11

The TL Plane
Beam Element:
Formulation

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Chapter 11: THE TL PLANE BEAM ELEMENT: FORMULATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
11.2 Beam Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
11.2.1 Basic Concepts and Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . 113
11.2.2 Beam Mathematical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
11.2.3 Finite Element Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
11.2.4 Shear Locking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
11.3 X -Aligned Reference Conguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
11.3.1 Element Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
11.3.2 Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
11.3.3 Displacement Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . 1110
11.3.4 Strain-Displacement Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . 1111
11.3.5 *Consistent Linearization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1112
11.3.6 *Rigid Body Motion Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1112
11.4 Arbitrary Reference Conguration . . . . . . . . . . . . 1113
11.4.1 Strain-Displacement Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . 1114
11.4.2 Constitutive Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1115
11.5 Strain Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1115
11.6 Internal Force Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1115
11.7 Tangent Stiness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1116
11.7.1 Material Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1116
11.7.2 Eliminating Shear Locking by RBF . . . . . . . . . . 1117
11.7.3 Geometric Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . 1118
11.8 Commentary on Element Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . 1121
11.9 Derivation Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1121
11. Notes and Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1121
11. Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1122

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 11.2 BEAM MODELS

11.1. Introduction

In this Chapter the finite element equations of a geometrically nonlinear, two-node Timoshenko
plane beam element are formulated using the Total Lagrangian (TL) kinematic description. The
derivation is more typical of the general case. It is still short, however, of the enormous complexity
involved, for instance, in the FEM analysis of nonlinear three-dimensional beams or shells. In fact
the latter are still doctoral thesis topics.
In the formulation of the bar element in Chapter 9, advantage was taken of the direct expression of
the axial strain in terms of reference and current element lengths. That shortcut bypasses the use
of displacement gradients, and allows the reference configuration to be arbitrarily oriented. The
simplification works equally well for straight bars in three-dimensional space.
A more systematic but lengthier procedure is required with more complicated elements. The pro-
cedure requires going through the displacement gradients to construct a strain measure. Sometimes
this measure is too complex and must be simplified while retaining physical correctness. Then
work-conjugate stresses are introduced and paired with strains to form the strain energy function
of the element. Repeated differentiations with respect to node displacements yield the expressions
of the internal force vector and tangent stiffness matrix. Finally, a transformation to the global
coordinate system may be required.
In addition to giving a better picture of the general procedure just outlined, the beam element
illustrates the treatment of rotational degrees of freedom.

11.2. Beam Models

11.2.1. Basic Concepts and Terminology

Beams represent the most common structural component found in civil and mechanical structures.
Because of their ubiquity they are extensively studied, from an analytical viewpoint, in Mechanics
of Materials courses. Such a basic knowledge is assumed here. The following material recapitulates
definitions and concepts that are needed in the finite element formulation.
A beam is a rod-like structural member that can resist transverse loading applied between its
supports. By rod-like it is meant that one of the dimensions is considerably larger than the other
two. This one is called the longitudinal dimension and defines the longitudinal direction or axial
direction. Directions normal to the longitudinal direction are called transverse. The intersection
of planes normal to the longitudinal direction with the beam are called cross sections, just as for
bar elements. The beam longitudinal axis is directed along the longitudinal direction and passes
through the centroid of the cross sections.1 .
Beams may be used as isolated structures. But they can also be combined to form framework
structures. This is actually the most common form of high-rise building construction. Individual
beam components of a framework are called members, which are connected at joints. Frameworks
can be distinguished from trusses by the fact that their joints are sufficiently rigid to transmit bending
moments between members.
1 If the beam is built of several materials, as in the case of reinforced concrete, the longitudinal axis passes through the
centroid of a modified cross section. The modified-area technique is explained in elementary courses of Mechanics of
Materials

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Chapter 11: THE TL PLANE BEAM ELEMENT: FORMULATION

reference configuration

motion

current configuration

Figure 11.1. A geometrically nonlinear plane framework structure.

In practical structures beam members can take up a great variety of loads, including biaxial bending,
bidirectional shears, axial forces and even torsion. Such complicated actions are typical of spatial
beams, which are used in three-dimensional frameworks and are subject to forces applied along
arbitrary directions.
A plane beam resists primarily loading applied in one plane and has a cross section that is symmetric
with respect to that plane. Plane frameworks, such as the one illustrated in Figure 11.1, are
assemblies of plane beams that share that symmetry. Those structures can be analyzed with two-
dimensional idealizations.
A beam is straight if the longitudinal direction is a straight line. A beam is prismatic if its cross
section is uniform. Only straight, prismatic, plane beams will be considered in this Chapter.
11.2.2. Beam Mathematical Models
Beams are actually three-dimensional solids. One-dimensional mathematical models of plane
beams are constructed on the basis of beam theories. All such theories involve some form of
approximation that describes the behavior of the cross sections in terms of quantities evaluated on
the longitudinal axis. More precisely, the element kinematics of a plane beam is completely defined
by the two models described below if the following functions are given:
Axial displacement u X (X )
Transverse displacement u Y (X ) (also called lateral displacement)
Cross section rotation Z (X ) (X ): angle by which cross section rotates.2
Here X denotes the longitudinal coordinate in the reference configuration. See Figure 11.2. In the
sequel we will drop the subscript Z from for brevity.
Two beam mathematical models are commonly used in structural mechanics:
Bernoulli-Euler (BE) Model. This model is also called classical beam theory or engineering beam
theory, and is the one covered in elementary treatments of Mechanics of Materials. It accounts for
bending moment effects on stresses and deformations. Transverse shear forces are recovered from
equilibrium but their effect on beam deformations is ignored (more precisely: the strain energy
due to shear stresses is neglected). The fundamental kinematic assumption is that cross sections

