Dairy Cattle

Fertility
and
Sterility
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:49 AM Page 1

Dairy Cattle
Fertility and Sterility

Produced in cooperation with the

Dairy Cattle Reproduction Council
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:49 AM Page 2

Copyright 2007 by W. D. Hoard & Sons Company

All Rights Reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information or storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher. Address inquires to:
W. D. Hoard & Sons Company
Book Department
P O Box 801
Fort Atkinson WI 53538-0801 USA
tel 1-920-563-5551 fax 1- 920-563-7298
hdbooks@hoards.com
ISBN 0-932147-51-8
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:49 AM Page 3

Foreword

W
e are pleased to offer this newest edition of DAIRY
CATTLE FERTILITY AND STERILITY. This is an important
title in our dairy library, and we are fortunate to have had
the talents of a number of authors in the writing and updating of sev-
eral editions of this book over the past 40 years. In this time over
300,000 copies of this book have been sold.
The original writing of authors Harold D. Hafs and Louis J. Boyd
provided the books backbone. Ray L. Nebel, formerly associate pro-
fessor of reproductive physiology and extension specialist in repro-
ductive management in the department of dairy science, Virginia Tech
at Blacksburg, and currently reproduction solution specialist with
Select Sires, oversaw the books revision in 1996 along with Jeffrey S.
Stevenson, professor of reproductive physiology at Kansas State
University; and W. S. Swecker, DVM, College of Veterinary Medicine,
Virginia Tech at Blacksburg.
Ray Nebel and Ellen Jordan, professor and dairy extension special-
ist with Texas A & M University, have been instrumental in coordinat-
ing this new edition based on the first conference proceedings of the
Dairy Cattle Reproduction Council (DCRC) in Denver, 2006. The
authors and their papers are listed following the chapters, and
Hoards Dairyman is greatly indebted to the cooperation of these
authors as well as the DCRC in making this update possible. Special
thanks also goes to Dr. Rick Halvorson, a veterinary practitioner in
Whitewater, WI, and Mike Hutjens, extension dairy specialist at
University of Illinois, for their reviews.
We hope that everyone will find this newest edition full of valuable
and practical information and that FERTILITY AND STERILITY will
continue to have favorable influence on dairy cattle reproduction.
HOARDS DAIRYMAN

3
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:49 AM Page 4
Contents
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
1 Infertility and sterility: a huge loss . . . . . . . . .7
Sterility describes the animal that cannot repro-
duce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Figure: Dollars cost per day open . . . . . . . . . . .7
Progress made . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
2 The bulls role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Figure: Organs of the bull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Sperm head carries payload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Bulls must be fertile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Sexed semen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
3 The cows reproductive tract . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Well protected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Figure: Cows reproductive tract . . . . . . . . . . .13
Uterine lining is very fragile . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Funnel for the egg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Frequent defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
4 Reproduction: Full-time job for the dairy cow17
Chemical messengers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Figure: Changes in hormonal concentrations . .
and follicular growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Figure: Hormones secreted by the pituitary and
ovaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Maintain pregnancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
5 Union of sperm and egg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Sperm develop fertilizing capacity . . . . . . . . .23
One-celled calf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
6 Before birth: A calf begins to grow . . . . . . . .25
Hormones necessary for birth . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Figure: Growth of the fetus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Figure: Changes...in selected hormones . . . . .28
7 Calving time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Length of gestation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Events of a normal calving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Difficult and abnormal births . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Examining the cow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Figure: Normal birth position . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Figure: Abnormal birth positions . . . . . . . . . .31
Abnormal birth positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Figure: Placement of leg chains . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Figure: Correct technique for pulling a calf . .32
Assisting delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Figure: Pulling on the calfs head . . . . . . . . . .33
Figure: Align the widest part . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Care of the newborn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
Expulsion of the afterbirth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
Recovery of the cow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
Prevention of difficult calving . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
4
8 Can we feed for fertility? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
Protein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Essential fatty acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Vitamins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Figure: Effect of vitamin E on mastitis . . . . . .38
Minerals for reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Various toxins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Dry cow feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Table: Nutrient levels for early lactation . . . .40
Cows pregnant with twins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Figure: Dry matter intake of pregnant cows .41
9 Genetic factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Inherited abnormalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
BLAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
DUMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Bovine citrullinaemia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
CVM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Genetic potential for improved fertility . . . . . . .44
Figure: Daughter Pregnancy Rate . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Multiple births . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
Male organs in the female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
10 Diseases of reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
Figure: Microbial causes of bovine fetal loss . . .46
Endometritis and metritis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
BHV-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Venereal diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Infectious diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Figure: Timeline of BVD effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
Figure: Sources of BVD exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
Confirming the presence of BVD in a herd . . . .52
Other diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
Preventive measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
Vaccination plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
11 Embryo losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Heat stress plays a role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Cycling and noncyling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Other factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Figure: Characterization of reproductive failure .55
Improving embryo survival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Figure: Protein level and embryo loss . . . . . . . . . .56
12 Health of fresh cows, Impact on reproduction .58
Watch problem calvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Retained placenta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Milk fever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Ketosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Fatty liver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
DAs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Figure: Tips for vaccinating dry/fresh cows . . .60
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:49 AM Page 5
13 When should cows be bred? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Recovery after calving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Silent estrus (heat) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Considerations for monitoring estrus . . . . . . . . .62
Figure: Scoring system for estrus behavior . . . .62
Timed A.I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Simple systems to detect cows in estrus . . . . . . .63
Electronic systems to detect cows in estrus . . . .63
Figure: Estrus, the LH surge and ovulation . . . .63
Fertility best toward end of standing estrus . . .64
Figure: Reproductive tract abnormalities . . . . . .64
Management of anestrus/anovulatory cows . . .65
Incidence and causes of anovulation . . . . . . . . . . .65
On-farm factors associated with
milk production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
Prevention through nonhormonal means . . . . . .66
Hormonal treatment of anovular cows . . . . . . . . .66
14 Breeding heifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Age of heifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
The sire also affects a calfs birth weight . . . .68
Estrus detection in heifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Sex-sorted semen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
15 Pregnancy diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
Palpation, ultrasound and blood tests . . . . . .70
Estrous detection still valuable . . . . . . . . . . . .70
Rebreeding options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Other uses for ultrasound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
How early is too early? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
16 How do we achieve reproductive efficiency? .73
Some definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Reduce days open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Pregnancy loss in early gestation . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Conception rates lower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Comparing costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
17 Inseminating your own cows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Handling semen before thawing . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Semen packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Inseminator training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Site of semen deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Good housekeeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Figure: Uterine body breeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
5
18 Synchronization strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
VWP a factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Prostaglandin F2- programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Select Synch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Figure: Presynchronization treatments . . . . . . . .79
Figure: Synchronization programs . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Figure: Injection schedule for presynch +
Ovsynch program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Ovsynch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Presynch + Ovsynch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Intravaginal progesterone-releasing insert
(CIDR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Proper timing of GnRH and A.I. . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Advantages of various programs . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
Systems for managing A.I. programs for
dairy heifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
Figure: Comparison of cows ...after the second
GnRH in Ovsynch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
Figure: Inputs for spreadsheet calculations of
costs per day open and costs of various
ovulation synchronization programs . . . . . . . . .83
Figure: Sequence of events for heifers on
the MGA Select system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Figure: Estrous detection rate/conception rate
of dairy heifers after injection of PGF-2 . . . .84
19 Fine-tuning your reproductive program . . . .86
Hormone evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
Recipe for success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Table: Reproductive performance and
management in top performing herds . . . . . .88
20 Using bulls on the farm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Various reasons for use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Growing the bull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Health exam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Using the bull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Hand mating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Conception rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
At what cost? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
Safety first . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
Custom freezing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:49 AM Page 6

