, the gas quantity can be increased on account of the low
dust loading.
5.2.5 Downstream of electrostatic filter (measuring points F, G)

Dust content >50mg/m3 (N.tr.)
-28-
In the majority of cases, the components relevant for emission are measured.
Preference must be given to the point downstream of the fan, as the gas composition
is no longer subject to change before the exhaust gas discharges from the stack.
Owing to the turbulence of the process gas in the plant sections and fans, it can
generally be assumed that the process gas is well intermixed.
Owing to the probability of filter shutdowns, gas sampling requires a dust filter as
provided at the measuring points in the raw gas flow. The high dew point makes it
necessary for the probe to be heated at the critical points. No differences exist with
regard to the type of kiln (cyclones, grate preheaters or wet kilns).
5.2.6 Coal pulverising mill
Gas analysis in the area of the coal pulverising mill serves solely for the purpose of
quickly detecting smouldering fires and/or potentially explosive gas concentrations.
The possible measuring points are shown in Figure 6.
-29-
Fig. 6 Measuring points at the coal grinding plant
Upstream of coal pulverising mill (measuring point H)

In filter (measuring point I)

-30-
The measuring point in the filter serves especially for monitoring glow nests when the
coal pulverising mill is stationary. Owing to the large filter volume, glow nests can
only be detected quickly enough with sufficient circulation of the process gas. For
this reason, 200-300m3/h process gas should be drawn out by suction via a separate
gas pipe and fed back again at the filter inlet when the coal pulverising mill is
stationary. The gas sampling probe is then arranged in the gas pipe. When the coal
pulverising mill is in operation, the gas pipe is closed via a valve.
Downstream of coal pulverising mill fan (measuring point E)

Coal dust silo (measuring point L)

Gas temperature >60C
Dew point temperature >35C
The gas sample is preferably positioned in the silo roof.

-31-
6. GAS SAMPLING PROBES
In principle, gas sampling probes can be divided into three categories according to
temperature range:
Sampling probes in the temperature range 900 to 1500C
Sampling probes in the temperature range 500 to 900C
Sampling probes in the temperature range up to 500C
The following assessment of various gas sampling probes is based on the

manufacturers documents as well as our own experience and information from the
works, if available.
6.1 Sampling probes in the temperature range 900 to 1500C
This category includes gas sampling at the inlet of preheater kilns with and without
pre-calcining.
6.1.1 Siemens type FLK
Brief description
Compact gas sampling system with special cooling fluid permitting probe operating
temperatures up to 230C. The condensation of alkali vapours and in turn the
danger of incrustations is drastically reduced. The suction opening is arranged on
the side of the probe tube and should be located in the flow slipstream. This
arrangement offers selective dust separation. An electrically or pneumatically
operated insertion / withdrawal device is an integral part of the probe.
Design: Extremely compact and professional design. Oval stainless

steel sampling tube.
Suction opening: Lateral, about 30mm in diameter
Mounting tube: 325mm diameter (relatively large)

-32-
Dust removal filter: External, heated, blow-back with compressed air, large
volume
Maximum probe length: 3200mm
Comment
Despite effective measures, stubborn blockages can occur, particularly when kiln
operation is loaded by high alkali circuits. Owing to the lateral arrangement of the
suction opening, the gases within the probe tube flow through an elbow. The
removal of incrusted deposits from this elbow is far more difficult due to poor access
than if the gases were drawn out by suction at the end of the stem and through a
straight tube. In view of the turbulent flow conditions at the sampling point, it is
doubtful whether lateral suction results in selective dust separation.
The large overall volume of the dust filter permits a relatively large gas throughput.
The resulting delay and damping of the indication is of little significance from a
measurement point of view.
Available for the drive of the withdrawal device is either an electric motor or
compressed-air drive. As compressed air can be stored without problems, the
compressed-air drive offers more reliability than an electric motor in the event of a
power failure. Emergency operation with crank handle is also provided.
With difficult kiln operation, alkali condensation can occur and block the entrance of
the probe, as already mentioned, despite increased operating temperature.
6.1.2 Harman & Braun type 60S (formerly type 13)
Brief description
Gas sampling probe with closed cooling system (cooling medium water) and
temperature control. Integrated emergency cooling system with fresh water. Lateral
arrangement of two suction openings (Figure 7).
Comment
Widely used. Functions well in non-extreme alkali conditions. The same remarks
apply here with regard to the lateral arrangement of the suction openings as for the
Siemens system.
With large amounts of dust, the filter must be blown-out at brief intervals, The
resulting loss of signal can have a critical effect on the availability of the measuring
signal.
The operating temperature is too low to completely prevent alkali condensation. An
automatic insertion and withdrawal device is optionally available.
-33-
1 2 10 11 3 7 5 8
9
12
12
6 5
1 Gas inlet holes 7 Ceramic fliter
2 Gas tube 8 Protection case
3 Filtering unit 9 Connecting for air blaster
4 Gas outlet 10 Built in tube
5 Compressed air inlet 11 Mounting flange
6 Ring heating element 12 Cooling water in/outlet
Fig. 7
6.1.3 Hartmann & Braun type H (Holderbank probe)
Brief description
The main features of this probe are the automatically functioning mechanical removal
of any incrustations at the probe inlet as well as a new type of filter system (see
Figure 8). Cooling takes place in a closed system (cooling medium water) with
temperature controller.
About 20 probes of this type are in use worldwide and are functioning efficiently.
Marketing takes place via Messrs ELSAG BAILEY Hartmann & Braun in Frankfurt
under the designation type H.
Design: Probe body of alloyed steel
Suction opening: At end of stem, about 40mm in diameter
Probe temperature: External, 30 to 85C, internal up to 250C
Mounting tube: 150mm in diameter
Dust removal filter: Internal, heated filter of sintered metal, cleaning with
compressed air
Maximum probe length: 3000mm
Thanks to its modular concept, the probe can be provided with the same insertion
and withdrawal device as type 60.
-34-
1 2 3 4 7 10 11
9
12
12
5 8 6
1 Measuring gas inlet 7 Heated gas tube

2 Piston 8 Protection case
3 Filter 9 Anschluss fr Luftkanone
4 Tube 10 Montagestutzen
5 Expansion seal (Stainless steel) 11 Montageflansch
6 Air cylinder 12 Khlwasseranschlsse
Fig. 8
Comment
This sampling system has proved highly reliable in practical use, even under difficult
conditions. The availability satisfies the high requirements of high-level control
systems. The maintenance costs are low thanks to the simple and maintenance-
friendly design of the system.
6.2 Sampling probes in the temperature range 500 to 900C
With regard to the sampling probes, similar conditions prevail in this temperature as
at higher temperatures (e.g. at the kiln inlet of preheater kilns).
However, the danger of incrustations is lower. Cooling of the probes is essential

down to 500C, so that in principle, the same sampling probes can be used as in the
higher temperature range.
Temperatures between 500 and 900C are typical for cyclone preheater kilns in the
area of the lower cyclone stages (measuring point C). As already noted,
measurements there are almost pointless, particularly in plants with precalcining. If
measurements are still to be carried out despite this, steam jack probes are
considered ideal for this purpose when mounted vertically in the cyclone roof.
6.3 Sampling probes in the temperature range below 500C
Typical for the application of such probes are the measuring points downstream of
the heat exchanger or grate preheater, upstream or downstream of the electrostatic
-35-
filter as well as at the kiln inlet of wet or long dry kilns. Cooling is unnecessary. With
regard to the place of use or purpose of measurement, there are certain differences
in the design of the probes (e.g. mounting length). Decisive for the quality of these
probes is the dust filtration. The discovery of fine-pore filter tubes of sintered
stainless steel brought about great advances. The level of maintenance is low, a
block-back device is unnecessary. The sample gas is clean and available for weeks
to months without interruption. Probes with such filters are not available from
established suppliers. They still use fine ceramic filters that enable a comparatively
long useful life. However, it must be ensured that the gas conducting tube is heated
at the penetration point (Figure 9).
The optimal porosity of sintered metal filters is only 0.5m. As the main proportion of
the dust particles is larger, the pores clog at a correspondingly slow rate. According
to experience, they have a useful life of four weeks to several months, depending on
the properties of the dust. If the pressure drop becomes excessive due to clogging,
the filter tubes can be cleaned with acid.
With wet kilns and long dry kilns, the probes must be lengthened, depending on the
size of the smoke chamber. In order to ensure the necessary mechanical strength,
supporting tube of a larger diameter must be mounted, into which the probe is
inserted.
A further important element is the heating in the penetration zone from the measuring
channel to the outside. In order to prevent any kind of condensation, the
temperature must not fall below 100C at any point.
For all gas conducting parts, stainless steel, e.g. No. 1.4541 or 1.4571 must be used.
Thread e.g. 25 x 1.5
430 Length as required max 1500
10
ca 40
25 (1")
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Stainless steel closing cap