2 This angle suffices if the cross section remains plane, an assumption verified by both models described here.

114
 11.2 BEAM MODELS

Z (X) (X)

Current
current configuration cross section

Y, y
motion uY (X)
X, x

uX (X)

reference configuration Reference

X cross section
Figure 11.2. Definition of beam kinematics in terms of the three displacement functions: u X (X ),
u Y (X ), and (X ). The figure actually depicts the BE model kinematics. In the Timoshenko model, (X )
is not constrained by normality, as illustrated in Figure 11.3.

current configuration finite element idealization

of current configuration

motion

reference configuration finite element idealization

of reference configuration
Figure 11.3. Idealization of a geometrically nonlinear beam member (as taken, for example, from a
plane framework structure like the one in Figure 11.1) as an assembly of finite elements.

remain plane and normal to the deformed longitudinal axis. This rotation occurs about a neutral
axis parallel to Z that passes through the centroid of the cross section.
Timoshenko Model. This model corrects the BE theory with first-order shear deformation effects.
The key assumption is that cross sections remain plane and rotate about the same neutral axis, but
do not remain normal to the deformed longitudinal axis. The deviation from normality is produced
by a transverse shear stress that is assumed to be constant over the cross section.
Both the BE and Timoshenko models rest on the assumptions of small deformations and linear-
elastic isotropic material behavior. In addition both models neglect any change in dimensions of the
cross sections as the beam deforms. Either theory can account for geometrically nonlinear behavior
due to large displacements and rotations, as long as the other assumptions hold.

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Chapter 11: THE TL PLANE BEAM ELEMENT: FORMULATION

(a) C 1 (BE) model 2 (b) C 0 (Timoshenko) model 2

1 1

Y, y uY2 uY2
uY1 uY1
X, x
uX1 uX2 uX1 uX2
1 2 1 2
Figure 11.4. Two-node beam elements have six DOF, regardless of which model is used.

11.2.3. Finite Element Models

To carry out the geometrically nonlinear finite element analysis of a framework structure, beam
members are idealized as an assembly of finite elements, as illustrated in Figure 11.3. Beam
elements used in practice have usually two end nodes. The i th node has three DOF: two node
displacements u Xi and u Y i , and one nodal rotation i , positive counterclockwise in radians, about
the Z axis. See Figure 11.4.
The cross section rotation from the reference to the current configuration is called in both models.
In the BE model this is the same as the rotation of the longitudinal axis. In the Timoshenko
model, the shear distortion angle is = , as shown in Figure 11.5. The mean shear strain
has the opposite sign: = = , so as to make the shear strain e X Y positive, as per the
usual conventions of structural mechanics.
Either the BE or the Timoshenko model may be used as the basis for the TL beam element formu-
lation. Superficially it appears that one should select the latter only when shear effects are to be
considered, as in deep beams whereas the former is used for ordinary beams. But here a twist
appear because of FEM considerations. This twist is one that has caused significant confusion
among users over the past 25 years. See Appendix S for the tragicomical story of the topic.
Although the Timoshenko beam model appears to be more complex because of the inclusion of
shear deformation, finite elements based on this model are in fact simpler to construct! Here are
the two key reasons:
(i) Separate kinematic assumptions on the variation of cross-section rotations are possible, as
made evident by Figure 11.5. Mathematically: (X ) may be assumed independently of u X (X )
and u Y (X ). As a consequence, two-node Timoshenko elements may use linear variations in
both displacement and rotations. On the other hand, a two-node BE model requires a cubic
polynomial for u Y (X ) because the rotation (X ) is not independent.
(ii) The linear transverse displacement variation matches that commonly assumed for the axial
deformation (bar-like behavior). The transverse and axial displacement assumptions are then
said to be consistent.

116
 11.2 BEAM MODELS

Angles are positive normal to reference

beam axis X
as shown. Note
that _ = _

whereas = = normal to deformed
beam axis
direction of
deformed

cross section _
90
// X (X = X)

ds

Figure 11.5. Illustrates total and BE section rotations and , respectively, in the plane beam Timoshenko
model. The mean shear distortion angle is = , but we take = = as shear strain measure, to
match usual sign conventions of structural mechanics. For elastic deformations of engineering materials | | << 1.
Typical values for | | would be O(103 ) radians whereas rotations and may be much larger, say 1-2 radians.
The magnitude of is grossly exaggerated in the Figure for visualization convenience.

This simplicity is even more important in geometrically nonlinear analysis, as strikingly illustrated
by the elements contrasted in Figure 11.6. Although as pictured there both elements have six
degrees of freedom, the internal kinematics of the Timoshenko model is far simpler.
11.2.4. Shear Locking
In the FEM literature, a BE-based model such as the one shown in Figure 11.4(a) is called a C 1
beam because this is the kind of mathematical continuity achieved in the longitudinal direction
when a beam member is divided into several elements (cf. Figure 11.3). On the other hand, the
Timoshenko-based element pictured in Figure 11.4(b) is called a C 0 beam because both transverse
displacements, as well as the rotation angle , preserve only C 0 continuity.
What would be the first reaction of an experienced but old-fashioned (i.e, never heard about
FEM) structural engineer on looking at Figure 11.6? The engineer would pronounce the C 0
element unsuitable for practical use. And indeed the kinematics looks way wrong. The shear
distortion grossly violates the basic assumptions of beam behavior. And indeed, a huge amount of
shear energy would be required to keep the element straight as pictured.
The engineer would be both right and wrong. If the two-node element of Figure 11.6(b) were
constructed with actual shear properties and exact integration, an overstiff model results. This
phenomenom is well known in the FEM literature and receives the name of shear locking. To avoid
locking while retaining the element simplicity it is necessary to use certain computational devices
that have nothing to do with physics. The most common are:
1. Selective integration for the shear energy.
2. Residual energy balancing.
The second device will be used with only a cursory explanation at the end of this Chapter. For
explanatory literature references see Notes and Bibliography and Appendix S. In this Chapter the
C 0 model will be used to illustrated the TL formulation of a two-node, geometrically nonlinear
beam element.