Introduction

O
f the 9 million milking dairy cows in the U.S., Complicating matters are the
all have this important trait in common: they often subtle effects of many other
have calved one time. And to stay in their factors, including:
herds and continue to produce milk, they need to calve Medical events at or near the
again. previous calving.
Yet for all the progress in dairy cattle management, Herd disease status.
getting cows to complete the reproduction cycle is less Nutrition.
successful today rather than more: there are many rea- Body condition score (BCS).
sons, some less obvious than others. Some sobering BCS changes.
statistics are that of each 100 inseminations, an average Vaccination protocol.
of only 28 calves will result. And each pregnancy that Mastitis.
does not go to full term costs close to $1,000 in todays Weather.
dollars, or even more, taking into account the high Housing.
value of replacement heifers. Thus, its a real struggle Crowding.
for an operation to be self-sufficient in providing its Stress level, and essentially everything that con-
own replacements, much less try to expand without tributes to it.
buying outside animals. Ironically, while weve bred and managed for high-
Here is a brief list of the basic reproductive chal- er milk production, fertility is a victim of this success.
lenges cows are up against today: There are no clear answers why fertility is reduced in
Erratic cycling. high producing cows, but its an accepted fact that
Not showing heat. todays high producing cows just do not breed back or
Not being caught in heat. carry a calf to term as easily.
Not being bred on time. So while there are no simple answers, there are
Not being bred correctly. many approaches that involve doing the little but
Fertilization failure. important things to make cows comfortable, disease-
Early embryonic death. and stress-free, on an ideal nutritional plane and of
Abortions, seen or not. course, optimize response to the cows reproductive
Calving problems. cycle. Addressing fertility problems and approaches to
improve dairy cow reproduction is the goal of this
book.
BASED ON HOARDS DAIRYMANS WESTERN WATCH,
DEC. 2006, BY DENNIS HALLADAY

6
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:49 AM Page 7

1 Infertility and sterility:

a huge loss
freemartin heifer, because she Any time a cow fails to conceive

W
hen a high producing
cow has to be culled for
failure to breed back, the
dairyman not only loses a valuable
member of the herd, but also loses
the opportunity to cull a less valu-
able, lower-producing herdmate.
Infertility continues to rank as one
of the major reasons for involun-
tary culling in dairy herds. When
too large a proportion of cows are
culled for infertility, the average
milk yield for the herd may decline.
Even today with modern veteri-
nary medicine, reproductive fail-
ures are all too common in most
dairy herds.
There are many false ideas about
infertility and sterility. First, sterili-
ty is not a disease in itself. Rather, it
may be the result of several dis-
eases or malfunctions working
together or separately. As a result,
each case must be diagnosed and
treated individually according to
its own symptoms.
The large number of causes com-
plicates diagnosis and treatment,
making sterility or infertility one of
the most difficult problems for
dairymen and veterinarians. Since
sterility is not a disease caused by
one specific agent, there is no uni-
versal cure-all.
was born twin to a bull, is usually from a single service or a series of
sterile. services, or if she aborts or fails to
Animals such as these must be produce a live, healthy calf every
culled from the herda direct 12 to 13 months, she creates a loss.
financial loss. But these are the easy Dollar losses result from less milk
cases. They are relatively easy to per day of life, because more days
detect and can be culled before are spent in late lactation when
they become too costly. milk yield is low; from higher
We usually think of a normal semen costs, because more units of
cow as one that conceives the first semen must be used to obtain each
or second time she is bred. But pregnancy; from culling of infertile
more typically, we have cows that cows; from lack of herd replace-
are somewhere between complete- ments, because fewer calves are
ly sterile and normally fertile. born; and from higher veterinary
These are the frustrating cows costs, because examinations and
that may not be observed in estrus treatments increase in an effort to
or must be bred several times get cows to conceive.
before they settle, and consequent- Overall conception rates of lac-
ly, do not freshen at the desired tating dairy cows in the U.S. have
time. declined since the 1950's, while
THE COST PER DAY that a cow is open past the optimum becomes
expensive quickly: multiply this in a herd that often falls short of this
optimum and it can represent many thousands of dollars per year.
Source: Milo Wiltbank, University of Wisconsin
Dollars
DollarsCost
CostPerPer
Day Open
Day compared
Open compared
to Optimal
to Optimal Days Opendays)
Days Open (110 (110 days)
50 -$2.27
70 -$2.68
90 -$1.50
110 OPTIMUM -$0.00
Days Open

The terms sterility and infer- 130 -$2.04

tility will be used frequently, so
VE

150 -$4.43
DA EX

lets be perfectly clear.

RY
YS PE

170 -$7.39
O NS
PE IV

190 -$10.37
Sterility describes the animal that
N E

cannot reproduce. Infertility, on the 210 -$13.49

other hand, describes the animal 230 -$16.67
that is neither normally fertile nor 250 -$19.87
totally sterile. -$23.23
270
A bull that produces no sperm
cells is completely sterile. A Cost Per Day Open

7
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:49 AM Page 8
annual milk yield per cow has
increased 3.3 times from 2,410 to
8,061 kg (5,300 to 17,735 pounds).
Given the inverse relationship
between milk yield and fertility, it
is no wonder that a genetic antag-
onism exists between some repro-
ductive traits and milk yield; this
is seen particularly in first-lacta-
tion cows. However, sound man-
agement practices can overcome
this inverse relationship to achieve
acceptable rates of reproductive
efficiency.
Over 30 percent of our cows are
culled each year. DHI records
show that culling rates due to
reproduction and mastitis are
about equal and actually rank
above milk production as reasons
for cow removal. If the involun-
tary cow losses attributed to infer-
A LIVE CALF is the goal when combatting infertility in dairy cows.
tility could be reduced, dairymen
could cull more strategically.
Depending upon the herd goals,
either the number of cows culled
could be reduced or more empha-
sis could be placed on milk pro-
duction.
Progress made. Tremendous pro-
gress has been made in under-
standing normal reproductive
processes in cattle. This under-
standing resulted first in wide-
spread use of artificial insemina-
tion, followed by development of
procedures for embryo transfer,
and most recently in programmed
breeding through synchronization
of estrus. New treatments for
reproductive disorders have been
discoveredmany of which use
naturally occurring compounds
8
that are more desirable than some
treatments used in the past.
However, automation and
increased efficiency on dairy
farms have resulted in larger
herds with more cows in total or
semi-confinement. This, along
with the tremendous increase in
milk production per cow, has cre-
ated a situation where cows may
now be more vulnerable to repro-
ductive problems. Therefore it is
essential to apply the latest infor-
mation in herd management to
maintain the herds reproductive
performance at optimum levels.
Only through careful and skillful
management can the dairy pro-
ducer avoid the losses due to
infertility and sterility that occur
in many herds.
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:49 AM Page 9

2 The bulls role

is for the sperm he produces. temperature regulator. By raising

T
he bulls role in reproduction
in a dairy herd is often over-
looked because many times
he has been replaced by a liquid
nitrogen tank containing frozen
semen. However, many bulls are
still used on dairy farms. Even if
artificial insemination is used
exclusively on a farm, the bulls
role is still essential.
The only reason we need a bull
Sperm cells, which are necessary to
fertilize the egg and produce a
pregnancy in the cow, are manufac-
tured in the two testes. Each testis
is a completely separate unit, and is
located in its own compartment
within the scrotum.
In the scrotum, the testes are
somewhat cooler than body tem-
perature. Actually, the scrotum is a
or lowering the testes, the scrotum
provides a relatively constant tem-
perature that is lower than body
temperature. The lower tempera-
ture is essential for sperm produc-
tion.
Before the bull calf is born, his
testes are formed and located in the
abdomen. Before birth the testes
descend to their adult position in

ORGANS OF THE BULL. Sperm are formed in the testis and then move into the coiled epi-
didymis surrounding the testis. When they reach the tail of the epididymis, they are ready for
ejaculation. Total time from formation to ejaculation is 7 to 8 weeks. At ejaculation, sperm
travel up through the vas deferens and then are mixed with fluids from the seminal vesicles and
prostate glands.