2 Filter tube: Typ 1400.1.000 -.18 - 0.5 threaded on both sides e.g. M 25 x 1,5
-36-
Manufacturer:
Mott Metallurgical Corp.
Farmington Industrial Park
Farmington CT 06032
Fax No (USA) 203 674 1489
3 Gas conducting tube. Outside diam. 10 mm, inner diam. 6 mm, stainless steel
4 Centering discs approx. every 500 mm
5 Carrier tube. Outside diam. 40 mm, wall thickness 2 mm, stainless steeel
6 Heating coil Heated lenght approx. 300 mm ca. 200 W
7 Mounting flange
8 Sample gas connection
Fig.9 Gas sampling probe, up to 500C

"HOLDERBANK"
-37-
7. SAMPLE GAS PREPARATION
The purpose of sample gas preparation is to supply the downstream gas analysers with
sample gas, so that it conforms qualitatively and quantitatively with the specifications of
the analysers. Such an arrangement normally consists of the following elements:
Supply > Sample gas pipe
Drying > Sample gas cooler
Delivery > Sample gas pump
Dosage > Controller
Distribution > Pressure control valve
Calibrating option > Manual or automatic
Experience has shown that the availability of a measuring instrument depends

essentially on a properly functioning sample gas sampling and preparation. Insufficient
sample gas preparation leads to fouling in the gas analysers and not infrequently to
expensive damage.
7.1 Sample gas pipe
The probe itself as well as the sample gas pipe between the sampling probe and
sample gas cooler should be heated to between 100 and 150C (for measurements
with FID devices up to 200C). This heating has the following purpose:
To prevent condensation and freezing of the condensate at low temperatures,

because:
> Condensation in the sample gas pipe can distort certain measured values.
> Incrustations and blockage of the sample gas pipe are accelerated by the
formation of condensate.
To delay the conversion of NO into NO2 during emission measurement.
Heated sample gas pipes are available in various qualities:
Low price pipes with a self-regulating heating band and
Pipes with resistance heating and separate temperature controller

-38-
For selection purposes, it should be noted that with heating band controlled pipes,
the temperature is limited to a maximum of 105C. This temperature does not
normally suffice for process measurements but for emission measurements. The
following specifications must be observed:
Inner tube material: Teflon
Inner tube dimensions: Outside diameter 6mm

Inside diameter 4mm
Connection ends: Clamping ring tube fittings
Control: Thermocouple with controller
Protective sleeve: PVC or metal
Heated pipes are relatively expensive. When planning a measuring system, the
sample gas pipes must therefore be as short as possible. The following points must
be observed:
a) If only O2, CO or NO is measured, heating can be dispensed with if the sample

gas pipe (several metres) is short and can be laid with uninterrupted gradient from
the sampling point to the ample gas cooler (no siphons).
b) Possible installation of the sample gas cooler in the vicinity of the sampling point.
For automatic compressed-air cleaning via the sample gas pipe, it must be ensured
that this has sufficient pressure resistance.
For connections, high-quality stainless steel clamping ring fittings, e.g. Swagelok,
Serto or similar, must generally be used.
7.2 Sample gas coolers
Sample gas coolers serve to remove most of the water vapour from the sample gas
at temperatures of about 3C and keep the residual content at a constant value. The
latter is important particularly for emission measurement. The temperature indication
of the sample gas cooler normally shows the operating temperature of the cooling
medium. If the sample gas cooler is subject to excessive load or ambient
temperature, the sample gas temperature at the cooler outlet can be considerably
higher than the indication. The dew point temperature then no longer corresponds
with the cooling medium indication.
The sample gas cooler is usually accommodated in a cabinet together with the
analysers and the remaining sample gas preparation apparatus. Instead of using
long heated sample gas pipes, it may be advantageous to install the sample gas
cooler immediately downstream of the sample gas probe in a separate equipment
cabinet.
-39-
Condensate collecting tanks have the disadvantage that indication of the measured
values is greatly delayed due to the additional volume. The produced condensate
should therefore be pumped out using automatic hose pumps or diaphragm liquid
pumps.
7.2.1 Specifications of a suitable sample gas cooler
Dew point at outlet +5C (1C)
Dew point stability 0.25C
Temperature at sample gas inlet max. 180C
Dew point at sample gas inlet max. 80C
Gas flow max 100l/h
Ambient temperature +5 to +45C
Cooling capacity 860kJ/h, 25C
Material of gas conducting parts Teflon, PVDF
Permissible gas pressure min. 3 bar
Volume max. 100cm3
Sample gas connections 6mm or 1/4
Time until ready for measurement max. 30 minutes
Also available for the majority of sample gas coolers are moisture monitoring devices
at the sample gas outlet. Such devices are urgently recommended.
7.3 Sample gas pump
Mainly diaphragm and compressor pumps are used. The sample gas volume
necessary for the gas analysers is between 30 and 100l/h. In order to keep
indication delays to a minimum, a larger sample gas volume is often extracted from
the process gas. The excess sample gas can be diverted via a bypass shortly
upstream of the analyser. If possible, a large part of the measuring instrument
should be operated under pressure, as false air can infiltrate during suction phase.
Sample gas pumps installed upstream of the sample gas cooler must be heated.
This arrangement has the advantage that no false air is sucked in the event of leaks
in the sample gas cooler. However, according to experience, heated pumps are
more susceptible to faults than cold operated pumps, so that arrangement
downstream of the sample gas cooler is still more advantageous.
-40-
The pump capacity should be generously dimensioned in respect of the suction

pressure. The flow rate must be dimensioned, so that the available gas flow about
1.5 to 2 times higher than that required by the analysers according to specifications.
Throttling of the flow preferably takes place on the low-pressure side.
With throttling on the pressure side, a pressure control valve must ensure that the
pressure downstream of the pump does not increase to an unnecessary degree.
Significant pressure drops in the sample gas encourages the formation of powdery
salts (white powder). The following diagram shows the characteristics of a suitable
sample gas pump.
Vacuum
Excess pressure
Gas flow [l/min] at 20C
Vacuum Overpressure
20
Gas flow [l/min] at 20C
15
10
0
0 0,2 0,6 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 [bar]
7.4 Flow control and distribution
The arrangement for control and distribution of the sample gas depends on the
number and specifications of the analysers to be supplied. Multi-component
analysers with only connection solve the problem of gas distribution internally.
However, as soon as two or more analysers have to be supplied with gas, the inlet
pressure must be taken into account in distribution. At a low supply pressure, the
analysers can be connected in series. If analysers have to be connected with
varying supply pressure, they must be connected in parallel via appropriate gas
distribution.
-41-
7.4.1 Simple gas control
1 3
7 13
8 9
12
2
6
5
4 11
10
1 Sample gas inlet 8 Analyzer 1

2 Sample gas cooler 9 Analyzer 2
3 Fine filter combined with wetness detector 10 Condensate pump
4 Sample gas pump 11 Calibration gas input
5 Changeover valve measurement / Calibration 12 Overpressure valve
6 Throttle valve, Gasflow setting 13 Min. flow contact
7 Floating body flow meter
A B C
The flowmeter monitors and controls the set sample and test gas volume.
Rotameters fitted with variable limit transmitters are normally used for setting the flow
rate. The signal transmitters should signal especially when the necessary flow is not
reached. This is particularly important for gas analysers with safety functions.
As already mentioned, not all gas analysers have the same conditions with respect to
supply pressures. Optical analysers normally require less pressure than oxygen
analysers, for example, which use the paramagnetic measuring principle. However,
special attention must be given to the supply pressure of the analysers when
dimensioning the sample gas preparation apparatus. As soon as several analysers
have to be operated, parallel connection is recommended, despite the additional
work involved. For this purpose, the sample gas flow must be divided appropriate to
the number of gas analysers to be supplied. The following flow diagram shows how
this division can take place. The sample gas pump supplies a common supply pipe,
which is under increased sample gas pressure. A spring-loaded pressure control
valve controls the pressure in this pipe. The excess sample gas is diverted. A
further, slightly more elaborate option, is to use a separate sample gas pump for
each analyser.
Parallel connection with pressure control valve
A B C
Parallel switching with 3 pumps
7.4.2 Electronic gas volume control
The available electronic flowmeters are reliable and should be used to an increasing
extent for automatic gas volume control purposes.
These are flowmeters whose measuring principle is based on a thermal measuring