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Chapter 11: THE TL PLANE BEAM ELEMENT: FORMULATION

2-node C 1 (cubic) element 2-node C 0 linear displacement & rotations

for Euler-Bernoulli beam model: element for Timoshenko beam model:
plane sections remain plane and plane sections remain plane but not
normal to deformed longitudinal axis normal to deformed longitudinal axis

(a) (b)
C 1 element
with same DOFs

1 2 1 2

Figure 11.6. Contrasting kinematics of 2-node beam FEM models based on (a) BE beam theory, and (b)
Timoshenko beam theory. These are called C 1 and C 0 beam elements, respectively, in the FEM literature.

Remark 11.1. As a result of the application of the aforementioned devices the beam element behaves like a BE
beam although the underlying model is Timoshenkos. This represents a curious paradox: shear deformation
is used to simplify the kinematics, but then most of the shear will be removed to restore the correct physical
behavior.3 As a result, the name C 0 element is more appropriate than Timoshenko element because
capturing the actual shear deformation is not the main objective.

Remark 11.2. The two-node C 1 beam element is used primarily in linear structural mechanics. It is in fact
the beam model used in the IFEM course [?, Chapter 12].) This is because some of the easier-construction
advantages cited for the C 0 element are less noticeable, while no artificial devices to eliminate locking are
needed. The C 1 element is also called the Hermitian beam element because the shape functions are cubic
polynomials specified by Hermite interpolation formulas.

11.3. X -Aligned Reference Configuration

11.3.1. Element Description

We consider a two-node, straight, prismatic C 0 plane beam element moving in the (X, Y ) plane, as
depicted in Figure 11.7(a). For simplicity in the following derivation the X axis system is initially
aligned with the longitudinal direction in the reference configuration, with origin at node 1. This
assumption is relaxed in the next section, once invariant strain measured are obtained.
The reference element length is L 0 . The cross section area A0 and second moment of inertia Izz0
with respect to the neutral axis4 are defined by the area integrals
  
A0 = d A, Y d A = 0, I0 = Y 2 d A, (11.1)
A0 A0 A0

3 The FEM analysis of plates and shells is also rife with such two wrongs make a right paradoxes.
4 For a plane prismatic beam, the neutral axis at a particular section is the intersection of the cross section plane X =
constant with the plane Y = 0.

118
 11.3 X -ALIGNED REFERENCE CONFIGURATION

2
Section rotation
_ is
L 2 (X)
(a) =+=
P(x,y) (b) 2

2 C(X+uX ,uY )
//X
1 C(xC ,yC )
1 C
1
y yP Y, y 1 Y, y uY (X) = uYC
yC x xP reduction
xC to 1D

XXP0XC0 X uX (X) = uXC

uXP
P0 (X,Y) uXC C0 (X)
Y YP0 X, x
1 C0(X,0) 2 X, x
1 C0 2
L0

Figure 11.7. Lagrangian kinematics of C 0 beam element with X -aligned reference configuration: (a)
plane beam moving as a 2D body; (b) reduction of motion description to 1D as measured by coordinate X .

In the current configuration those quantities become A, Izz and L, respectively, but only the current
length L is frequently used in the TL formulation. The material remains linearly elastic, with
Youngs modulus E relating the stress and strain measures defined below.
As in the previous Chapters the element identification superscript e will be omitted to reduce clutter
until it is necessary to distinguish elements within structural assemblies.
The element has the six degrees of freedom depicted in Figure 11.4. These degrees of freedom and
the associated node forces are collected in the node displacement and node force 6-vectors
u = [ u X1 uY 1 1 u X2 uY 2 2 ]T , f = [ f X1 fY 1 f 1 f X2 fY 2 f 2 ]T .
(11.2)
The external loads applied to the nodes will be assumed to be conservative.
11.3.2. Motion
The kinematic assumptions of the Timoshenko model element have been outlined in 11.2.2.
Basically they state that cross sections remain plane upon deformation, but not necessarily normal
to the deformed longitudinal axis. In addition, changes in cross section geometry are neglected.
To work out the Lagrangian kinematics of the element shown in Figure 11.6(a), we study the motion
of a generic particle located at P0 (X, Y ) in the reference configuration, which moves to P(x, y) in
the current configuration. The projections of P0 and P on the neutral axis, along the cross sections
at C 0 and C are called C0 (X, 0) and C(xC , yC ), respectively. The exact kinematics is
     
x xC Y (sin + sin cos ) xC Y [sin + (1 cos ) sin ]
= = . (11.3)
y yC + Y (cos sin sin ) yC + Y [cos + (1 cos ) cos ]
in which + has been replaced by . But xC = X + u XC and yC = u Y C . From now we denote
u XC and u Y C simply as u X and u Y , respectively. Assume for simplicity that is constant over the