Rectum
Seminal vesicles
Body of prostate gland
Ampulla
Cowpers gland

Urethra
Bladder

Vas deferens

Body of penis

Epididymis
Testis

9
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:49 AM Page 10

the scrotum. Occasionally, one or egg. Only sperm in the tail of the penis near the urinary bladder. In
both of a bulls testes remain in the epididymis, located along the bot- the testis, epididymis, and vas def-
abdomen. A bull with this condi- tom of the testis, are available for erens, sperm are not motile.
tion is known as a cryptorchid. ejaculation. Presumably, immobility conserves
If both testes remain in the About 7 or 8 weeks are required their energy until ejaculation,
abdomen, the bull is totally sterile. from the time a sperm cell begins when they begin swimming vigor-
The testes will produce no sperm its formation in the testis until it is ously.
because of the high body tempera- available for ejaculation in the tail In most bulls, sperm produc-
ture. Even though he is sterile, this of the epididymis. Consequently, tion goes on continuously from
condition may not affect the bulls if a bull is infertile today, we may puberty until death. However,
libido (sex drive). have to search back two to three older bulls produce fewer sperm
If only one testis descends into months to find the cause. because of damage and degenera-
the scrotum, it is the only one that The photograph (lower right, tion of some of the spermatogenic
functions. The bull will produce this page) illustrates the complexi- tissue.
about half as many sperm as ty of the sperm-producing
would normally be expected. machinery. It is highly susceptible Ejaculation forms semen. At the
Even with only one descended to a variety of injuries. An injury moment of ejaculation, split-sec-
testis, a bull should produce suffi- to the testis may result in the for- ond muscular contractions of the
cient sperm to provide for near mation of an area of scar tissue vas deferens and epididymis pro-
normal fertility in natural mating. destroying many sperm-produc- pel sperm into the penis. At the
However, a bull with this condi- ing tubules and blocking many same instant, contractions of the
tion should never be used, re- others. accessory glands force their fluid
gardless of his genetic ability, The tail of the epididymis joins contents into the penis. The result-
because the condition is inherited. the vas deferens (a 2- to 3-foot- ing mixture of sperm with fluid
Within a testis, sperm are pro- long duct; 60 to 90 cm) which car- (semen) is instantly propelled
duced in thousands of microscop- ries the sperm to the base of the through the penis to the outside.
ic tubules (seminiferous tubules)
which join larger tubules at the
TESTIS AS SEEN THROUGH A
core of the testis. Over a period of
MICROSCOPE. Two tubules, with-
several days, the cells lining the
in which sperm are produced, are
small tubules divide eight times to
outlined. Elongated dark spots
form immature sperm cells. Fluid
(arrows) are newly formed sperm
produced in the tubules flushes
BULL TESTIS has been dissected out heads. Testosterone, the male sex
the sperm along its length into
of the scrotum. The epididymis is on drive hormone, is produced by the
larger tubules at the center of the
the top and left side of the testis. Vas cells (x) between tubules.
testis.
deferens exits from the bottom at
The sperm next pass into a
right.
group of approximately 15 tubules
which collect the sperm as they
leave the testis near its top side
and enter the head of the epi-
didymis. An epididymis is located
along the side of each testis and
consists of three parts that are not
clearly distinguished. They grad-
ually form one highly coiled tube
about 100 feet (30 m) long. As
sperm reach the epididymis, they
are immotile and cannot fertilize
an egg. During passage through
the epididymis, which takes about
2 weeks, sperm cells change both
physically and chemically. During
this time they become mobile and
gain the capacity to fertilize an