bridge, whereby the transported heat of a flowing substance is used as an indicator.
The calibrated reference quantity is normally air. For other gas compositions,
appropriate correction values (e.g. CO2) must be used for conversion.
D:\Documents and Settings\dpauling\My Documents\Temp\Ny-14340.DOC The copyrights for this document and all appendices are reserved
by HMC. The right to reproduce them entirely or in part in any
form and to make them available to third parties is subject to the
authorization of HMC.
-43-
Setpoint
S Power
Supply
Flow Controller
Fig. 11 Electronic Gas flow Control
Tests with automatic control have confirmed that the reliability of the gas supply can
be considerably improved with this system. It offers decisive functional advantages
compared with rotameters and is less susceptible to faults. A constant gas flow
positively affects overall gas analysis in every respect. Since the controllers have a
throttling effect on the gas flow, they are preferably arranged on the suction side of
the pump. For flow indication purposes, a volume-proportional signal is available.
This enables ideal monitoring via the control system. In addition, a rotameter
(without needle valve) can still be used for monitoring locally.
-44-
7.5 Sample gas filters
7.5.1 Coarse filters
Coarse filters are normally installed inside or downstream of the probe, so that a
large proportion of the dust is already separated before the sample gas enters the
sample gas preparation apparatus. If sintered metal filters with a porosity of <0.5m
are already used in the probe, the sample would be sufficiently clean. Nonetheless,
fine afterfiltration directly upstream of the analysers is recommended, as impurities
can also infiltrate the system downstream of the probe. Ceramic filters of silicon
carbide, mineral fibres or filter casings of borosilicate glass fibres are also frequently
used. Silicone carbide composites have a high separation efficiency of about 99.9%
at an average grain diameter of 1.2m and are temperature resistant up to 660C.
The disadvantage of all these filters compared to sintered metal filters, apart from
their lower separation efficiency is that they have to be cleaned and blown out or
replaced at shorter intervals
7.5.2 Fine filters
For separation of the dust particles and sublimated salts left behind in the sample
gas, membrane filter, e.g. of glass fibres or PTFE should be provided.
Recommended is a combination of membrane filter and condensate monitor. The

condensate monitor measures a change in the electrical conductivity between two
electrodes. If a limiting value is exceeded, the sample gas pump is stopped and the
fault is indicated in the control room.
7.5.3 Valves
Changeover valves
If automatic blowing out of the filter and/or probes is required, the gas path must be
able to be diverted automatically. For this purpose, stainless steel solenoid valves or
mechanically/ pneumatically operated ball sliding valves of Teflon (housing) and
stainless steel (ball) are used.
Valves installed in moist sample gas (upstream of the sample gas cooler) must be
mounted on a temperature-controlled valve plate in order to prevent corrosion as a
consequence of the dew point not being reached.
Valves, particularly solenoid valves, have the tendency to leak, even when slightly
fouled. They enable a high degree of automation of the measuring instrument, e.g.
automatic calibration, however, experience has shown that their susceptibility to
faults almost cancels out the convenience they are expected to provide (see chapter
11.7).
-45-
7.5.4 Pressure control valve
The purpose of the pressure control valve is to ensure that the supply pressure of the
analysers remains fairly constant. The excess gas delivered by the pump discharges
via a spring-loaded body. The nominal pressure of the valve must be slightly higher
than the highest specified supply pressure of all parallel connected analysers.
7.6 Adjustment
The necessity of regular adjustments depends on the purpose of the analysis and the
stability of the analysers. For emission measurements, a rotation of one to two
weeks is sufficient, provided the regulations in the country concerned do not contain
any tighter requirements. During adjustment, a preferably manually-operated two-
way directional control valve switches the gas supply to a bottle containing test gas.
Newer gas analysers are normally provided with an automatic adjusting device. By
means of an internal or external command a glass cuvette filled with the respective
gas is inserted into the sensor and the analyser is automatically readjusted. During
this time, the last measured value remains indicated, so that the subsequent signal
processing system is not disturbed by the procedure. With older analysers that do
not have this type of automatic device, operating personnel or the process control
system must be informed of the adjustment. With CO monitoring systems, activation
of the automatic filter shutdown system must be prevented.
Analysers with so-called calibrating cuvettes have the big advantage that no more
test gas is necessary. Manufacturers and most nationally customary regulations
accept this type of adjustment over a period of 2...3 years. After this time, the
analysers must be overhauled and inspected and readjusted by an appropriately
licensed institute.
7.7 Further information on sample gas preparation
7.7.1 Sample gas discharge
No sample gas must discharge into the analyser room. Every gas outlet must be
connected to a pipe and discharged to the atmosphere or returned to the main gas
flow. Pipes with large cross-sections must be used in order to prevent any back
pressure.
7.7.2 Tightness test
An option should be provided to easily connect the sample gas pipe gas-tight to a
nitrogen bottle directly downstream of the sampling probe.
-46-
The complete measuring apparatus is purged with nitrogen with the gas preparation
apparatus operating normally. The oxygen analyser shows zero indication soon
afterwards. After several minutes, the nitrogen supply is interrupted, so that a
vacuum is produced in the system. Caution! The regulating valves on the test
bottles are often not vacuum-tight. If the measured value of the oxygen analyser
should increase again within a space of about 20 seconds, this means that there is a
leak in the system. An increase of several per cent within several minutes is
considered normal.
7.7.3 Filter condition monitoring
The suction pressure is a good indicator of the condition of the filter or filters between
the probe and sample gas pump. By measuring this pressure with a pressure
transmitter or contact pressure gauge, the automatic cleaning process can be
initiated when a certain level is reached. As a result of this optimising measure, the
measured signal is not interrupted unnecessarily and the filters are cleaned or blown
back before being irreversibly clogged.
7.7.4 Analyser room
The accuracy and reliability of gas analysis essentially depends on temperature

variations, vibrations, draughts, dust, moisture and electrical interference fields being
avoided. For this reason, the gas analysers including sample gas preparation
apparatus should be installed in a closed room or equipment cabinet that can be
locked to prevent unauthorised access. In the analyser room, the individual
instruments and apparatus must be arranged with an emphasis on clarity and easy
accessibility, so that rational operation and maintenance of the measuring equipment
is ensured.
-47-
13 9
A
10
14
1 18
8
Calibration Operation
16
3 4 12
2
7
6 17
15
Blow-out Operation
1 Gas sampling probe

2 If necessary: Blow-out device for outside of coarse filter)
3 Heated sample gas pipe
4 If necessary: Heated magnetic valve for blow-out device inside the filter
5 Sample gas cooler
6 Condensate pump
7 Suction pressure measurement (Manometer or pressure transmitter)
8 Sample gas pump
9 Fine filter with humidity monitoring
10 Changeover valve Operation/ Calibration (Manual actuation)
12 Control valves with floating body flow monitoring
13 Gas analyzers
14 Exit of superfluous sample gas
15 Condensate discharge
16 Calibrating gas
17 Cabinet air conditioning with suction filter
18 Cabinet
Fig. 12 Complete gas preparation

"HOLDERBANK"
-48-
7.8 Space requirement
For the analysers and sample gas preparation apparatus, a double 19 equipment
cabinet with one field respectively for the gas preparation apparatus and analysers is
normally sufficient. However, other equipment is often installed in this clean, air-
conditioned analyser room. In such cases, it must be ensured that sufficient room is
provided to enable maintenance personnel to move freely and that there is adequate
room for material (e.g. test gas bottles, tools, etc.) and additional space.
7.9 Location
In principle, the analyser room should be located as close as possible to the

measuring point. This aspect is particularly important for CO monitoring, where fast
indication is necessary. Unheated sample gas pipes must be laid descending to the
sample gas cooler. It is therefore advantageous when the analyser room is located
one floor below the sampling point.
If space is available at a suitable location that is not exposed to excessive dust, heat
radiation and noise, a switchgear cabinet is sufficient for accommodating the
measuring equipment. A separate, closed room is unnecessary under such
conditions. The volume to be air-conditioned can be considerably reduced as a
result.
7.10 Climatic conditions
The temperature in the analyser room or cabinet should be able to be regulated

between 15 and 25C. For this purpose, heating and ventilation is necessary; a
cooling unit must be provided to counteract heat radiation. The ventilation fans must
be provided with efficient dust filters. All filters produced during gas analysis must be
discharged to the atmosphere.
-49-
8. ANALYSERS
The determination of individual components in the sample gas is based on various

physical basic principles, such as:
Light absorption
Paramagnetism
Flame ionisation and
Solid-state electrolytic systems
All newer analysers process the analogue signals output by the sensors digitally.
Digitalisation has provided the following advantages:
Increased operating convenience (menu guidance)

Multi-channel technology
Automatic adjustment
More compact design
Increased stability
Remote monitoring and control via modem and/or data bus
The internal functions of the analysers will not be dealt with here. Sufficient information
in this respect is provided in the manufacturers documents and technical literature.
Important for practical application is knowing how to use the various measuring methods
effectively.
The manufacturer plays a secondary role in analyser selection from a qualitative point of
view. Measuring equipment faults are rarely attributed to faulty analysers. It goes
without saying that only types designed for industrial purposes are suitable for use in
cement works and certainly no laboratory equipment. Suitability for industrial purposes
means, for example:
Solid, totally enclosed housing (degree of protection IP 65 or IP 54)

Insensitivity to vibrations
Minimum temperature application range 15 to 35C
Insensitivity to system disturbances
Isolated (floating) output signals
The majority of established manufacturers are in a position to meet these specifications.