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Chapter 11: THE TL PLANE BEAM ELEMENT: FORMULATION

element. Expand (11.3) in Taylor series in up to O( 4 ):

   
x u X + X + 12 Y 3 cos Y (1 + 12 2 + 24 7
4 ) sin
= (11.4)
y u Y + Y (1 + 12 2 24
7
4 ) cos + 12 Y 3 sin
If we assume the shear distortion is very small, setting 0 in (11.4) gives the simplified
Lagrangian description of the motion
   
x X + u X Y sin
= , (11.5)
y u Y + Y cos

in which u X , u Y and are functions of X only. This form, which is correct up to O( 2 ), can be
directly obtained from the last of (11.3) on replacing 1 cos by 0. This concludes the reduction
to a one-dimensional model, as sketched in Figure 11.7(b).
For future use it is convenient to define an extended internal displacement vector w, and its X
derivative:     

u X (X ) dw du X /d X uX

w = u Y (X ) , w = = du Y /d X = u
Y , (11.6)
(X ) d X d/d X

in which primes denote derivatives with respect to X . The derivative

will be also denoted as ,
which has the meaning of beam curvature in the current configuration. Also useful are the following
differential relations
ds 
1 + u
X = s
cos , u
Y = s
sin , s
= = (1 + u
X )2 + (u
Y )2 , (11.7)
dX
in which ds is the differential arclength in the current configuration; see Figure 11.5. If u
X and u
Y
are constant over the element,

s
= L/L 0 , 1 + u
X = L cos /L 0 , u
Y = L sin /L 0 . (11.8)

Remark 11.3. Replacing 1 cos by zero in (11.3) is equivalent to saying that Y (1 cos ) can be neglected
in comparison to other cross section dimensions. This is consistent with uncertainties in cross section changes.
Such changes would depend on the Y -normal stress as well as Poissons ratio effects. The motion (11.5) has
the virtue of being purely kinematic (i.e., no material properties appear) and of leading to (exactly) eY Y = 0.

11.3.3. Displacement Interpolation

For a 2-node C 0 element it is natural to express the displacements and rotation functions as linear
in the node displacements:

u X1
    uY 1
u X (X ) 1 0 0 1+ 0 0
1
w = u Y (X ) = 12 0 1 0 0 1+ 0 = N u, (11.9)
u X2
(X ) 0 0 1 0 0 1+
uY 2
2

1110
 11.3 X -ALIGNED REFERENCE CONFIGURATION

in which = 2X/L 0 is the isoparametric coordinate that varies from = 1 at node 1 to = 1

at node 2, and N as usual denotes the shape function matrix. Differentiating this expression with
respect to X yields the displacement gradient interpolation:

u X1
   u
u
X 1 0 0 1 0 0 Y1
1
w =

u
Y = 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 = N
u. (11.10)
L0 u

0 0 1 0 0 1 X2
uY 2
2

11.3.4. Strain-Displacement Relations

The deformation gradient matrix of the motion (11.5) is
 x x   
1 + u
X Y cos sin
F = X Y = , (11.11)
y y u
Y Y sin cos
X Y
in which primes denote derivatives with respect to X , and =
is the curvature. The displacement
gradient matrix is 

u X Y cos sin
G=FI= , (11.12)
u
Y Y sin cos 1
From the definition (8.10), the plane portion of the Green-Lagrange (GL) strain tensor follows as
 
eX X eX Y
e= = 12 (FT F I) = 12 (G + GT ) + 12 GT G. (11.13)
eY X eY Y

This expands to the component form




1 2(u X Y cos ) + (u X Y cos ) + (u Y Y sin )
2 2
(1 + u
X ) sin + u
Y cos
e= 2
(1 + u
X ) sin + u
Y cos 0
(11.14)
It is seen that the only nonzero strains are the axial strain e X X and the shear strain e X Y +eY X = 2e X Y ,
whereas eY Y vanishes. Through the consistent-linearization techniques described in 11.3.5 below,
it can be shown that under the small-strain assumptions made precise therein, the axial strain e X X
can be replaced by the simpler form

e X X = (1 + u
X ) cos + u
Y sin Y 1, (11.15)

in which all quantities appear linearly except . The nonzero axial and shear strains will be arranged
in the strain vector
       
e eX X (1 + u
X ) cos + u
Y sin Y
1 e Y
e= 1 = = = .
e2 2e X Y (1 + u
X ) sin + u
Y cos
(11.16)

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Chapter 11: THE TL PLANE BEAM ELEMENT: FORMULATION

The three strain quantities introduced in (11.16)

e = (1 + u
X ) cos + u
Y sin 1, = (1 + u
X ) sin + u
Y cos , =
,
(11.17)
characterize axial strains, shear strains and curvatures, respectively. These are collected in the
following generalized strain vector:
h = [e ]T . (11.18)
Because of the assumed linear variation in X of u X (X ), u Y (X ) and (X ), e and only depend on
whereas is constant over the element. Making use of (11.8) one can express e and in the
geometrically invariant form

L cos L sin
1 + e = s
cos( ) = , = s
sin( ) = (11.19)
L0 L0

In theory one could further reduce e to L/L 0 and to L /L 0 , but those simplifications would
actually complicate the strain variations taken in the following Section.
11.3.5. *Consistent Linearization
The derivation of the consistent linearization (11.15) is based on the polar decomposition analysis of the
deformation gradient. Introduce the matrix
 
cos sin
() = , (11.20)
sin cos
which represents a two-dimensional rotation (about Z ) through an angle . Since is an orthogonal matrix,
T = 1 . The deformation gradient (11.11) can be written
   
s
0 Y
0
F = () + () . (11.21)
0 0 0 1
where s
is defined in (11.7) Premultiplying both sides of (11.21) by ( ) gives the modified deformation
gradient 

s cos( ) Y
0
F = ( )F = (11.22)
s
sin( ) 1
Now the GL strain tensor 2e = FT F I does not change if F is premultiplied by the orthogonal matrix
because FT T F = FT F. Consequently 2e = F F I. But if the strains remain small, as it is assumed in
T

the Timoshenko model, the following are small quantities:

(i) s
1 = (L/L 0 ) 1 because the axial strains are small;
(ii) Y
= Y because the curvature is of order 1/R, R being the radius of curvature, and |R| >> |Y |
according to beam theory because Y can vary only up to the cross section in-plane dimension;
(iii) = , which is the mean angular shear deformation.
Then F = I + L + higher order terms, where L is a first-order linearization in the small quantities s
1, Y

and = . It follows that

e = 12 (L + LT ) + higher order terms. (11.23)
Carrying out this linearization one finds that e X Y and eY Y do not change, but that e X X simplifies to (11.15). It
.
can also be shown that 2e X Y = = within the order of approximation of (11.23).