10
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:49 AM Page 11
Sperm make up only about 20
percent of the total volume of
semen. The rest of the ejaculate
comes from the accessory sex
glands located along the bulls
reproductive tract.
The main accessory glands are
the seminal vesicles, located at the
base of the penis near the urinary
bladder, as shown in the diagram
(see diagram, page 9). Fluid from
the seminal vesicles is rich in fruc-
tose, a sugar serving as an impor-
tant nutrient for sperm.
The volume of fluid con-
tributed by the prostate and
Cowpers glands is small com-
pared to that of the seminal vesi-
cles. Fluids from the prostate and
Cowpers glands flush out the
penis, cleansing and lubricating
the urethra and adding only a
small volume to the semen. Fluid
from the accessory sex glands
functions as a media or carrier of
sperm, providing energy for
metabolism and proper pH and
salt balance. However, these fluids
only maintain sperm survival for
a short period of time. Either the
cows fluid or chemically defined
extenders are needed to prolong
the life of sperm.
The testes are regulated by hor-
mones from the pituitary gland. In
turn, the testes produce the male
sex hormone, testosterone, which
NORMAL SPERM magnified 2000x.
controls the development and
secretion of the secondary glands.
Thus, the testes have a dual func-
tion; producing sperm and the
male sex hormone.
Testosterone is manufactured
by the cells that separate the small
sperm-producing tubules in the
testes. This hormone is responsi-
ble for the male sex drive (libido).
Malfunction of the testosterone-
producing cells of the testes also
can cause infertility, usually
because of a lack of libido.
At about 6 to 9 months of age,
bulls reach puberty and start pro-
ducing sperm cells. The onset of
sperm production (spermatogene-
sis) is controlled by hormones pro-
duced by the anterior pituitary
gland. The primary hormones
from the pituitary that stimulate
sperm production are luteinizing
hormone (LH) and follicle stimu-
lating hormone (FSH). However,
other pituitary hormones such as
prolactin may also be involved.
Bulls reach the adult rate of
sperm production by about 12 to
18 months of age. But they pro-
duce only half as many sperm as a
mature bull because their testes
are only half as large. The amount
of sperm produced is directly
related to the size of the testes.
Mature bulls produce about 70
billion sperm cells each week.
ABNORMAL SPERM (magnified about 1500x). Head
abnormalities appear on the upper row. Tail abnormalities
appear on the lower row.
11
Nature has provided a great
excess of sperm, so there is a good
chance that at least one will find
its way to the egg. A successful
mating results in the union of one
sperm and egg. This is one of the
fundamental principles underly-
ing artificial insemination. The
excess sperm from any one ejacu-
lation can be harvested and
used to breed many more cows
than would be possible with natu-
ral mating.
A bull in natural service might
ejaculate from 7 to 10 billion
sperm cells just to breed one cow.
Most of these sperm are wasted. If
this ejaculate with the same num-
ber of sperm were used in artificial
insemination, the bull could breed
about 300 cows. In fact, a single
bull has been known to produce
enough semen to breed more than
200,000 cows a year. Semen can be
frozen and stored indefinitely in
liquid nitrogen (at - 320 F; -196C).
Thus a bull can be used to breed
cows long after he is dead.
Even an artificial insemination
stud rarely expects to obtain 70
billion sperm a week from a bull.
The actual number of sperm
obtained depends upon how the
bull is prepared for ejaculation
and how frequently he is ejaculat-
ed. When semen is collected twice
a week with good preparation
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:49 AM Page 12
(sexual stimulation) of the bull,
between 20 and 40 billion sperm
usually are obtained each week.
Sperm head carries payload.
The head of the sperm is the pay-
load. Within the nucleus are the
chromosomes, the genetic materi-
al that transfers hereditary infor-
mation from the bull to the result-
ing calf. The tail of the sperm sim-
ply serves as a means to propel the
sperm in its search for the egg.
A single sperm cell is extremely
complex. All of its parts have to
work properly to insure normal
fertility. Many sperm abnormali-
ties which can result in infertility
may be detected with a micro-
scope. Some of these abnormali-
ties are illustrated in the photo-
graph (lower right, page 11).
On the other hand, the number
of cows that a bull can serve in a
given period of time varies consid-
erably among bulls. A rule of
thumb is one bull per 25 to 30
open cows in a pen, or 50 mixed
open and pregnant cows in a pen.
If a bull is kept with a large pen of
previously bred and still open
cows, for example, its very possi-
ble to overwork him, with disap-
pointing results. In addition, dis-
ease can be spread, risk of injury is
increased, and the loss of genetic
advancement occurs by using
bulls of usually unknown or infe-
rior genetic merit.
Young bulls which have been
fed adequately and have grown
properly should produce fertile
ejaculates by 6 to 9 months of age.
However, fertility is lower in
young bulls, thus the number of
cows young bulls can service is
lower than that for more mature
individuals. Therefore young
bulls in natural service should be
used carefully to avoid overwork.
Actually, there may also be
some danger of infertility when
References cited: Nebel, R., And DeJarnette, J.M., Artificial Insemination Programs for Heifers, Dairy Cattle
Reproduction Council, Nov. 7, 2006, Denver, CO.
bulls are underused. It is common
to find more dead sperm in ejacu-
lates taken from bulls after several
weeks of sexual rest than in ejacu-
lates from bulls used more fre-
quently. Sexual rest beyond three
to four days does not increase the
number of sperm harvested.
It is recommended that a bull
pass a breeding soundness evalua-
tion prior to service. This is espe-
cially important when the bull
may be involved in an infertility
situation. The breeding soundness
examination should include a
semen evaluation in addition to an
internal and external examination.
The average volume of ejaculat-
ed semen collected with an artifi-
cial vagina is 5 to 15 ml. Color of
the semen should be milky to
creamy white. Occasionally, a yel-
low semen sample is obtained
which is high in beta-carotene and
is considered normal. When fresh
semen is examined microscopical-
ly, at least 60 percent of the sperm
should be swimming vigorously.
The average semen sample of a
mature bull contains 800-million
to 1.2 billion sperm per milliliter.
The number of abnormal sperm in
the semen sample should not
exceed 20 percent. Abnormalities
of the head of the sperm involve
the DNA and are referred to as pri-
mary abnormalities. Abnor-
malities of the tail involve motility
of the cell. Both of these abnormal-
ities reflect malfunction of the
testes. Droplets found on the
sperm tail indicate immature
sperm and reflect malfunction of
the epididymis. Overuse of the
bull cannot cause the release of
immature sperm.
Whether a dairyman keeps a
bull or uses artificial insemination,
do not forget that the bull is half of
the breeding herd. This is as true
for fertility as it is for milk produc-
tion. In fact, use of a low fertility
12
bull is an easy way to reduce
reproductive efficiency in the
herd.
Bulls must be fertile. There is no
evidence that a bulls fertility is
affected by his Predicted
Difference for genetic traits such
as Milk (PDM), Type (PDT),
Cheese Yield or Dollars (PD$).
Thus, in selecting bulls to use,
choose those that have a high PD
for the traits important to you.
Today there are enough genetical-
ly superior bulls in most bull studs
so that bulls with low fertility are
culled.
Sexed semen. The availability of
sex-sorted semen has been eagerly
anticipated for many years.
However, expense and efficiency
of the processing procedures,
combined with compromised con-
ception of the finished product,
have stifled large-scale commer-
cial implementation until recently.
Numerous advances in the past 20
years have finally brought the
technology to a point where com-
mercial application can be eco-
nomically justified. This is not to
suggest that all issues have been
resolved, but development of fluo-
rescence-activated cell sorting has
made this technology available to
the dairy industry: sorting effi-
ciencies have been increased so
that sex-sorted semen can be
offered at prices that allow for a
return on investment, despite con-
ception rates that are typically 70
to 75 percent of those obtained
using conventional semen. To
ensure the potential gain is real-
ized, optimum reproductive man-
agement is essential. At this time,
industry recommendations are to
use sexed semen only in heifers,
because of higher conception
rates.
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 13
3 The cows
reproductive tract
A
NIMALS such as fish and
reptiles place their young
mostly at the mercy of their
environment. In contrast, mam-
mals (animals which nurse their
young) provide a sheltered envi-
ronment for fertilization and for
the developing young, at least until
birth. This shelter in the female
reproductive tract allows most off-
spring to survive the early stages of
growth.
Nevertheless, we frequently find
faults in the reproductive tract of
the cow that cause pregnancy fail-
ures. Some of these faults originate
with the cow herself, while others
are caused by humans, reflecting
poor management. Among these
are unskilled artificial insemination
or veterinary practices which dam-
age the fragile parts of the repro-
ductive tract. Sound dairy herd
management minimizes most of
these pregnancy losses and elimi-
nates others.
Well protected. The reproductive
tract of the cow is located just
under the rectum, largely within
the pelvic girdle. This bony channel
protects the tract, at least until the
middle of pregnancy. Actually, the
uterus and ovaries are located
ahead of the pelvic girdle, within
the abdominal cavity just above
and behind the intestines. They are
held in that position by a tough
sheet-like ligament (broad liga-
ment). This ligament carries the
weight of not only the reproductive
tract, but also of the calf within it.
The tract is richly supplied with
blood vessels and nerve fibers.
Unfortunately, many of the vital The vagina is lined by a mem-
organs of the reproductive tract are brane containing thousands of
located so they cannot be seen. mucus-producing glands. These
However, they are close enough to glands continually secrete a watery,
the rectum that they can be felt clear mucus that bathes the vagina
(palpated) through the rectum or and flushes out any foreign materi-
visualized with ultrasound. al which may have gained
Fortunately, skilled veterinarians, entrance, especially during estrus
by rectal palpation or ultrasonogra- (heat). Even with this defense
phy, can make many diagnoses that mechanism, the vagina frequently
otherwise would not be possible. is invaded by organisms, causing
Additionally, convenient access to low-grade infections.
the cows reproductive organs
allows an unskilled person to cause Cervix is tough. The inside end of
considerable damage or even steril- the vagina joins the cervix, an
ity. Some of the reproduc-
tive organs of the cow are
very delicate. They must
be handled only by a per- COWS REPRODUCTIVE TRACT: Note how
son who is aware of the close organs are to the rectum, making possible a
danger of permanent veterinarians examination by palpation.
damage. Ultrasound
examination of the tract
CERVIX
is becoming the stan-
dard of practice.
The vulva is the exter-
nal genitalia and en- RECTUM
trance to the vagina. The UTERUS
vulva and vagina are the
only parts of the repro-
ductive tract normally
visible without surgery.
The vagina serves not BLADDER OVARY OVIDUCT
only as the birth canal
but as a passageway for
semen and the exit for
urine.
In the cow, the vagina
is a collapsed tube, nor-
mally about 12 inches
(30 cm) long. The walls
of the vagina are thin
and elastic. Expansion is
limited only by the walls
of the pelvic girdle.
13
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 14
extremely tough and fibrous
organ. The cervix, 4 to 5 inches (10
to 12.5 cm) long, has a narrow
opening throughout its length.
This opening or cervical canal is
surrounded by heavy folds of tis-
sue. These folds form 3 or 4 promi-
nent ridges that encircle the interi-
or. These ridges are commonly
spoken of as the annular rings and
act to prevent entrance of any for-
eign material. Consequently, the
cervix serves as a very effective
door between the vagina and the
uterus. The cervix normally
dilates (opens) only during estrus
and at the time of calving.
The cervix also is lined with
mucous glands that add their
secretions to those of the vagina.
The mucous glands of the cervix
are most active during estrus.
During pregnancy, the cervical
mucus hardens and seals off the
uterus by forming the cervical
plug that dissolves before calving.
At calving, the cervix dilates and
REPRODUCTIVE TRACT dissected from a cow. Notice blister-like follicle on
ovary at top right. In the cow the bladder is located below the vagina. Oviducts are
more coiled than shown here and the funnel-shaped infundibulum would partially
surround the ovary.
Bladder
Vulva
Vagina
allows the fetus and surrounding
membranes to pass out.
The cervix is continuous with
the body of the uterus, which is
5/8 to 1 inch (1.5 to 2.5 cm) long.
As the uterus proceeds forward, it
is divided into two horns, each 12
to 16 inches (30 to 40 cm) long,
which are shaped similarly to the
horns of a ram. As with a rams
horns, the uterine horns are larger
at the body of the uterus and
become smaller near the ends.
The wall of the uterus is made
up of two layers of smooth muscle
plus an inside lining, called the
uterine mucosa. Contraction of the
smooth muscles causes the expul-
sion of the fetus at calving time.
Similar contractions during and
after breeding assist in transport-
ing the sperm to the site of fertil-
ization. The uterus is capable of
undergoing great changes in size
and position in order to accommo-
date the developing calf. Fol-
lowing calving, the uterus gradu-
Oviduct
Infundibulum
Cervix
Body of uterus
14
ally regains its normal shape and
size. This process is called involu-
tion. Rebreeding should be
delayed until the reproductive
tract has recovered from the previ-
ous pregnancy (see Chapter 13).
Uterine lining is very fragile.
Superficially, the uterus appears
quite tough. However, microscop-
ic examination shows the inside
lining is fragile and easily dam-
aged.
Arranged in rows along the
inside of the uterine horns are 80
to 120 bumps which range up to
0.5-inch (1.25 cm) in diameter.
These are caruncles, the places
where membranes of the develop-
ing calf attach to the uterus.
In the pregnant cow, the carun-
cles increase in size about 10
times. Nutrients from the cows
blood diffuse through the cell lay-
ers in the caruncles and enter the
blood of the calf. Waste products
from the calfs blood diffuse back
Ovary
Horn of uterus
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 15
into the cows blood where they
are eliminated. There is no mixing
of the blood supply from the cow
to the calf.
The area between the caruncles
is lined with microscopic-sized
glands that secrete fluids into the
uterine lumen (center cavity). This
fluid contains nutrients and other
substances such as hormones that
play important roles in the devel-
opment of the embryo. The
amount of fluid secreted is con-
trolled by ovarian hormones car-
ried through the bloodstream and
by hormones produced by the
developing embryo.
During estrus, there are phago-
cytes (white blood cells) in the
uterus which rapidly engulf and
destroy foreign organisms.
However, phagocytes are not
prevalent during the intervals
between periods of estrus. As a
result, if any infectious organisms
survive estrus, they easily may start
real trouble after estrus is over.
The uterus is the place where
the calf develops, making it natu-
rally a good environment for
growing organisms. With this fact
in mind, it is reasonable to expect
bacteria might find the uterus to
their liking, at least during the
time between periods of estrus.
At the front end, each uterine
OPENING OF THE CERVIX protrudes
into the vagina. The vagina has been dis-
sected off to show this view. Mucus from the
cervix glistens around the opening.
horn narrows to a small opening
and joins an oviduct. The two
oviducts are fragile, highly coiled
tubes. Each is 6 to 8 inches (15 to
20 cm) long and about 1/8 inch (3
mm) in diameter. The lining of the
oviduct is very specialized and
delicate. It also contains glands,
but their secretions are watery. We
believe this secretion usually
flows away from the uterus
toward the ovary.
The junction between the
uterus and the oviduct serves as a
valve. It is tightly shut except for
short times when it allows sperm
and eggs through. At all other
times, liquid can hardly be forced
through the junction from the
uterus into the oviduct or from the
oviduct into the uterus. The open-
ing and closing of this utero-tubal
junction is controlled by hor-
mones produced by the ovary. The
rate of movement of the fertilized
egg from the oviduct into the
uterus is controlled by hormones
(estrogen and progesterone) pro-
duced by the ovary.
Funnel for the egg. The other end
of the oviduct, adjacent to the
ovary, is shaped like a funnel and
is known as the infundibulum.
The large photograph on the bot-
tom of page 14 illustrates how del-
INSIDE OF THE CERVIX cut open. Notice the
heavy folds of tissue (annular rings). In the cow,
the vagina would be at the left and uterus at the
right of this cervix.
15
icate the infundibulum is. It par-
tially surrounds the ovary. The
infundibulum is lined by tiny pro-
jections called cilia. These cilia
beat in a regular rhythm to carry
the egg into the oviduct. The two
ovaries are oval-shaped, usually 1
to 2 inches (2.5 to 5 cm) long. They
have two functions, producing
ova (eggs) and hormones.
If we examine an ovary micro-
scopically, we find hundreds of
eggs, each egg at the center of a
group of cells. The egg with its
surrounding cells is known as a
follicle. If we could watch a partic-
ular follicle, we would see the cells
around the egg multiply. As a
result, the follicle becomes large
enough to be just visible.
Next, a fluid-filled cavity
appears within the group of cells
near the egg. This fluid-filled cav-
ity enlarges, slowly at first, but
very rapidly just before estrus.
The cells that surround the
ovum (egg) and line the fluid-
filled cavity of the follicle produce
the female sex hormone, estrogen.
As the follicle enlarges, it secretes
more and more estrogen into the
bloodstream of the cow. The high
levels of estrogen bring on the
estrus and sexual behavior (stand-
ing and mounting).
At this time, the follicle on the
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 16