Service and spare parts availability are therefore more important than the purchase
price. If measuring equipment is already available and the above criteria are met, there
is no reason to change manufacturers when purchasing new equipment or additions.
-50-
8.1 Infrared absorption
With the exception of oxygen, the majority of interesting gas components can be
measured by infrared absorption. Available are analysers for extractive and in-situ
application. In the main, infrared is used for the extractive method. The following
advantages are offered by these NDIR (non-dispersive infrared) analysers:
Broad application spectrum

Relatively simple method, favourable price
Robustness
Low wear, long useful life
Good stability
The not particularly high sensitivity of the NDIR analysers does not normally pose a
problem in the cement industry. The smallest measuring range, e.g. for CO is about
100ppm, for NO about 500ppm and for CO2 about 20 %. Cross-sensitivities to water
vapour and CO2 are present. Water vapour as a disturbing component plays a
secondary role when the gases in the sample gas cooler are dried with sufficient
stability. The cross-sensitivity of CO2 is usually within the tolerance when
compensated in the analyser. The influence can be further reduced when an amount
of CO2 corresponding to the average value of the sample gas is mixed with the test
gas. As the CO2 content in the cement process is extremely high, unestablished
analysers should be tested in this respect prior to their use.
The most well known manufacturers today produce multi-channel NDIR analysers,
enabling the prices per measured component to be distinctly reduced. The majority
of manufacturers also offer analysers in different quality classes (low-cost analysers).
As a rule, the low-cost analysers are not temperature-stabilised, but temperature-
compensated and are therefore not as stable as the analysers at the top end of the
price scale. However, if external fluctuations are kept to a minimum, the
temperature-compensated analysers meet the requirements in the majority of cases.
8.1.1 Space case, sulphur dioxide (SO2)
In principle, NDIR analysers are suitable for the measurement of SO2. However,
tests on kiln systems with cyclone preheaters have shown that insufficient SO2 is
measured with extractive sample gas sampling and preparation (in accordance with
DIN 2462, page 4). The magnitude of the deficiency can vary considerably and can
therefore not be calibrated. These measuring errors are attributed to chemical
reactions of the SO2 with NH3 (ammonia) in the sample gas cooler (see chapter
11.2). The following options are available to eliminate these errors:
Acidification of the condensate by addition of phosphoric acid in the sample gas

cooler (TV) tested method developed by and available from Hartmann & Braun).
Use of a hot analyser (measurement with moist sample gas).
In-situ measuring method

-51-
With the addition of about 8 to 12ml phosphoric acid (5%) in the sample gas cooler,
the pH of the condensate reduces to a value below 1.5. The reaction of the SO2 with
ammonia is accordingly prevented.
It is obvious that hot analysers, whose entire measuring system must function at
temperatures between 150C and 250C, are more susceptible than cold analysers.
According to experience, the heated sample gas pump causes the greatest
problems.
With in-situ measuring instruments, no distortion through chemical reaction is

noticeable. As part of comparative tests, they showed to be more reliable than
measuring instruments with extractive sampling and sample gas cooler. However,
absolute measured values in mg/Nm3 are initially available after calibration using a
reference measuring procedure. In addition, if dry standard values are required, the
correction must be corrected with the moisture and temperature of the sample gas.
8.2 Ultra-violet absorption
The difference of the NDUV analysers compared with NDIR is mainly that they are
less cross-sensitive to water vapour and CO2 and higher sensitivities can be
achieved. In the cement industry, NDUV analysers were initially used for the
measurement of NO components. Meanwhile, the less expensive NDIR analysers
are being more widely used for NO and have proved reliable.
8.3 Paramagnetism
Oxygen does not have a usable spectrum either in IR or UV light. In future, laser
analysers /chapter 8.6.3) will be the first to be able to measure oxygen with light in
addition to other components. The paramagnetic properties of oxygen (oxygen
molecules are strongly attracted in a magnetic field) are still used for oxygen
measurement, however with a declining trend. In practice, two methods are widely
used:
The magnetic torsion balance
Thermomagnetic oxygen measurement
8.3.1 Oxygen analysers
In recent years, analysers operating on the torsion balance or also dumb bell
principle have become increasingly popular.
The measuring effect is based solely on the magnetic forces of the oxygen molecule
and is therefore comparatively less cross-sensitive to other gas components.
However, the measuring chamber reacts sensitively to dirt and condensate.
-52-
The paramagnetism of oxygen reduces with increasing temperature. This

thermomagnetic effect is used in so-called annual chamber or hot wire analysers for
O2 measurement. The advantage of these analysers is that the measuring chambers
contain no sensitive internals, so that they are less sensitive to dirt and are also
easier to clean than analysers that operate on the torsion balance principle.
However, the measuring method is cross-sensitive to other gases and only functions
accurately with a known or more constant accompanying gas composition.
8.4 Flame ionisation (FID)
This measuring method is used for measurement of the volatile content of unburnt
hydrocarbons (VOC) (Volatile Organic Compounds). Organic carbon compounds
contained in the sample gas are ionised in a hydrogen flame. The ion quantity is
almost proportional to the number of carbon atoms involved in combustion. The ionic
voltage is detected with the aid of an electrode and brought to indication via a high-
resistance amplifier. Propane gas in nitrogen is normally used for calibration
purposes.
Continuous measurements with the flame ionisation detector (FID) are increasingly
prescribed, as soon as alternative fuels are burned. FID analysers are unfortunately
susceptible to faults and require considerable maintenance by suitably trained
personnel.
The entire sample gas preparation system must not fall at any point below the
sample gas temperature, i.e. the sampler, sample gas pipe and pump must be
heated. The temperature in the ionisation chamber of the FID analyser is normally
about 200C.
Modern multi-component systems such as OPSIS are capable of measuring the

majority of interesting VOC compounds as individual components. Programs for
direct measurement of the volatile hydrocarbons (VOC) have also been developed.
Initial tests have shown almost one hundred per cent correlation with FID values.
This means that in countries where non-explicit FID measurements are required, an
OPSIS or perhaps also some other type of multi-component analyser will preferably
be used at a later time.
8.5 Solid-state electrolytic systems
8.5.1 Zirconium dioxide
Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) has the characteristic of building up a differential voltage at

varying partial pressures and temperatures between 500 and 1000C due to the flow
of oxygen ions. This effect is used for the purpose of oxygen measurement by
exposing both sides of a ZrO2 membrane heated to about 800C to varying oxygen
concentrations (sample gas and reference gas). The supplied voltage is tapped and
measured on the two surfaces of the membrane with thin, porous platinum
electrodes. The measured potential difference increases exponentially with the
oxygen concentration difference. To be noted is that the indicated measured values
are based on gas in a moist condition.
-53-
In addition to the advantageous zirconium dioxide based in-situ measuring

instruments, there are also extractive types that are hardly worth mentioning.
8.5.2 Other electrochemical measuring methods
Electrochemical measuring cells (EC cells) have the characteristic of supplying a

voltage in the presence of certain components proportional to the concentration. As
they are small and lightweight and require only a small number of peripheral devices,
they are used mainly for portable measuring equipment (e.g. flue gas controls),
although they had proved unsuitable for use in the cement industry in the past.
However, in recent years, suitable EC cells have been developed that offer
advantages mainly for oxygen measurement. The oxygen sensor may not be used
when the accompanying gas contains H2S, chlorine or fluorine containing
compounds, as well as heavy metals and aerosols. The guaranteed useful life is
three years. The many years of good experience prompted the majority of
manufacturers to complement the NDIR analysers with EC cells for oxygen
measurement.
8.6 Multi-component measuring systems
Development in the field of analysis has witnessed significant advances. Thanks to

modern microprocessor technology, large computer capacities and high speeds,
measuring methods are employed that enable disturbing secondary effects to be
compensated by calculation and new techniques to be used, for example:
Gas filter correlation technique (GFC)
Fastfourier transformation technique (FTIR, FTUV) Differential Optical Absorption