1112
 11.4 ARBITRARY REFERENCE CONFIGURATION

11.3.6. *Rigid Body Motion Check

It is instructive to check whether the foregoing displacements and strain fields can correctly represent rigid
body motions (RBM). An arbitrary RBD of the element can be represented by a rigid translation {u X R , u Y R },
along X and Y , resectively, and a rotation of angle R about the translated position. Denoting the current
coordinates by {x R , y R } the motion is given by
    
xR cos R sin R X + uXR
= . (11.24)
yR sin R cos R Y + uY R
The displacements are u X = x R X R and u Y = y R Y . The X derivatives are

u
X = cos R 1, u
Y = sin , R
= R = 0. (11.25)

This motion is inserted into the following strain measures:

e(1)

X X = (u X Y cos ) + 2 (u X Y cos ) + 2 (u Y Y sin ) ,

1 2 1 2

e(2)

X X = (1 + u X ) cos + u Y sin Y 1,
(11.26)
e(1)

X Y = (1 + u X ) sin + u Y cos

e(2) (1)

X Y = e X Y 2 cos (u Y Y sin ).

in which is arbitrary. In (11.27) e(1) (1) (2)

X X and e X Y are those in the GL strain tensor (11.13). Normal strain e X X is
the result of the linearization (11.15), while the shear strain e(2)
X X includes a correction not derivable from the
GL formulas. Inserting the RBM described by (11.24) and (11.25) into the shear and normal strain measures
(11.27) one obtains

e(1)
X X = 0, e(2)
X X = 2 sin R ,
2
e(1)
X Y = 2 sin(2 R ),
1
e(2)
X Y = 0. (11.27)

Conclusion: the strain measures e = e(2) (1)

X X and = e X Y used in the strain vector (11.18) do not capture exactly
RBM as the rotation angle R gets large. For that to be achieved, it would be necessary to pick e = e(1) X X and
= e(2)
XY . There is no displacement field, however, that produces both of these as components of the GL strain
tensor. See also Exercise 10.1.

11.4. Arbitrary Reference Configuration

In the general case the reference configuration C 0 of the element is not aligned with X . The
longitudinal axis X forms an angle with X , as illustrated in Figure 11.8(a). The six degrees
of freedom of the element are indicated in that Figure. Note that the section rotation angle is
measured from the direction Y , normal to X , and no longer from Y as in Figure 11.6.
Given the node coordinates (X 1 , Y1 ) and (X 2 , Y2 ), the reference angle is determined by

cos = X 21 /L 0 , sin = Y21 /L 0 , X 21 = X 2 X 1 , Y21 = Y2 Y1 , L 20 = X 21

2
+ Y21
2
. (11.28)

The angle = + formed by the current longitudinal axis with X (see Figure 11.5) is determined
by
x21 y21
cos = cos( + ) = sin = sin( + ) = , (11.29)
L L
in which x21 = x2 x1 , y21 = y2 y1 and L may be obtained from the motion as

x21 = X 21 + u X 2 u X 1 , y21 = Y21 + u Y 2 u Y 1 , L 2 = x21

2
+ y21
2
. (11.30)

1113
Chapter 11: THE TL PLANE BEAM ELEMENT: FORMULATION

_
// Y = +_ N
2
(a) // X (b) M
V
2(x 2 ,y2) // X

_
// Y C C
uY2
1
Y, y
_
M0

1(x1 ,y1) X
X, x N0
u Y1 uX2
// X V0
_ 2(X2,Y2)
Y
C 0
C0
uX1
1(X1,Y1)

Figure 11.8. Plane beam element with arbitrarily oriented reference configuration:
(a) kinematics, (b) internal stress resultants.

Solving the foregoing trigonometric relations for gives

X 21 x21 + Y21 y21 X 21 (X 21 + u X 2 u X 1 ) + Y21 (Y21 + u Y 2 u Y 1 )
cos = = ,
L L0 L L0
(11.31)
X 21 y21 Y21 x21 X 21 (Y21 + u Y 2 u Y 1 ) Y21 (X 21 + u X 2 u X 1 )
sin = = .
L L0 L L0
It follows that L sin and L cos are exactly linear in the translational node displacements. This
property simplifies considerably the calculations that follow.
11.4.1. Strain-Displacement Matrix
For the generalized strains it is convenient to use the invariant form (11.19), which does not depend
on . The variations e, and with respect to nodal displacement variations are required in the
formation of the strain displacement relation h = B u. To form B we take partial derivatives of e,
and with respect to node displacements. Here is a sample of the kind of calculations involved:
e [L cos( )/L 0 1] [L(cos cos + sin sin )/L 0 1]
= =
u X 1 u X 1 u X 1
(11.32)
X 21 cos + Y21 sin cos cos + sin sin cos
= 2
= = ,
L0 L0 L0
in which = + . Use was made of (11.31) in a key step. These derivatives were checked with
Mathematica. Collecting all of them into matrix B:
 
1 cos sin L 0 N1 cos sin L 0 N2
B= sin cos L 0 N1 (1 + e) sin cos L 0 N2 (1 + e) . (11.33)
L0 0 0 1 0 0 1

1114
 11.6 INTERNAL FORCE VECTOR

Here N1 = (1 )/2 and N2 = (1 + )/2 are abbreviations for the element shape functions
(caligraphic symbols are used to lessen the chance of clash against axial force symbols).
11.4.2. Constitutive Equations