ovary may be half as large as the
ovary itself and may be palpated
through the rectum. It appears to
be a very turgid blister. Then it
bursts, releasing the fluid within it
along with the ovum. The release
of the ovum and fluid is known as
ovulation, and occurs roughly 24
to 32 hours after onset of estrus.
About the time of ovulation, the
infundibulum (funnel) of the
oviduct becomes quite active. It
grasps the ovary as if it were
searching for the ovum. If all goes
well, the ovum is directed into the
oviduct. Occasionally, the ovum is
not picked up by the infundibu-
lum. As a result, it is lost among
the intestines.
Hopefully, the ovum will be
fertilized by a sperm cell waiting
in or passing through the oviduct.
The fertilized egg then passes into
the uterus.
After ovulation, the old, col-
lapsed follicle begins its second
life. Some of the cells that lined
the cavity of the follicle suddenly
begin to multiply. These cells
secrete the hormone of pregnancy,
progesterone. Within one day,
these cells will grow to the point
that they form a mass as much as
0.5-inch (1.25 cm) in diameter.
This new structure, which is
yellow to red in color, is the cor-
pus luteum, sometimes called
yellow body. It continues to
grow for 10 or 12 days, secreting
more and more progesterone into
the bloodstream of the cow. At this
point, the corpus luteum may be
nearly as large as the ovary itself.
If the ovum is fertilized and the
cow is pregnant, the corpus
luteum continues to secrete prog-
esterone throughout most of preg-
nancy. If the ovum is not fertilized,
the corpus luteum starts to degen-
erate while, at the same time,
another follicle begins to enlarge
rapidly. The next chapter will
describe the formation of the folli-
cle and the corpus luteum.
Frequent defects. It is not at all
unusual to find heifers with
abnormalities of the reproductive
tract. One of the most frequent
abnormalities is a blind cervix.
Such a heifer is totally sterile.
Other times we find a cervix
with two channels into the uterus,
or perhaps one open channel and
one blind channel. Even when one
pathway is blind, the heifer is usu-
ally fertile. However, the insemi-
nator may have trouble finding
the open channel.
Other parts of the reproductive
tract also may be missing.
Sometimes heifers have only one
uterine horn or only one function-
al ovary.
The freemartin condition is
probably the most frequent abnor-
mality involving the underdevel-
opment of the female reproductive
tract. It occurs in over 95 percent
of the heifers born twin to a bull.
Usually the tract of a freemartin
is closed at the opening of the
vagina, just in front of the opening
of the bladder. Therefore, an ordi-
nary test tube (6 inches long 15
cm) can be inserted only 2 to 3
inches (5 to 7.5 cm) into the vagi-
na. In the normal heifer the test
tube can be inserted to its full
length into the vagina.
In some freemartins the tract is
complete up to the cervix. In these
cases, the freemartin condition can
be detected by examining the
chromosome makeup of a sample
of white blood cells collected from
the animal. In freemartins, some
white blood cells contain the chro-
mosome makeup of females
(heifers); whereas other cells from
the same sample contain the chro-
mosome pattern of males (bulls).
Because the odds of a
freemartin heifer being fertile are
less than 1 in 10, it is recommend-
ed to feed her out for beef or sell
her for the same purpose.

COW OVUM (EGG) IN OVARY (magni- FOLLICLE IN COWS OVARY (magni-

fied 400x). Nucleus is in center, surrounded fied 200x). Ovum (egg) is below fluid-
by cytoplasm and one layer of cells produc- filled cavity, which is, in turn, lined with
ing female sex hormone. cells that produce estrogen.

16
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 17
4 Reproduction:
Full-time job for the
dairy cow
T
HE FIRST THING WE
demand of the dairy cow is
that she produce 9 to 14 tons
(10,000 kg) of milk a year. But lets
not forget that, before we can get
this milk, the cow must have a calf
about once a year.
Ideally, we would like every
dairy cow pregnant or recovering
from pregnancy at all times. This is
truly working her full time. It goes
on continually. At least, it goes on
until some part of the complicated
process breaks down.
Among the causes of infertility,
the body parts that control the func-
tions of the reproductive tract are
notorious. Many of these controlling
centers are located far away from
the reproductive tract. We now bet-
ter understand how some of these
glands affect reproduction and how
aberrations of their functioning can
cause infertility.
Chemical messengers. The most
important controls of reproduction
are the hormones that regulate the
estrous cycle, estrus (heat), preg-
nancy, birth and even the secretion
of milk.
Hormones are chemical mes-
sengers. This means they are
secreted by an endocrine gland at
one location in the body and move
into the bloodstream. The blood
carries the hormone to an organ at
another location where it delivers
its message by affecting the target
organ in some way. The hormones
only act on or stimulate target
glands or organs that contain spe-
cific receptor sites to which the hor-
mone binds.
Specialized nerves located in a
neuroendocrine center of the brain,
called the hypothalamus, actually
control reproduction and milk
secretion by secreting hormones
that control the pituitary gland.
Of all the endocrine glands, the
pituitary gland occupies a position
of primary importance. It secretes
several hormones, many of which
control the function of other
endocrine glands. Because of its
tremendous influence on other
body glands, the pituitary gland is
known as the master gland of the
body. Now we know that the pitu-
itary is controlled by the hypothal-
amus, which in turn is controlled
by higher brain centers in the cen-
tral nervous system.
The pituitary is located at the
base of the brain, close to the hypo-
thalamus. In the cow, it is only
about 3/4 of an inch (2 cm) in diam-
eter. Its location near the brain is
essential to some of its functions,
since the hypothalamus gives
directions to the pituitary, telling it
what to do and when to do it.
The hypothalamus controls the
secretion of pituitary hormones by
secreting other hormones into a
specialized portal system that sup-
plies blood to the pituitary. We now
can control part of the reproductive
process through synthesized hor-
mones of the hypothalamus. The
chemical structure of hypothalamic
hormones is much simpler than
that of pituitary hormones.
Therefore they are less expensive to
synthesize than the more complex
protein hormones of the pituitary.
Hypothalamic hormones are used
17
to treat such abnormal conditions
as cystic ovaries, and their uses in
controlling reproduction are
described in Chapters 18 and 19.
Among the hormones secreted
by the pituitary gland are those
that specifically control reproduc-
tion. These are known as
gonadotropins, because they con-
trol the gonads (the ovaries of the
cow and the testes of the bull). The
gonadotropins all have long
descriptive names. However, we
will use the abbreviations com-
monly used by veterinarians.
Lets take a look at the body
chemistry of the cow during the
estrous cycle. The pituitary secretes
the hormone known as follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH). The
blood carries FSH to the ovaries
where, as its name implies, it stim-
ulates the growth of follicles.
A group of follicles begins to
grow in response to a transient
increase in blood concentrations of
FSH. This increase in FSH is
observed one or two days before
the appearance of several new folli-
cles in both ovaries. Shown in the
figure at the top of page 18 is the
diameter of several follicles during
the estrous cycle of a cow. This cow
has three groups or waves of fol-
licles that develop during the cycle.
On days 1 and 2, three follicles
were visualized, but only one grew
(dominant) from this group
(cohort) and dominated the other
smaller (subordinate) follicles. The
subordinate follicles undergo atre-
sia (death) and are no longer useful
as potential follicles.
The first dominant follicle
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 18

undergoes a growth phase (days 1

to 6), a static phase (days 7 to 9), Ovulation
and a regressing phase (days 11 to
Luteolysis
12 or longer). The second wave of
follicles visualized appeared
around day 9 or 10 of the estrous