Spectroscopy (DOAS)
Laser Diode Spectrometer (LDS), etc.
Without going into details about the individual techniques, the following points are of
importance:
> Multi-component analysers are less expensive for simple measuring tasks with
more than one component than individual analysers in all respects.
> When using alternative fuels, the necessity may arise that new, particularly critical
pollutant components have to be measured. This aspect justifies the use of
flexible, programmable measuring instruments.
The suitability of multi-component measuring instruments in the cement industry has

been demonstrated by many years of reliable use. In the following, three instruments
will be presented that have proved reliable and are state of the art. These are both
extractive and in-situ measuring instruments.
8.6.1 Sick GM 31
-54-
Sick, Waldkirch (D), is a pioneer of the design and construction of in-situ measuring
systems. The instruments GM 21 for dust, and later, the GM 30 for NO SO2 and
dust, have been used successfully for more than ten years. The successor
instrument, GM 31, differs considerably from its predecessors in two ways:
Dust can no longer be measured with this instrument.
The flanged design as a so-called lance instrument does not measure the whole
channel cross-section.
The GM 31 is designed for the components SO2, NO, NH3 and NO. A maximum of
three of these components can also be measured simultaneously. Despite the lack
of the benefit of dust measurement, the GM 31 is a low-cost emission measuring
instrument, which complemented with a dust measuring instrument for systems not
subject to particular requirements, meets all specific requirements.
8.6.2 OPSIS AR 620; ER 650
Within the Opsis measuring system, a light beam is projected on to a receiver and
then passed through a glass fibre cable to the Opsis analyser.
In emission measurement, the light beam or measuring path continues through the
interior of a stack or exhaust gas duct. Every gas absorbs light in known spectral
regions of the total light spectrum, in a manner that is characteristic of the respective
gas. This enables the analyser to detect and measure gases defined by the user.
The results can be indicated in real-time or used for statistical and further processing
purposes.
Opsis uses a scientifically researched principle for the identification and

measurement of concentrations of various gases: Differential optical absorption
spectroscopy (DOAS) which is based on the Lambert-Beer Law. It describes the
correlation between the absorbed quantity of light and the number of molecules in
the light path..
-55-
As every gas has its own unmistakable absorption spectrum, the so-called finger
print, the concentrations of several different gases can be determined
simultaneously in the light path. With the DOAS method, a light beam is sent from a
special light source - a Xenon high-pressure lamp - over a specific path; by means of
complex, computer-aided calculations, the light losses through molecular absorption
along the path are evaluated and analysed. The light of the Xenon lamp contains
both the visible spectrum as well as the ultra-violet and infrared wavelengths. The
light is detected by a receiver and passed on via a fibre optic cable to the analyser.
This fibre optic cable makes it possible to install the analyser at a sufficient distance
from any harmful environmental influences at the measuring point.
The analyser consists, among other things, of a high-performance spectrometer, a
computer and the associated control unit. The spectrometer breaks down the light
with the aid of an optical grid in narrow wavelength bands. This optical grid can be
adjusted for examining an optimal wavelength region.
The light is converted into electrical signals. A narrow slot moves at high speed
across the detector; this combines a large number of instantaneous values that
provide an image of the spectrum in the relevant wavelength region This scanning
procedure is repeated a hundred times per second; the recorded spectrums are
added up in the multi-channel memory of the evaluation unit until their evaluation.
Evaluation is carried out individually for each wavelength region and is based on the
comparison of absorption curves. The respectively last recorded absorption
spectrum is compared with a computer calculated spectrum. The calculated
spectrum consists of a summation of the reference spectrums for the respective
evaluation. The computer alters the size factors for each reference spectrum until
optimal correspondence is achieved, so that the various gas concentrations can be
calculated with high accuracy.
In order to be able to measure a diverse range of gas components as possible, the

light spectrums must be divided into IR and UV. Measurement is similarly divided
into a UV spectrometer and an IR interferometer. Depending on the components to
be measured, both or one of the two instruments is used. Both instruments are
usually necessary for comprehensive measurement of cement kiln exhaust gases.
The system is approved as a recognised emission measuring instrument worldwide.
For calibration: In principle, each component must be calibrated at last once (as part
of the commissioning procedure). This takes place either via a convention method or
by inserting cuvettes circulated by test gas in the light path. In this simple way, the
work involved in the normally usual convention method is avoided. In two works of
the ChB, these measuring instruments have proved highly reliable and may be
referred to as standard-setting technology.
8.6.3 LDS 3000 diode laser of AltOptronic (Sweden)
The design is basically comparable with OPSIS. However, as a light source, a

semiconductor laser is used. The LDS 3000 enables measurements to also be
carried out in aggressive atmospheres with a high dust content; this takes place in a
way that the special features of the diode laser are utilised in conjunction with a
patented signal evaluation method. The instrument can distinguish whether a
change in transmission is due to dust or a change in the gases to be measured.
-56-
The LDS 300 can be used for measurements in atmospheres with a varying dust
content up to 50g/m3, depending on the size of the dust particles.
The light spectrum of the semiconductor laser can be adjusted to the absorption lines
of the gas component to be measured via temperature and current. This ensures
that measurement can only take place on a selected absorption line of the respective
gas. The absorption lines of the remaining gas components are on other
wavelengths and do not influence measurement.
In the three years in which the LDS has been used, continuous tests were carried out
in order to determine the stability of the system. It emerged that no recalibration of
either the zero or measuring range were necessary.
The diode laser is located in the main unit, from where the laser beam is passed via
an optical fibre to the sensors at the measuring points. The distance between the
instrument and the measuring point can be up to 1000m. In the main unit, the laser
beam is scattered in an optical distributor and so enables simultaneous
measurements on three different process measuring levels.
The short measuring time of the LDS 3000 provides direct information (t90<1 sec).
This is made possible by in-situ measurement, the high efficiency of the diode laser
and appropriate signal evaluation. The short resonance time depends on the
number of measuring points, as the laser light is scattered in a fibre-optic distributor
and passed on to all measuring points simultaneously. Each measuring point can
therefore function independently of the other measuring channels.
Thanks to its unusually short reaction time, this measuring system was to be able to
considerably improve the CO monitoring of electrostatic filters. Measurement directly
following WT would perhaps be possible, since the manufacturer mentions that up to
50g/m3 dust has no influence. Unfortunately, the measuring distance this value
applies to is unavailable.
The following gases can be measured at the present time:
Gas ppm, at 1m mg/m3, at 1m

NH3 0.6 0.4
O2 200 260
H2O/NH3 200/1 150/0.7
H2O 0.3 0.2
HCl 0.3 0.4
HF 0.3 0.4
Also other gas components can be measured on request.
The LDS 300 is one of the first laser analysers to appear on the market. At present,
the price is (still) relatively high. Development is absolutely in line with the trend and
could also be used advantageously in the cement industry in the near future.
-57-
8.6.4 Advance Cemas FTRI of Hartmann & Braun
Development has also continued with extractive measuring instruments. Hartmann

and Braun builds in addition to the maximum four-component measuring NDIR
systems a modern FTIR (Fastfourier Transformation Infrared) spectrometer, which
has identical functions to those of the OPSIS, but is designed as an extractive
measuring instrument. It offers high selectivity as well as easy upgrading to
additional infrared components. Based on the measuring principle and automatic
zero correction, calibration is only necessary twice a year to maintain the smallest
measuring ranges. All parts coming into contact with the sample gas: Sampling
system, sample gas preparation system and measuring cuvette are heated to 100C.
The instrument features a self-diagnosis system and, as with all modern instruments
of this type, can be monitored by H & B Service and faults diagnosed via an
integrated modem.
A German cement works has had good experience over a two-year operating period.
The instrument is overhauled twice a year as part of a maintenance contract. The
weak point, the hot gas pump, is changed each time or the diaphragms replaced as a
precautionary measure.
-58-
9. RECORDING AND EVALUATION
Following the measured values on the basis of recording strip charts is advantageous
for the general assessment of a process sequence. In the area of emissions, the
majority of countries require that measured values are prepared according to certain,
adapted criteria; hourly and daily average value, criteria relating to the observance or
non-observance of limiting values, etc. In such cases, digital processing of the
measured values is unavoidable.
9.1 Trend curves, recorders
For the purpose of clarity, not too many components should be recorded
simultaneously. Strongly varying signals must be appropriately dampened. Monitors
or line recorders are better suited for this purpose than dotted-line recorders. Scaling
should correspond with the actual physical values. This applies particularly to life-
zero signals. For strip chart recorders, a paper feed rate of 20mm/h is standard.
9.2 Averaging computers
When lump fuel (e.g. tyres) is fed into the precalcining zone, the measured values at
the kiln inlet are subject to extreme fluctuations. Without damping of averaging, the
signals are difficult to interpret. It has emerged that sliding, linear averaging is easier
to interpret than logarithmic damping, as individual values are less important in linear
averaging. The more favourable intervals for optimal averaging are between 10 and
15 minutes. Figures 13 and 14 show the behaviour of the signals of a 1500-7/d kiln
with tyre feed without averaging and with various averaging times.
-59-
O2 [%] O2 Direct recording
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
O2 Floating mean value 10 minutes
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
O2 Floating mean value 15 minutes
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-60-
CO [ppm] Direct recording (every 5 sec)
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
CO Floating mean value 10 minutes
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
CO Floating mean value 15 minutes
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
-61-
9.3 Data logging
The interpretation of measured signals on the basis of trend curves is too

rudimentary for sophisticated tasks. Visual comparisons of such curves easily lead
to misinterpretations. In connection with optimisations or in the search for faults in
the process, the signals from gas analysis must be processed with other measured
quantities from the system in the PC. A precondition for this is that the data can be
digitally acquired, logged and input into the PC. In plants with modern process
control systems, this precondition is usually met. Where this is not the case or as
part of temporary measurements, independent data logging systems should be used
for data recording purposes.
9.4 Emission computers
The form of documentation of the measured emissions is prescribed in more and

more countries. In Europe, there are plants whose emission computers are
connected via a data line to the authorities concerned. The emission computers are
normally designed for documentation of the following values:
Half-hourly average values