Because the beam material is assumed to be homogeneous and isotropic, the only nonzero PK2
stresses are the axial stress s X X and the shear stress s X Y . These are collected in a stress vector s
related to the GL strains by the linear elastic relations
     0   0   
sX X s1 s1 + Ee1 s1 E 0 e1
s= = = 0 = 0 + = s0 + Ee, (11.34)
sX Y s2 s2 + Ge2 s2 0 G e2

in which E is the modulus of elasticity and G is the shear modulus. We introduce the initial stress
(prestress) resultants
  
N =
0 0
s1 d A, V =
0 0
s2 d A, M =
0
Y s10 d A. (11.35)
A0 A0 A0

These define the axial forces, transverse shear forces and bending moments, respectively, in the
reference configuration. We also define the stress resultants

N = N 0 + E A0 e, V = V 0 + G A0 , M = M 0 + E I0 . (11.36)

These represent axial forces, tranverse shear forces and bending moments in the current config-
uration, respectively, defined in terms of PK2 stresses. See Figure 11.8(b) for signs. These are
collected in the stress-resultant vector

z=[N V M ]T . (11.37)

11.5. Strain Energy

As in the case of the TL bar element, the total potential energy  = U P is separable because
P = qT u. The strain (internal) energy is given by
  
 0 T   0 
U= (s ) e + 2 e Ee d V =
1 T
(s1 e1 + s20 e2 ) + 12 (Ee12 + Ge22 ) d A d X . (11.38)
V0 A0 L0

Carrying out the area integrals while making use of (11.34) through (11.37), U can be written as
the sum of three length integrals:
  
U= (N e +
0 1
2
E A0 e2 ) d X + (V +
0 1
2
G A0 2 ) d X + (M 0 + 12 E I0 2 ) d X ,
L0 L0 L0
(11.39)
The three terms in (11.39) define the energy stored through bar-like axial deformations, shear
distortion and pure bending, respectively.

1115
Chapter 11: THE TL PLANE BEAM ELEMENT: FORMULATION

11.6. Internal Force Vector

The internal force vector can be obtained by taking the first variation of the internal energy with
respect to the node displacements. This can be compactly expressed as
  
 
U =
N e + V + M d X =
z h d X =
T
zT B d X u. (11.40)
L0 L0 L0

Here h and B are defined in equations (11.18) and (11.33), respectively, whereas z collects the stress
resultants in C as defined in (11.35) through (11.37). Because U = p T u, we get

p= BT z d X . (11.41)
L0

This expression may be evaluated by a one point Gauss integration rule with the sample point at
= 0 (beam midpoint). Let m = (1 + 2 )/2, m = m + , cm = cos m , sm = sin m ,
em = L cos(m )/L 0 1, m = L sin( m )/L 0 , and

cm sm 12 L 0 m cm sm 12 L 0 m
1
Bm = B| =0 = sm cm 21 L 0 (1 + em ) sm cm 12 L 0 (1 + em ) (11.42)
L0
0 0 1 0 0 1
where subscript m stands for at beam midpoint. Then
T  
cm sm 1
L
2 0 m
cm sm 1
L
2 0 m N
p = L 0 Bm z =
T sm cm 2 L 0 (1 + em ) sm cm
1
12 L 0 (1 + em ) V (11.43)
0 0 1 0 0 1 M

11.7. Tangent Stiffness Matrix

The first variation of the internal force vector (11.41) defines the tangent stiffness matrix

 T 
p = B z + BT z d X = (K M + KG ) u = K u. (11.44)
L0

This is again the sum of the material stifness K M and the geometric stiffness KG .
11.7.1. Material Stiffness Matrix
The material stiffness comes from the variation z of the stress resultants while keeping B fixed.
This is easily obtained by noting that
    
N E A0 0 0 e
z = V = 0 G A0 0 = S h, (11.45)
M 0 0 E I0
where S is the diagonal constitutive matrix with entries E A0 , G A0 and E I0 . Because h = B u,
the term BT z becomes BT SB u = K M u, whence the material matrix is

KM = BT SB d X . (11.46)
L0

1116
 11.7 TANGENT STIFFNESS MATRIX

This integral is evaluated by the one-point Gauss rule at = 0. Denoting again by Bm the matrix
(11.43), we find

KM = BmT SBm d X = KaM + KbM + KsM (11.47)
L0

where KaM , KbM and KsM are due to axial (bar), bending, and shear stiffness, respectively:

cm2 cm sm cm m L 0 /2 cm2 cm sm cm m L 0 /2
cm sm sm2 m L 0 sm /2 cm sm sm2 m L 0 sm /2

0 cm m L 0 /2 m L 0 sm /2 m L 0 /4 cm m L 0 /2 m L 0 sm /2 m2 L 20 /4
E A 2 2
KaM =
L0 cm2 cm sm cm m L 0 /2 cm2 cm sm cm m L 0 /2

cm sm sm2 m L 0 sm /2 cm sm sm2 m L 0 sm /2
cm m L 0 /2 m L 0 sm /2 m2 L 20 /4 cm m L 0 /2 m L 0 sm /2 m2 L 20 /4
(11.48)
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0

E I 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
KbM = (11.49)
L0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1

sm2
cm sm a1 L 0 sm /2 sm2 c m sm a1 L 0 sm /2
cm sm cm2 cm a1 L 0 /2 cm sm cm2 cm a1 L 0 /2