Follicular diameter (mm)

cycle, one of which dominates the
other follicles and becomes the
second dominant follicle, which
happened to regress before luteol-
ESTRUS
ysis (death of the corpus luteum).
Therefore, a third wave of follicles,
which began to grow about day 14
or 15, appeared with another
dominant follicle emerging and
eventually ovulating.
Although any number of folli-
cles (beginning diameter of 0.1
inch, 2.5 mm) can make up a wave
of follicles, usually only one to six
develop per wave. The first wave ESTRUS
and its dominant follicle always
appear at the same time during Luteolysis
the cycle in all cows. In the figure, Luteal
a three-wave cow has an estrous
cycle of 21 days. Two-, three- and LH
four-wave cycles have been
LH or FSH (ng/mL)

observed in cattle, with the begin-

ning of the second, third or fourth
wave during the cycle being more
variable than the first. Estrous FSH Follicular
cycles are longer with increasing
number of follicular waves. Two- LH
wave cycles are shorter (19 to 20 LH
days) and four-wave cycles tend
to be longer (23 to 25 days) in
duration.
What determines the number of
follicular waves is not yet under- ESTRUS
stood. However, if a prostaglandin
injection is given on day 6 or 7, for Luteolysis
E2 (pg/mL) P4 (ng/mL)

example, when the first dominant

follicle is growing, the corpus
luteum will regress and the first
dominant follicle can ovulate and
be normally fertile when A.I. P4
breeding is performed based on
estrus. That would be true for any
dominant follicle that is in its
E2
growing phase. It was recently
demonstrated that any dominant
follicle would ovulate (in the
growth phase) during a normal
estrous cycle if gonadotropin-
releasing hormone (GnRH) is DAYS OF THE ESTRUS CYCLE

18
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 19
injected, thus producing a second-
ary corpus luteum.
The female sex hormone
(estrogen) also rises and falls with
the growth and regression of a
dominant follicle. The dominant
follicle apparently dominates its
subordinate peers by producing
substances that inhibit their fur-
ther growth. As it grows larger,
the follicle (which is an endocrine
gland itself) secretes more and
more estrogen into the blood-
stream. At this point, the mature
follicle is about 0.75 inches (2 cm)
in diameter. Estrogen in the blood
is highest during the two days
before estrus and starts to decline
on the day of estrus.
Although we talk about high
estrogen in blood near estrus,
high estrogen is a bit mislead-
OPPOSITE: AN EXAMPLE OF
CHANGES IN HORMONAL
CONCENTRATIONS AND FOL-
LICULAR GROWTH that normally
occur during a 21-day estrous cycle
of a cow with three follicular waves.
Abbreviations: E2 = estrogen; P4 =
progesterone; LH = luteinizing hor-
mone; FSH = follicle-stimulating
hormone; luteolysis = time when the
corpus luteum dies, progesterone
decreases rapidly in blood; luteal =
period of the cycle (days 4 to 18)
when the corpus luteum is function-
al, progesterone is elevated, and the
number of pulses of LH secretion in
blood is about one per 4-6 hours; fol-
licular = period of the cycle (days 19
to 21) when rapid follicular matura-
tion occurs, estrogen is elevated,
progesterone is low, and the number
of pulses of LH secretion in blood is
about one per hour.
ing. It is high compared to other
stages of the cycle. But the amount
of estrogen in blood near estrus is
extremely small, only about 10
parts per trillion parts of blood.
We have known about the exis-
tence of estrogen for half a century
because it is such a potent chemi-
cal. However, the amount of estro-
gen in cows blood is so small that
it wasnt measured until 1971.
High estrogen in the blood has
profound effects throughout the
body. The most obvious effect of
the estrogen is that it brings on the
heat period (estrus). The behavior
of the female (standing heat) is
about the only reliable means we
have to determine the optimum
time for breeding. That people can
detect estrus in cows is another
factor which makes A.I. breeding
possible. If the bull alone could
detect cows in estrus, A.I. would
not be practical.
Yet, it is true that some cows do
not show typical symptoms dur-
ing the estrus period and, conse-
quently, are less fertile simply
because they are bred at the wrong
time. Little is known about the
LARGE DOMINANT FOLLICLE
(blister at left) is shown on ovary. It
grows in 5 to 8 days to an inch in
diameter. The follicle contains the egg
(ovum), that is released 10-16 hours
after the end of estrus.
19
manner in which estrogen brings
on estrus, but this effect of estro-
gen acts on the brain.
About one day before onset of
estrus, the high level of estrogen
causes the pituitary to secrete
more luteinizing hormone (LH).
This LH causes the dominant folli-
cle to reach its maximum size.
Near the onset of estrus, LH
surges to about 20 to 30 times its
normal level, whereas FSH secre-
tion reaches about twice its nor-
mal concentration. The blood car-
ries both hormones to the ovary
where they stimulate the follicle to
undergo changes that lead to
release of the egg from within
(ovulation). Normally ovulation
occurs about 25 to 32 hours after
the onset of estrus.
If all goes well, the egg is
picked up by the funnel-shaped
infundibulum and directed into
the oviduct. The follicle, its job
done, rapidly collapses at the time
of ovulation. But LH does not let
these old follicle cells rest. Instead,
LH causes some of these cells to
grow very rapidly. Within a few
days, the follicle has been replaced
HEIFER OVARIES 8 days after the
estrous period. Left ovary is presently
inactive. Right ovary contains a cor-
pus luteum (upper right) from the
previous ovulation and a dominant
follicle.
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 20

by a new structure, the corpus
luteum (yellow body), which will
be larger than the follicle (0.9 to 1.4
inches in diameter; 2 to 3.5 cm).
The corpus luteum is very dif-
ferent from the follicle. It is solid
and dark red to yellow in color,
and manufactures progesterone,
the hormone of pregnancy (think
of pro-gestation). Thus, the cor-
pus luteum is also an endocrine
gland. It continues to grow larger
under the influence of LH. As it
grows, it produces more and more
progesterone.
The presence of estrogen and
progesterone in the blood causes
drastic changes in the reproduc-
tive organs, especially in the
uterus. The inside lining of the
uterus grows thicker and the uter-
ine glands become more active as
the uterus prepares to nourish a
new fertilized egg and start a new
pregnancy.
In about half of all cows, blood
may be observed on the vulva
about two days following estrus.
This blood is believed to be caused
by the breakdown of cells during
rupture of the follicle.
The presence of blood follow-
ing estrus has no relation to breed-
ing, injury or whether or not the
cow conceived. It simply indicates
the cow was probably in estrus
two or three days before.
If the egg is not fertilized, the
corpus luteum grows for about 10
to 12 days and secretes high
amounts of progesterone until
about 16 to 18 days after estrus.
High progesterone in the blood
suppresses release of gonado-
tropins from the pituitary. During
the period of luteal dominance
(corpus luteum is functional and
secreting elevated concentrations
of progesterone), LH is secreted in
pulses of one per 4 to 6 hours. This
pulse frequency of LH, in combi-
nation with FSH, allows follicles
to develop but not ovulate.
At about 16 to 18 days after

HORMONES secreted by the pituitary gland and the
ovaries control the estrous cycle. About 1 day after
estrus, the process starts with FSH (follicle stimulating
hormone) from the pituitary. This starts growth of the
first wave of egg-carrying follicles on the ovary. Then the
follicle secretes the female sex hormone (estrogen). No
estrus signs are observed because blood progesterone pre-
vents estrus. Estrogen secreted by the follicle that
matures in the absence of elevated progesterone (second-,
third- or fourth-wave follicle) produces signs of estrus.
Then the pituitary secretes LH (luteinizing hormone),
which causes the follicle to rupture, releasing the egg
about 10 to 16 hours after the end of estrus. Then LH
also causes the corpus luteum (yellow body) to replace the
follicle. It produces the pregnancy hormone, progesterone.
If the egg is not fertilized, progesterone secretion is termi-
nated about 16 to 18 days later, and the estrous cycle
repeats.