Hourly average values
Daily average values
Exceeded limiting values
Emission computers primarily meet the officially prescribed evaluation and

documentation of emission values. As the emission data also contains valuable
process-relevant information, they are also useful for the operator. Depending on the
regulations of the country concerned, the valuation of emission values can be taken
over from internal process control systems.
-62-
10. MAINTENANCE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE
Reliable continuous operation of continuous gas analysis is dependent not only on

the efficient design of the measuring equipment, but also on systematic maintenance
and repair. The maintenance work to be carried out can be subdivided into the
following categories.
Condition check
Adjustment check, cleaning
Replacement of wearing parts
Function test
-63-
Table 4 shows the maintenance intervals of a typical gas analyser. Maintenance

must be carried out daily (D), weekly (W), monthly (M), quarter yearly (QY), half
yearly (HY) or yearly (Y). The time cycle of the individual working procedures
depends on the system-specific conditions and essentially on the age of the
measuring equipment. The work undertaken is noted in a logbook for practical
purposes.
Function test
Replacement of worn parts
Adjustements, checks, cleaning works
Visual checks
Sample gas preparation:
Flow measurement (floating body instrument) D W

Suction pressure (Manometer) D M
Humidity in the sample gas pipes D
Function check of the wetness monitor HY
Heated sample gas pipe temperature HY
Sample gas cooler condensate pump D HY Y
Sample gas pump check and replace membrane Y Y
Tightness check QY
Cabinet air conditioning D Y
Magnetic valves, function and tightness check HY Y
Cabinet cleaning QY
Probes:
Tightness check QY
Cooling D QY
Filter change HY
Cleaning HY
Analyzers:
Indication plausibility D
Adjustment W
Filter change QY
Total overhaul 3Y
Table 4 Maintenance intervals

-64-
The operating conditions and type of construction of the equipment used varies
considerably. Instructions for maintenance and repairs must be adapted to local
conditions and defined according to individual experience.
10.1 Visual checks
The term visual check includes visual inspection of the equipment, indicating
instruments, signal states and checking heated parts for a hot or cold condition by
trained and experienced personnel.
10.2 Adjustment checks, cleaning
This category includes adjustments, readjustments, etc., of conditions which can

change for different reasons.
10.2.1 Tightness checks
Vacuum check
The hose connections at the probe are sealed and the sample gas pump is
started. The maximum vacuum which the pump can produce must be noted when
commissioning the measuring equipment. At maximum vacuum, the part of the
pump is closed and the pump stopped. The sample gas preparation system up to
the sample gas pump (suction area) is considered tight when the vacuum does
not change significantly for a period of 5 minutes following temperature
equalisation.
Nitrogen check
See Chapter 7.7
10.3 Replacement of wearing parts
When replacing parts, it must be ensured that no leaks occur. According to

experience, weak points in this respect are filter housings and connecting points in
the sample gas pipe. Suitable sealing material must be available at all times, so that
any type of seal, union, etc., can be replaced if there is the slightest suspicion of a
leak.
10.3.1 Sample gas pump
The sample gas pumps are usually diaphragm pumps, whose diaphragm and
valve plates should be replaced at least once a year.
The ball bearings of the motor and eccentric should be replaced every two years
in continuous operation. Standby sample gas pumps should be available.
-65-
10.3.2 Cleaning sintered metal and ceramic filters
Ceramic filters can be cleaned with diluted hydrochloric acid (1 part concentrated
hydrochloric acid to 10 parts water). The filters must be placed in the acid for
about 2 hours.
The parts must subsequently be flushed with water pressure from the inside to the
outside, blown out with compressed air and dried in a drying cabinet at about
100C.
10.3.3 Fine filters
The filter element should be replaced at regular intervals, e.g. every three months.
Fine filters with condensate monitor are tested by moistening the filter element.
The instrument must then respond.
10.3.4 Gas analysers
The gas analysers are tested with test gases or by means of the built-in calibrating
cuvettes and readjusted if necessary. For testing with gases, it must be ensured
that the flow rate roughly corresponds with the operating values. When selecting
the test gases, the specifications of the instrument manufacturer must be
observed. The gas analysers should be adjusted at regular intervals, at least
every two weeks. Adjustments must be noted in the maintenance report. If
significant adjustments are required, or the adjustment range limits (greater than
80% or less than 20%) are reached, the instrument must be tested and inspected
if necessary.
Wearing parts are, e.g. emitter, receiver, diaphragm motor.
For zero readjustment, nitrogen is normally used. With the exception of oxygen
measurement, air can also be used as a zero gas if the analysers are not too
sensitive.
For sensitivity adjustment, a test gas is used that normally consists of the
measuring components and nitrogen. For compensation of the residual moisture,
it is advantageous to feed the test gas upstream of the sample gas cooler. The
test gas concentration for sensitivity adjustment should be 80 to 90% of the
respective measuring range end value.
10.4 Function test
This term means that certain functions gas analysis are extensively tested, e.g. to
ensure that the detector in the fine filter responds if moisture is present and the
sample gas pump is stopped.
-66-
10.5 Test gases
As initially mentioned, new gas analysers no longer require any test gases. The
internal calibrating and control options ensure that the accuracy is maintained over a
long period (normally two years). After this time, the analysers should be tested by
the manufacturers service department and in particular the internal control devices
(calibrating cuvettes) checked. Test gases are available in various accuracy classes
according to particular directives, e.g. VDI 3490, sheet 2. Depending on the
manufacturing and analysis accuracy, distinction is made between three classes.
The test gases are delivered with analysis certificates that contain all essential data,
such as:
Measuring component and accompanying gas
Test gas production method
Measuring component concentration
Relative error of this concentration
Pressure of container filling
Minimum application pressure
Minimum and maximum storage temperature and maximum test gas storage time
(limit date)
The concentration specified on the analysis certificate should be written in large and
easily readable letters on the test gas bottle.
The test gases are available in bottles of varying size. A 10 litre bottle (about
1100mm high, preferably of aluminium) is normally sufficient for a two-year supply.
The bottle pressure is between 100 and 200 bar, depending on the gas composition.
The main valve must be closed after each use. Test gas deliveries may take time in
certain regions; this should be taken into account when the bottle pressure starts to
get low.
10.5.1 Mixing test gases
Certain gas components can be combined as a mixture in a bottle. This possibility

considerably facilitates maintenance (fewer bottle transports and savings on gas
bottle hire charges). Caution! New multi-component gas analysers must only be
tested with gas mixtures but not calibrated. Only individual components in
nitrogen are permitted for calibration.
With one exception, all standard components can be mixed together. This
exception applies to oxygen O2.
With oxygen analysers, the measuring range should be such that air can be used
for calibration. Nitrogen must always be used as a residual gas.
Example of a test gas mixture:
Component Chemical Analyser measuring range Concentration in

symbol test gas
-67-
Sulphur dioxide SO2 3000ppm 2800ppm

Carbon monoxide CO 5% 0.45%
Nitrogen monoxide NO 2000ppm 1900ppm
Carbon dioxide CO2 as accompanying gas 25%
Nitrogen N2 as residual component 74.08%
The accuracy of the test gases reduces the more components are mixed. The
number of mixing components is thus limited.
Further, general information on test gases is provided in the annexed instructions.
10.6 Fault signals
Faults in the measuring instrument should be indicated by status signals, e.g.:
Insufficient pressure in the suction pipe (blockage of the probe or gas path)
Excessive pressure in the suction pipe (possible failure or leakage of a solenoid
valve)
Status signals of the analysers (failure of the analyser or electrical fault)
Operating temperature of the sample gas cooler or failure of the sample gas
cooler
Operation of the condensate monitor (can indicate failure of the sample gas cooler
or faulty water-cooled probe
Adjustment/operation changeover valve should automatically inform the control
room that the measuring equipment is being serviced and is therefore not ready
for operation
Minimum contact of flowmeter (insufficient sample gas)
Status signals for measuring equipment faults are checked for their plausibility by
simulated operating deviations.
10.7 Automated maintenance equipment
Theoretically, numerous maintenance procedures can be automated, e.g. automatic

zero and limit range adjustment, sample gas flow rate control, blowing out of the
filter, etc. However, sample gases are media that can give rise to various difficulties.
They have a corrosive effect, contain dust, must not be adulterated, can be very
moist, etc., to mention but a few of the unpleasant characteristics that make
automation difficult.
Practice shows time and again that solenoid valves are the weak point within
measuring equipment, so that only valves of the best quality must be used for
evaluation. The number of necessary solenoid valves increases with an increasing
degree of automation; due to their susceptibility to faults, the failure rate also
increases, so that the savings expected from automation are accordingly lost.
The same applies when a group of analysers is switched to two or more measuring
points with the intention of saving on expensive analysers. Apart from the operating
difficulties, experience has shown time and again that the saved investment costs
are quickly absorbed by the corresponding maintenance costs.
-68-
11. MEASURING ERRORS
The accuracy of gas analysers is often overestimated. The reason for gas analyses
being relatively inaccurate is not because of the analysers, as is often assumed. The
following examples explain the most important influences responsible for this.
11.1 Sample gas sampling
Significant measuring errors can occur as a result of non-representative sampling. In