0 a1 L 0 sm /2 cm a1 L 0 /2 a1 L 0 /4 a1 L 0 sm /2 cm a1 L 0 /2 a12 L 20 /4
G A 2 2
KsM =
L0 sm2 cm sm a1 L 0 sm /2 sm2 cm sm a1 L 0 sm /2

cm sm cm2 cm a1 L 0 /2 cm sm cm2 cm a1 L 0 /2
a1 L 0 sm /2 cm a1 L 0 /2 a12 L 20 /4 a1 L 0 sm /2 cm a1 L 0 /2 a12 L 20 /4
(11.50)
in which a1 = 1 + em .
11.7.2. Eliminating Shear Locking by RBF
How good is the nonlinear material stiffness given by (11.49) and (11.50)? If evaluated at the
reference configuration aligned with the X axis, cm = 1, sm = em = m = 0, and we get
E A0
L0 0 0 ELA0 0 0
0
G A0
0
L0
1
2
G A0 0 GLA0 1
2
G A0

0

0 1
G A E I 0 + GA L1
0 1
G A E I 0 + GA L
1
2 0 L0 4 0 0 2 0 L0 4 0 0
KM = E A
0 0 0 E A 0 0 0
L L
0 0
0 G A 0 1
G A 0 G A 0 1
G A
L0 2 0 L0 2 0
E I
G A0 L + 4 G A0 L 0 2 G A0 E I
L 0 + 4 G A0 L 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
0 2
0
0
(11.51)
0
This is the well known linear stiffness of a shear-locked C beam. As noted in the discussion of
11.2.4, this element does not perform as well as a C 1 beam when the beam is thin because too
much strain energy is taken by shear in the antisymmetric bending mode. The following substitution

1117
Chapter 11: THE TL PLANE BEAM ELEMENT: FORMULATION

device, introduced by MacNeal,5 removes that deficiency in a simple way. The shear rigidity G A0
is formally replaced by 12E I0 /L 20 , and magically (11.51) becomes
EA
L
0 0 0 ELA0 0 0
0 0
0 12E I0 6E I0 12E3 I0 6E I0
L 30 L 20
0
L 20
L0
6E I0 4E I0
0
L0 0 2I0
6E 2E I0
L0


L 20 L0
M
K =
E A0 E A0
.
(11.52)
L 0 0 0 0
0 L0

0 12E3 I0 6E2I0 0 12E I0 6E
2 I 0
L0 L0 L 30 L0

0 6E I0 2E I0 0 6E2I0 4E I0
L 20 L0 L0 L0

This is the well known linear stiffness matrix of the C 1 (Hermitian) beam based on the Bernoulli-
Euler model. That substitution device is called the residual bending flexibility (RBF) correction.6
Its effect is to get rid of the spurious shear energy due to the linear kinematic assumptions. If the
RBF is formally applied to the nonlinear material stiffness one gets K M = KaM + K Mb , where KaM
is the same as in (11.50) (because the axial stiffness if not affected by the substitution), whereas
KbM and KsM merge into

12sm2 12cm sm 6a1 L 0 sm 12sm2 12cm sm 6a1 L 0 sm
12cm sm 12cm2 6cm a1 L 0 12cm sm 12cm2 6cm a1 L 0
bM EI 6a L s 6cm a1 L 0 a2 L 20 6a1 L 0 sm 6cm a1 L 0 a3 L 20

K = 3 1 0 2m
L 0 12sm 12cm sm 6a1 L 0 sm 12sm2 12cm sm 6a1 L 0 sm

12cm sm 12cm2 6cm a1 L 0 12cm sm 12cm2 6cm a1 L 0
6a1 L 0 sm 6cm a1 L 0 a3 L 20 6a1 L 0 sm 6cm a1 L 0 a2 L 20
(11.53)
in which a1 = 1 + em , a2 = 4 + 6em + 3em2 and a3 = 2 + 6em + 3em2 .

Remark 11.4. MacNeal actually proposed the more refined substitution

1 1 L 20
replace by + (11.54)
G A0 G As 12E I0

where G As is the actual shear rigidity; that is, As is the shear-reduced cross section studied in Mechanics
of Materials. The result of (11.54) is the C 1 Hermitian beam corrected by shear deformations computed
from equilibrium considerations. (This beam is derived in Chapter 13 of IFEM Notes [263].) If the shear
deformation is negligible, the right hand side of (11.54) is approximately L 20 /(12E I0 ), which leads to the
substitution used above.

5 See reference in Notes and Biblioghraphy.

6 RBF can be rigurously justified through the use of a mixed variational principle, or through a flexibility calculation.

1118
 11.7 TANGENT STIFFNESS MATRIX

11.7.3. Geometric Stiffness Matrix

The geometric stiffness KG comes from the variation of B while the stress resultants in z are kept
fixed. To get a closed form expression it is convenient to pass to indicial notation, reverting to
matrix notation later upon index contraction. Let the entries of KG , B, u and z be denoted as
K Gi j , Bki , u j and z k , where indices i, j and k range over 16, 16, and 13, respectively. Call
A j = B/u j , j = 1, . . . 6. Then using the summation convention,
  
Bki j
K Gi j u j = B z d X =
T
u j z k d X = Aki z k d X u j , (11.55)
L0 L0 u j L0

whence 
z k Aki d X ,
j
K Gi j = (11.56)
L0

Note that in carrying out the derivatives in (11.56) by hand one must use the chain rule because B
is a function of e, and , which in turn are functions of the node displacements u j . To implement
this scheme we differentiate B with respect to each node displacement in turn, to obtain:

 
B 1 0 0 N1 sin 0 0 N2 sin
A1 = = 0 0 N1 cos 0 0 N2 cos ,
u X 1 L0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
B 1 0 0 N1 cos 0 0 N2 cos
A2 = = 0 0 N1 sin 0 0 N2 sin ,
u Y 1 L0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
B N1 sin cos N1 L 0 (1 + e) sin cos N2 L 0 (1 + e)
A3 = = cos sin N1 L 0 cos sin N2 L 0 ,
1 L0 0 0 0 0 0 0
  (11.57)
B 1 0 0 N1 sin 0 0 N2 sin
A4 = = 0 0 N1 cos 0 0 N2 cos ,
u X 2 L0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
B 1 0 0 N1 cos 0 0 N2 cos
A =
5
= 0 0 N1 sin 0 0 N2 sin ,
u Y 2 L0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
B N2 sin cos N1 L 0 (1 + e) sin cos N2 L 0 (1 + e)
A6 = = cos sin N1 L 0 cos sin N2 L 0 .
2 L0 0 0 0 0 0 0