Hypothalamus
Pituitary (GnRH)

ary
w i n ov
g ro eat) d
l l i c le to strus (h release
e s f o n e g g ncy
Follicle o re, e
Ovary
H caus b r ings p t u p r e gna
FS n ru fo r
oge i cl e c ow
E s t r s e s fo l l r e s
ca
u epa
LH r o n e pr
este
P ro g
Corpus
luteum

20
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 21
estrus, if the cow is not pregnant,
the uterus manufactures a lute-
olytic factor. This luteolytic factor
is prostaglandin F2- (PGF), a 20-
carbon fatty acid. Prostaglandin
travels from the uterus through
the uterine vein to a point just past
where the uterine vein is fused
with the ovarian vein to form the
utero-ovarian vein. From this
point in the utero-ovarian vein,
prostaglandin passes through the
wall of the vein and across into the
ovarian artery. The ovarian artery
carries the prostaglandin to the
ovary. The luteolytic factor
(prostaglandin) kills the corpus
luteum and the corpus luteum
degenerates rapidly. As a result,
progesterone falls to very low lev-
els within 24 hours. This leads to
secretion of more estrogen and
LH, and causes the dominant folli-
cle to mature. This can occur
because the pulse frequency of
LH secretion increases to one
pulse per hour.
If all goes well, the cycle repeats
every 18 to 24 days until the cow
becomes pregnant.
The discovery that prosta-
glandin stops progesterone secre-
tion by the corpus luteum in the
cow was made in 1972. Like the
hypothalamic hormones, prosta-
glandin was a major discovery.
Anytime between days 5 and 18
after estrus, a single injection of
prostaglandin causes death of the
corpus luteum. Estrus occurs
between 40 and 80 hours later,
with an average of 72 hours.
Prostaglandin can be used to
control the time of estrus in a cow
that has a corpus luteum. It also
can be used to synchronize the
time of estrus in a group of ani-
mals. This will be discussed in
more detail in Chapter 18.
Maintain pregnancy. If the cow is
bred and the egg fertilized, the
corpus luteum continues to secrete
progesterone. At first, the proges-
terone prepares the uterus for the
developing calf. Later, it maintains
the pregnancy, at least until the
sixth or seventh month.
If the corpus luteum is removed
from the ovary during the first
two-thirds of pregnancy, the cow
will abort. But abortion does not
always occur if the corpus luteum
is removed during the last third of
pregnancy. The reason why cows
do not always abort when the cor-
pus luteum is removed during late
pregnancy is that the placenta pro-
duces a large amount of proges-
terone during the last three
months of gestation, thus taking
over the role of the corpus luteum.
All during the estrous cycle,
estrogen and progesterone have
essential effects upon the udder, at
least in the heifer. Progesterone
causes the cells that secrete milk to
multiply. Estrogen stimulates
growth of the ducts that drain the
milk to the teat.
These effects on the udder are
very pronounced during the last
few weeks of pregnancy. The pla-
centa releases very large quantities
of estrogen at this time, up to 30
times higher than the high level
secreted by the follicle just before
estrus. The combination of the
large quantities of estrogen with
COW OVARY AND INFUNDIBU-
LUM. Ovary has large corpus
luteum (left) from previous ovulation
and large follicle (right) for next ovu-
lation. Ovary itself (top) is relatively
small. Notice opening through the
infundibulum (funnel).
21
some progesterone is responsible
for the udders tremendous growth
in the few weeks before calving. In
addition to the effects of estrogen
and progesterone, mammary
growth is stimulated by placental
lactogen, a protein hormone pro-
duced by the placenta.
In these respects, milking is
totally dependent upon reproduc-
tion. The two are inseparable. In
fact, the mammary gland of the
heifer will not develop apprecia-
bly until pregnancy is well under
way. Milk secretion is a part of
reproduction from an academic
standpoint and from a practical
standpoint.
There is still another hormone
from the pituitary gland that
affects reproduction. This hor-
mone, oxytocin, is from the poste-
rior part of the pituitary; the other
pituitary hormones previously
mentioned are from the anterior
part of the pituitary. Because oxy-
tocin was found in the posterior
pituitary, it was thought for many
years that the hormone was pro-
duced by that gland. However,
now it is known that oxytocin is
produced by the hypothalamus
and is only stored in the posterior
pituitary.
CORPUS LUTEUM dissected open.
Notice that squeezing ovary could
dislodge corpus luteum.
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 22
Oxytocin is the hormone that
causes milk let-down at milking
time. It also causes contractions of
the uterus. At the time of breed-
ing, either naturally or by artificial
insemination, oxytocin is released
from the posterior pituitary.
Experimental evidence indicates
that contractions of the smooth
muscles in the uterus aid the
transportation of sperm through
the female reproductive tract to
the place where fertilization
occurs.
When oxytocin is released from
the pituitary, it travels through the
bloodstream to all parts of the
body, including the udder. It is not
at all uncommon to see a cow leak-
ing milk just after palpation of the
reproductive organs or breeding
as a result of oxytocin causing
milk letdown.
As explained in Chapter 7, oxy-
tocin also causes the uterine con-
tractions that expel the calf at par-
turition. If you wonder why oxy-
tocin does not expel the calf at
milking time in pregnant cows,
the reason is that the uterine mus-
cle must be sensitized by the
extremely high amounts of estro-
gen secreted by the placenta (up to
30 times higher than before estrus)
during the two weeks before calv-
ing.
We have known for decades
that it is important to be gentle
with cows at milking time. The
reason is that fright or stress caus-
es the release of epinephrine from
the adrenal glands. Epinephrine is
a hormone that counteracts the
milk letdown effect of oxytocin.
Presumably, epinephrine influ-
ences conception rate because
most artificial inseminators agree
that, to get highest fertility, they
must treat a cow gently at time of
insemination.
The two adrenal glands, one
located next to each kidney, also
secrete other important hormones.
The chemical structures of these
22
resemble estrogen and proges-
terone. Others control the rate and
type of metabolism in the body.
The adrenal glands of the fetus
play an important role in its deliv-
ery. If the adrenal glands of the
fetus are removed surgically, par-
turition fails to occur. The adrenal
hormone responsible for this
action is cortisol a steroid hor-
mone similar in structure to prog-
esterone.
The nature and mode of action
of hormones continue to baffle us.
Our knowledge about them is
very meager. In recent years we
have learned how to use some of
the reproductive hormones to reg-
ulate reproductive processes and
reduce infertility. Some of the hor-
mones now used to control repro-
duction or treat infertility prob-
lems include prostaglandin, LH,
FSH, progesterone and gonado-
tropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
one of the hormones produced
in the hypothalamus.
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 23
5 Union of sperm
and egg
R
EPRODUCTIVE PROCESS-
ES are difficult to study.
Most processes take place
inside the cows body where it is
very difficult to make measure-
ments and observations. In recent
years, procedures have been
developed for growing and main-
taining viable animal cells and tis-
sues in the laboratory. Thus, it is
now possible to study some of the
early phases of development in
greater detail under controlled
conditions.
This chapter will describe the
events leading up to the formation
of a calf.
The story begins at the time of
breeding, which normally should
be from the middle to the end of
estrus. In natural breeding, the bull
deposits the sperm in the vagina
next to the cervix.
In artificial insemination, the
desired site of semen deposition is
just through the cervix into the
body of the uterus. Because 10 to
20 million sperm per insemination
are used in artificial insemination
versus 5 to 15 billion in natural
breeding, it is necessary to deposit
sperm in the uterus.
After natural insemination the
sperm pass into the cervix by their
own motility as they are oriented
against the flow of mucus from the
cervix. The cervix has a very com-
plex network of folds that function
as pathways for sperm as they
travel to the uterus. Because of the
discharge of mucus and structure
of the cervix, most of the sperm
cells inseminated remain in the
cervix, with only a small propor-
tion reaching the site of fertiliza-
tion.
Once the sperm pass the cervix
and enter the uterus, uterine con-
tractions become the major factor
in sperm transport. The sperm
swim much too slowly to move so
far so rapidly. Muscle contractions
of the uterus, caused by the hor-
mone oxytocin, are responsible for
a rapid transport of sperm to the
oviducts.
As mentioned in previous chap-
ters, the ovum is released (ovulat-
ed) about 25 to 32 hours after the
onset of estrus. It is picked up and
directed almost immediately by
the infundibulum (funnel) and
enters the oviduct. The ovum then
begins its journey toward the
uterus. The first part of this jour-
ney is relatively fast. It probably
passes to the middle of the oviduct
within six hours.
After this time, the ovum rapid-
ly loses its viability. Consequently,
if the ovum is to be fertilized, it
must be fertilized while it is in the
upper half of the oviduct. Its fertile
life is no longer than about 10 to 12
hours. Ova may be fertilized after
this time, but evidence indicates
such fertilizations are likely to
result in early abortions or abnor-
mal embryos.
Sperm are transported to the
oviducts within minutes after
insemination; however, these
have been shown to be dead
sperm. The greatest number of
viable sperm are found in the
oviducts 8 to 12 hours after
insemination, with some decrease
following. Acceptable fertility
23
occurs when cows are inseminat-
ed about 12 to 16 hours after the
beginning of standing estrus. The
universally accepted time of
insemination is a rule of thumb
called the AM-PM guideline.
Based on watching cows for
estrus twice daily, those cows first
detected in estrus in the morning
are bred that same afternoon, and
those found in the afternoon and
night are bred the following
morning. More exacting meas-
ures have been attempted, but the
rule of thumb is as simple and
successful as we have at the pres-
ent time. Details regarding timed
A. I. (TAI) follow in Chapter 18.
Sperm develop fertilizing capacity.
Sperm apparently have to reside in
the female reproductive tract for a
period of time before they develop
the capacity to fertilize an ovum.
Changes in the sperm surface take
place, making enzymes available
that allow the sperm to penetrate
the outer surface of the ovum. It
may take the action of thousands
of sperm cells to cause certain
changes of the ovum and its sur-
rounding cells before fertilization
can occur.
Whether natural mating or arti-
ficial insemination is used, sperm
live for only about 24 hours in the
female reproductive tract. In nor-
mal cows, therefore, we can expect
satisfactory fertility from matings
made at any time from the middle
of estrus to about 10 hours after the
end of estrus.
Despite this apparent wide
range of time during which satis-
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 24
factory fertility results can be
obtained, the highest fertility is
obtained when cows are bred
sometime during the latter part of
standing estrus.
These are the reasons why A.I.
technicians want to know when
the cow came into estrus so they
can breed her at the optimum time
before or just after she goes out
of estrus. Best results seem to be
obtained when cows are bred near
the end of estrus. Breeding at this
time enables the sperm to become
capacitated (have the ability to
fertilize the ovum) when the ovum
is released from the ovary.
These time intervals represent
averages, and many cows do not
fit the pattern of the average cow.
Some cows remain in standing
estrus longer. Others will ovulate
sooner or later after estrus than the
average cow.
This is one reason why accurate
breeding records on individual
cows can be beneficial. For a par-
ticular cow, an abnormally long
period of estrus might be nor-
mal. Accurate records with this
type of information provide valu-
able assistance for timing the
insemination.
Our present understanding of
the fertile life of the ovum and
sperm, and the need for sperm
capacitation explain why proper
timing of the insemination is so
important in obtaining optimal
fertility. If cows are inseminated
too early, the sperm may die before
the ovum is released. If cows are
inseminated too late (after ovula-
tion), the ovum becomes infertile
before the sperm gains the ability
to fertilize the ovum.
Provided insemination was
made at the right time, fertilization
occurs within four to six hours
after ovulation; that is, about 29 to
36 hours after the onset of estrus.
When sperm reach the upper
half of the oviduct, the site of fertil-
ization, they begin their search for
the ovum. Motility of the sperm
probably is important in this
search, although contractions of
the oviduct undoubtedly help the
sperm.
The sperm cell is much smaller
than the ovum. Its length, includ-
ing the tail, is about the same as
the diameter of the ovum. The
process of fertilization is not clear-
ly understood. Several sperm cells
may penetrate the outer layer of
the ovum (zona pellucida). But
under normal circumstances, only
one sperm cell passes through the
ovum membrane. This occurs
because some change in the chem-
istry of the membrane blocks entry
of any additional sperm after the
first one has penetrated this layer.
Exactly how this penetration
occurs is still debated. But most
evidence suggests that one mem-
brane on the sperm fuses with the
ovum membrane and the entire
sperm is then engulfed into the
cytoplasm of the ovum. The sperm
nucleus is released and then unites
with the ovum cell nucleus. Under
some abnormal conditions, more
than one sperm may fertilize the
ovum. Apparently these genetic
freaks are lost very early in preg-
nancy.
Speaking exactly, the union of
the sperm nucleus and the ovum
nucleus is fertilization. The nucle-
FERTILIZED OVUM has divided
two times to form four cells. It now
represents a newly formed animal.
24
us of the sperm and ovum contains
the hereditary information (chro-
mosomes) that is passed on to the
new offspring. These bits of hered-
itary information are contained in
genes located on the chromosomes
in the nucleus. The chromosomes
become paired (one from each par-
ent) as the two nuclei (of the sperm
and ovum) join. The sex and inher-
ited features of the new calf are
determined at this time.
One-celled calf. The newly fertil-
ized ovum is now a one-celled calf
(or zygote). This one cell possesses
the inherent ability to divide first
into two cells, then into four cells,
and so on until it reaches the
countless numbers of cells that
make up the various parts of a calf.
The cow has now completed
only one phase of her task in
reproduction. She has produced a
viable ovum and provided the
environment for fertilizing the
ovum. Next, she must carry and
nourish the developing calf during
the nine months of its intrauterine
life. Later she must give uncompli-
cated birth to the calf.
DIVIDING CELLS of fertilized
ovum total 16. All body parts of the
mature animal originate from these
cells. Both embryos are contained in
a translucent membrane known as
the zona pellucida, from which they
will later hatch as the blastocyst
develops and elongates to form the
placenta and the new calf.
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 25