rotary kiln systems, these occur particularly at the rotary kiln inlet and kiln inlet
chamber measuring points. These measuring errors occur mainly at the filter
measuring points in coal pulverising mills.
11.2 Sample gas preparation
11.2.1 Sorption and chemical reaction
In the probe and sample gas preparation system, sample gas components can
react with each other. These reactions are reinforced by catalytic effects.
Furthermore, reactions with dust or gas conducting components are possible.
11.2.2 CO reduction
At high temperatures (above 600C), CO is reduced to a large degree depending

on the residence time. This effect is the reason why only cooled probes may be
used at temperatures above 500C.
11.2.3 NO2 formation in the probe and sample gas preparation system
At temperatures of about 100C and a concentration of 900ppm NO, the

theoretical formation rate of NO2 is about 0.5ppm per second.
At lower temperatures and high gas residence times, this formation takes place
more rapidly. The indication delay of the NO measuring equipment should
therefore be as short as possible.
11.2.4 SO2 reduction in the probe and sample gas pipe
Rust, dust deposits, non-ferrous metal parts (especially copper) in the gas path of
the sample gas can reduce SO2 up to 100%. For the sample gas pipes and all
other gas conducting parts, Teflon, high-alloyed steel or steel with special coating
(e.g. PTFE) must therefore be used.
-69-
11.2.5 SO2 reduction of the filter dust of the sampling probe
SO2 reacts with the CaCO3 and CaO contained in the filter dust of the sampling
probe with the formation of CaSO4. With high dust contents in the process gas,
measuring errors of up to 100% can occur. SO2 can therefore only be measured
fairly accurately process gas with a low dust content. This applies in particular to
SO2 measurements in the rotary kiln inlet. Tests have shown that SO2 is initially
indicated only a short time after cleaning the filter. Within several minutes, the
indication falls to zero again, because the SO2 is absorbed in the dust building up
in the filter.
11.2.6 Interaction with a liquid
Errors due to the solubility of the measuring component
The solubility of certain measuring components in water must be taken into

account for wet sampling probes. If the injector water of the wet sampling probe is
not fed into the circuit, CO2, NO2 and SO2 can go into solution, depending on the
probe design.
Condensation of the water vapour which is separated as water in the sample gas
cooler by the extractive method, can also distort gas analysis. This is of particular
significance for SO2 emission measurement when low concentrations are present.
The theoretical solubility of SO2 in water is low and could be compensated by
appropriate calibration. However, tests on cement kiln systems in a direct
operating mode have shown that measuring errors for SO2 are far above the
theoretical distribution equilibrium when SO2 reacts with other gas components
such as NH3. An SO2 measuring device can be tested for these errors by the
sample gas being transferred from the sampling probe directly into concentrated
sulphuric acid (H2SO4) as the drying medium and not via the sample gas cooler. If
distinct differences in the measured value indication occur, a chemical reaction is
most probably taking place in the sample gas cooler.
Apart from SO2, NO2 also dissolves in the condensate of the sample gas cooler.
However, since the proportion of NO2 in the total NO concentration can be
disregarded with proper sampling, the resulting measuring error can normally be
disregarded.
11.3 Volumetric errors due to the solubility of accompanying components
If accompanying components, e.g. CO2 go into solution, the concentration of the

other measuring components increases. The partial absorption of CO2 in an injector
probe, increases, e.g. the O2 concentration.
11.4 Gas analysers
The accuracy of the gas analysers, provided they are in a perfect condition, is not an
issue. If a gas analyser is viewed as a whole, the analyser is the most accurate link
in the measuring chain, with a few exceptions. The analyser manufacturers
-70-
specifications relating to cross-sensitivities, disturbing components as well as

temperature and pressure influences must be observed.
-71-
12. SPECIAL FUNCTIONS OF GAS ANALYSIS
12.1 CO monitoring for protection of electrostatic filter
If, for any reason, combustible gases should develop (ring fractures, faults in fuel
dosage, etc.), in the kiln system, there is a risk of a potentially explosive mixture
forming in the electrostatic filter. High-voltage discharges inside the filter cause
sparks, which can lead to explosions in a gas atmosphere of appropriate
composition.
As a safety measure, the CO component of the gas discharging from the kiln system
is measured. Once a certain level is reached, the high-voltage should be switched
off before the gases reach the electrostatic filter. Measurement can initially take
place in precalcining plants following complete combustion in the auxiliary firing
equipment, i.e. in the uppermost cyclone stage of the heat exchanger at the earliest.
The residence time of the gases from this point to the electrostatic filter is relatively
short (several seconds) and varies considerably from plant to plant (with or without
cooling tower, combined/direct operation, etc.).
Filter monitors, whose effect alone depends on an adjustable maximum value,

reassure responsible personnel, however, they are not optimal solutions. On the one
hand, unnecessary filter shutdowns are initiated, on the other hand, it is not ensured
that they would operate promptly in an emergency. A tried and tested possibility of
optimising this process is offered by sequential filter shutdown.
12.1.1 Basic concept of filter shutdown
Compared with the usual method, filter shutdown is optimised in two essential
steps. The first step consists of shutting down the filter chambers step by step.
The second step consists of taking into account a reducing or increasing CO
trend.
The residence time of the gases in the electrostatic filter itself is used in order to
further delay shutdown. The filter chambers are shutdown at approximately five
second intervals, depending on the size and gas flow rate. However, as soon as
CO measurement indicates a reducing trend, the shutdown cycle is stopped.
12.1.2 Optimisation of CO measurement
The following measures must be taken in order to make CO measurement as

efficient as possible:
Short distance between sampling point and analyser
Large sample gas volume (up to 300l/h setting; short delay time)
Small volumes in gas path, particularly in sample gas cooler
Select analyser with fast response time
Use double measuring system for two-section WT systems

-72-
Formation of logical signals CO increasing and CO reducing
12.1.3 Specifications
Selection of measuring point according to Figure 1
Gas preparation system appropriately adapted according to Figure 12
NDIR gas analyser, measuring range 0 to 5%, CO with 3 adjustable maximum

limiting values
Arrangement of a shutdown procedure
With regard to the CO analyser, it should be noted that the same must have a
high measuring range for CO monitoring. It cannot be used simultaneously for
continuous CO observation, as the normal CO content is below the detection limit
of this analyser. If CO is to be continuously measured, a second analyser with a
much lower measuring range of 5000ppm (0.5%) must be used.
12.1.4 Shutdown procedure
The procedure for shutdown of the individual filter chambers is shown on the basis
of two examples in Tables 5 and 6. The specified numerical values of the
shutdown sequences and the CO level are only guide values and must be
adjusted to the respective plants.
For CO values below 10%, a risk of explosion is virtually excluded. However, the
threshold values must be set far lower, as the measurement reacts with delays
despite optimal preconditions (dead time + indication delay).
-73-
Time- CO - Analyzer Trend Alarm- Filter chamber Fuel

point switching threshold Stage
Sec. 0,8% 1,5% 4,8% 1 2 3
X 0 0 0 +- 0 1 1 1 1
X 1 0 0 +- 1 1 1 1 1
5 1 1 0 + 2 0 1 1 1
10 1 1 0 - 1 1 1 1 1
10 1 1 0 + 3 0 0 1 1
10 1 1 1 + 5 0 0 0 0
15 1 1 0 - 1 1 1 1 1*
15 1 1 0 + 4 0 0 0 1
15 1 1 1 + 5 0 0 0 0
1 = "On" * Check the purging time befor switching

0 = "Off" the filter on again
Table 5 Switching procedure, for a simple heat exchanger kiln with 3-chamber filter
Time- CO - Analyzer 1 CO - Analyzer 1 Trend Alarm- Filter chamber Fuel

point switch. threshold switch. threshold Stage
Sec. 0,8% 1,5% 4,8% 0,8% 1,5% 4,8% 1 2 1 2 3
X 0 0 0 0 0 0 +- +- 0 1 1 1 1
X 1 0 0 0 0 0 +- +- 1 1 1 1 1
X 1 0 0 1 0 0 +- +- 1 1 1 1 1
X 1 1 0 1 0 0 +- +- 1 1 1 1 1
5 1 1 0 1 1 0 + + 2 0 1 1 1
5 1 1 0 1 1 0 - - 1 1 1 1 1
5 1 1 1 1 1 1 + - 2 0 1 1 1
5 1 1 1 1 1 0 + + 3 0 0 1 1
10 1 1 0 1 1 0 - - 1 1 1 1 1
10 1 1 0 1 1 0 + + 3 0 0 1 1
10 1 1 1 1 1 1 + + 5 0 0 0 0
10 1 1 0 1 1 0 - - 1 1 1 1 1*
15 1 1 0 1 1 0 + + 4 0 0 0 1
15 1 1 0 1 1 0 - - 1 1 1 1 1
15 1 1 1 1 1 1 + + 5 0 0 0 0
1 = "On" * Check the purging time befor switching