To restore matrix notation it is convenient to define

j j j
W N i j = A1i , WV i j = A2i , W Mi j = A3i , (11.58)

as the entries of three 6 6 weighting matrices W N , WV and W M that isolate the effect of the
stress resultants z 1 = N , z 2 = V and z 3 = M. The first, second and third row of each A j becomes

1119
Chapter 11: THE TL PLANE BEAM ELEMENT: FORMULATION

Node Displacements u

Eqs (10.5), (10.8)

Element displacement field w = [uX , uY , ]T

Eq. (10.9)

Displacement gradients w' = [u'X , u'Y , ' ]

T

Eq. (10.15)

Generalized strains h = [ e , , ]
T

Eq. (10.29) Strain energy U

Stress resultants z = [ N ,V, M ]T

_
vary U: U = L zT BT dX u = pT u
0
Eq. (10.34)

Internal forces p

vary p: p = L0
_
(B T z + BT z) dX u = (KM + KG )

Eq. (10.40)

Tangent stiffness matrix K = KM + KG

Figure 11.9. Roadmap for the derivation of the TL plane beam element.

the j th column of W N , WV and W M , respectively. The end result is

0 0 N1 sin 0 0 N2 sin
0 0 N1 cos 0 0 N2 cos
1 N1 sin N1 cos N12 L 0 (1 + e) N1 sin N1 cos

N1 N2 L 0 (1 + e)
WN =
L0 0 0 N1 sin 0 0 N2 sin

0 0 N1 cos 0 0 N2 cos
N2 sin N2 cos N1 N2 L 0 (1 + e) N2 sin N2 cos N22 L 0 (1 + e)
(11.59)

0 0 N1 cos 0 0 N2 cos
0 0 N1 sin 0 0 N2 sin
1 N1 cos N1 sin N12 L 0 N1 cos N1 sin

N1 N2 L 0
WV =
L0 0 0 N1 cos 0 0 N2 cos

0 0 N1 sin 0 0 N2 sin
N2 cos N2 sin N1 N2 L 0 N2 cos N2 sin N22 L 0
(11.60)

1120
 11. Notes and Bibliography

and W M = 0. Notice that the matrices must be symmetric, since KG derives from a potential. Then

KG = (W N N + WV V ) d X = KG N + KGV . (11.61)
L0

Again the length integral should be done with the one-point Gauss rule at = 0. Denoting again
quantities evaluated at = 0 by an m subscript, one obtains the closed form

0 0 sm 0 0 sm
0 0 cm 0 0 cm
Nm sm cm 2 L 0 (1 + em ) sm cm 2 L 0 (1 + em )
1 1
KG =
2 0 0 sm 0 0 sm

0 0 cm 0 0 cm
sm cm 12 L 0 (1 + em ) sm cm 12 L 0 (1 + em )
(11.62)
0 0 cm 0 0 cm
0 0 sm 0 0 sm
Vm
m m 2 0 m
c s 1
L c s
2 0 m
1
L

+ m m
.
2 0 0 cm 0 0 cm

0 0 sm 0 0 sm
cm sm 12 L 0 m cm sm 12 L 0 m
in which Nm and Vm are N and V evaluated at the midpoint.
Result of running the fragment of
11.8. Commentary on Element Performance
The material stiffness of the present element works fairly well once MacNeals RBF device is done.
On the other hand, simple buckling test problems, as in Exercise 11.3, show that the geometric stiff-
ness is not so good as that of the C 1 Hermitian beam element.7 Unfortunately a simple substitution
device such as RBF cannot be used to improve KG , and the problem should be viewed as open.
An intrinsic limitation of the present element is the restriction to small axial strains. This was
done to facilitate close form derivation. The restriction is adequate for many structural problems,
particularly in Aerospace (example: deployment). However, it means that the element cannot model
correctly problems like the snap-through and bifurcation of the arch example used in Chapter 8, in
which large axial strains prior to collapse necessarily occur.
11.9. Derivation Summary
Figure 11.9 is a roadmap that summarizes the key steps in the derivation of the internal force and
tangent stiffness matrix for the C 0 plane beam element.
Notes and Bibliography
For detailed justification the curious reader may consult advanced FEM books such as Hughes [399]. The
RBF correction was introduced by R. H. MacNeal in [473]. The derivation of the Timoshenko plane beam
element for linear FEM is presented in Chapter 13 of the IFEM Notes [263].

7 In the sense that one must use more elements to get equivalent accuracy.

1121
Chapter 11: THE TL PLANE BEAM ELEMENT: FORMULATION

Homework Exercises for Chapter 10

The TL Plane Beam Element: Formulation

EXERCISE 11.1
[A+C:20] Show that the displacement field that generates the measures e(1) (2)
X Y and e X Y given in (11.27) simulta-
neously as GL strains is    
x X + u X Y sin
= . (E11.1)
y u Y + Y cos + 2X sin
Show that if this displacement field is selected, all GL strains exactly vanish for an arbitrary RBM.

EXERCISE 11.2
[A:20] Obtain the linearized strain e X X associated with the field (E11.1) using the polar decomposition of its
deformation gradient tensor.

EXERCISE 11.3
[A+C:30] (Research level) Rederive p and K matrix for the displacement field (E11.1), using the exact GL
strain e X X .

1122