0 = "Off" the filter on again
Table 6 Switch-off pocedure, for a two strings heat exchanger kiln with 3-chamber filter
-74-
12.1.5 Special devices
Sick GM 950
Via an in-situ sensor (zirconium dioxide) CO is measured at a high response rate
and processed to a shutdown command if required. As zirconium is fairly instable
as a CO indicator, extractive supplied semiconductor sensors correct any
deviations.
The device is new and still in the testing phase. The currently available test
results have been positive up to now. The measuring method is relatively
elaborate and the device gives the impression of being somewhat complex.
During the test, no functional disturbance occurred.
12.1.6 Laser analysers
In-situ laser analysers offer promising prospects as already mentioned in chapter

8.6.3. It is conceivable that low-cost options will soon be available, as several
measuring points can be served with the same analyser, e.g. filter monitoring
(upstream and downstream of the filter) and various points in the coal pulverising
mill.
12.2 Monitoring of coal pulverising mills
In the safety concept of coal pulverising mills, the monitoring of critical gas
components covers only a small part of the necessary equipment and measures. In
addition, coal pulverising mills vary considerably in their design, so that the
application and function of gas analysis is always determined as part of the entire
plant.
12.2.1. Limiting values
In 1984, the following limiting values were listed by a working group of the
Association of German Cement Works (VDZ):
O2 content in moist exhaust gas downstream of the filter 14%
Temperature at mill inlet (coal moisture 12%) 400C
Gas temperature downstream of mill upstream of filter 120C
Gas temperature downstream of filter 120C
Gas temperature upstream of filter minimum 30C above dew point about 75C
CO concentrate during filter shutdown 50ppm
Operation with hot gas generator 70ppm
Operation with kiln exhaust gase not practical
Pressure upstream of mill -1.5bar
Coal dust temperature 110C
Air temperature of pneumatic transport 80C
-75-
The limiting value for the oxygen concentration applies only to plants with inert
gas operation. All other limiting values are the same for the safe operation of inert
and non-inert gas operated plants.
For coal pulverising mills heated with kiln exhaust gas, CO monitoring is not
practical during operation, because the gases from kiln operation contain up to 10
times more CO than the limiting value of 70ppm permits.
CO shutdowns of the electrostatic filter for the kiln, must be coupled with the filter
of the coal pulverising mill.
This information on the safety equipment of coal pulverising mills only contains the
most important information and is intended to draw attention to the complexity and
importance of such plants.
13. CONVERSION FACTORS
Conversion of the gas components from volume to units of weight and vice versa, is
often the cause of errors in adjustment or interpretation. Such errors occur most
frequently in connection with NO and NO2. The problem with these NO components
is that the instruments measure NO, but the emission must be converted to NO2.
Furthermore, emissions are considered in weight-related units (mg/m3), but the
instruments and the test gases are often specified in volume-related units (e.g. ppm
or %)
Conversion from [ppm] to mg/m3 Factor f = M

22.4
Whereby M = Mol mass (kg/kmol) of the gas components
Components Converted to Mol mass [M] Factor (f) 1/f

CO CO 28.01 1.25 0.80
NO NO 30.01 1.34 0.75
NO NO2 46.01 2.85 0.49
NH3 NH3 17.03 0.76 1.32
Table 7
Example
Given:
Test gas with 8.75ppm NO
NO analyser, measuring range 0-2000mg/m3NO

-76-
Required:
Analyser indication at 875ppm
How much NO2 in mg/m3 corresponds to the adjusted value 875ppmNO?
Solution:
Analyser indication = 875 x 1.34 = 1172mg/m3 NO
Emission value NO2= 875 x 2.05 = 1794mg/m3 NO2
or from mg/m3 NO to mg/m3 NO2 1172 x 1.53= 1794mg/m3 NO2
Process Technology
H. Nyffenegger
-77-
14. LITERATURE
Verein Deutscher Zementwerke (VDZ) (Association of German Cement Works):

Continuous Gas Analysis in Cement Works, Notice VT9, June 1990
B. Thier: Safe Operation of Coal Pulverising Mills. ZKG 4/1984, page 163
M. Ascherfeld and W. Fabinski Multi-component Analyser for Oxygen and Infrared

Active Gases. tm Technisches Messen 59 (1991) Volume 5
H.G. Loos, Erlangen: A New Operational Compact Gas Sampling Device for Cement
Rotary Kilns. ZKG NO. 6/1987
M. Birrer, H. Nyffenegger: Gas Sampling at the Kiln Inlet with Improved Probe.
Holderbank NEWS 6/90
K. Utzinger: Reduction of Dust Emissions on Startup and CO Shutdowns of the

Electrostatic Filter at the Rekingen Works. Holderbank NEWS 7/8 (1986)
Bronkhurst High-Tech B.V., Ruurlo, Holland: Operating Manual for Mass Flowmeters
and Controllers for Gases
KNF Neuberger (Switzerland) AG, CH 8362 Balterswil: Prospectus and Data Sheet
for Diaphragm Compressors and Vacuum Pumps
Annette Schrck: Preparation of Decision-making Criteria for Plant Operators for

Purchasing an Emission Measuring Instrument. Thesis SS 1992 (available from
Messrs Sick)

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PRACTICAL GAS ANALYSIS

Report No. PT 98/14340/E (substitute for 93/4080/D)

In principle, distinction is to be made between analysers that measure (in-situ) directly in

When choosing analysers, the manufacturing company is not as important as the

Microprocessor technology makes it possible to use well-known and new measuring

Theoretically, maintenance can be reduced by appropriate automation. Adjustment via

7.4.2 Electronic gas volume control........................................................................... 42

10.2 Adjustment checks, cleaning................................................................................. 64

14. LITERATURE .............................................................................................................. 77

Incorrect choice of equipment

Lack of specialised knowledge

Underestimation of expenditure involved (investment and/or maintenance

a: Emission measurements (pollutants, e.g. NO, SO2, CO, etc.).

b: Safety measuring systems (e.g. CO monitoring in filtering plants, monitoring of coal

Accompanying gas: Sample gas without the gas components to be measured.

Calibration: For a given measuring instrument, determination of a valid relationship

Measured quantity: Physical quantity, the numerical value of which is to be determined

On-Line: The measured quantity is coupled directly with the process.

Cross-sensitivity: Influence of the concentration of a disturbing component on the

VOC Volatile Organic Compounds: Volatile organic hydrocarbons.

Maintenance time: Time required for maintenance of the measuring instrument

4.1 In-situ measurement

In-situ measuring methods mainly offer the following advantages:

Sampling forms a path in the measuring channel (as opposed to a point in

Good long-term stability

In-situ measuring methods are used increasingly in modern measuring techniques.

Solid-state electrolytic and

Stabilised zirconium dioxide is a typical solid-state electrolyte with whose properties

Investments in-situ instruments are generally higher compared with extractive

The measured values of in-situ instruments are always based on gas in an

4.2 Extractive measurement

The measuring procedure is subdivided into different stages:

Sample gas sampling

Sample gas supply

Sample gas preparation

Several analysers can be connected to the same sample gas preparation

The positioning of dust and heat-sensitive analysers is more flexible.

The multiple advantages of extractive measuring instruments, compared with in-situ

4.3 Measuring points

Fig. 1 Measuring Points at Cyclone Preheater Kilns

Purpose Components A B C D E F G Remarks

Process Control O2 CO NO CO2 Without Precalcination

Process Control O2 CO NO CO2 With Precalcination

CO-Monitoring O2 CO NO Without Precalcination

CO-Monitoring O2 CO NO With Precalcination

Emissions O2 CO NO Without Precalcination

Emissions O2 CO NO CO2 With Precalcination

Emissions SO2 NO HC etc All Kiln Systems

Suitability: Good Measuring Points: A Kiln Inlet (Probe in rotating Part)

Table 1 Cyclon-preheater Kilns

Fig. 2 Measuring points at the grate preheater kilns

Purpose Components A B C D E F G Remarks

Process control O2 CO NO CO2

Emissions SO2 NO HC etc

Suitability: Good Measuring points: A Kiln inlet (probe in rotating part)

Table 2 Grate preheater kilns

Fig. 3 Measuring points at wet kilns and long dry kilns

Purpose Components A B C D E F G Remarks

Process optimization O2 CO NO CO2

Emissions SO2 NO HC etc

Suitability: Good Measuring points: A Kiln inlet (probe in rotating part)

Table 3 Wet and long dry kilns

5.1 Kiln inlet (measuring point A)