6 Before birth
A calf begins to grow

The junction between the rapidly and accumulate at increas-

T
HE REPRODUCTIVE PER-
FORMANCE of the cow has oviduct and the uterus is responsi- ing rates. The dividing cells remain
become so well accepted that ble for holding the embryo in the within the zona pellucida for about
we seldom give serious thought to oviduct for as long as three days. 8 to 9 days. Then this outer mem-
what actually goes on inside her During this time, the corpus brane of the ovum breaks open and
body. The cow is expected to pro- luteum is growing and secreting the cells begin to push outward
duce a fertile ovum and provide a more and more progesterone (the (hatching). At first, layers of cells
favorable environment for sperm pregnancy hormone). When the are formed. This is followed by the
cells to fertilize the ovum. progesterone balances the residual formation of the body organs and
In addition, she must carry and estrogen (female sex hormone) in body parts. For example, the heart
nourish the developing fetus and the bloodstream, the tubo-uterine begins to beat as early as 22 days
then give birth to a normal, healthy junction opens and allows the after fertilization.
calf. Meanwhile, she is expected to embryo to pass into the uterus. For about 25 days, the develop-
pay for her keep by producing The three-day stay of the ing embryo floats rather freely in
tremendous quantities of milk. embryo in the oviduct is important. the lumen of the uterus. During
The fertilized ovum divides the It takes about this long for the this time, it must absorb its nutri-
first time within about 20 hours. progesterone to prepare the uterus ents largely from fluids (uterine
Each of the two resulting cells so it can provide a suitable environ- milk) within the uterus.
divides again to form four cells ment for the embryo. While the embryo is floating
within another 30 to 40 hours. By Once the embryo enters the freely in the uterus, membranes
this time, the developing embryo uterus, the cells within it divide grow around it. When the embryo
has descended into the lower half
of the oviduct. The cells, still with-
in the zona pellucida, continue to
divide while the embryo stays in
the lower half of the oviduct for
about two additional days. At the EMBRYO IN PLACENTAL MEMBRANES at 45 days of gestation. The
end of this time, the embryo con- amnion is the spherical part around the fetus, shown at top center. The rest of
tains 8 to 16 cells. the placenta extends the full length of both uterine horns.
Transport of the embryo down 12 inches 29 cm
the oviduct is believed to be con-
trolled by the hormones estrogen
and progesterone. However, the
exact mechanism is not known. If
muscular contractions of the
oviduct are responsible, we do not
understand how similar contrac-
tions could transport sperm up the
oviduct at one time and then pro-
pel the fertilized ovum down the
oviduct just three days later.
At the end of these three days,
the developing embryo is about the
size of a pinhead.

25
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 26

is about 25 days old, the mem-
branes from the embryo begin to
unite with the caruncles (buttons)
on the inside lining (endometri-
um) of the uterus. This forms the
placenta.
The spaces between the mem-
branes of the placenta become
filled with fluid. Actually, the calf
develops inside a fluid-filled sac
called the amnion, which is
enclosed by another fluid-filled
sac, called the chorioallantois. The
fluid distributes the force of any
blow over the entire surface of the
calf, thereby protecting it.
When the embryo is 35 to 45
days old, the head and legs are
recognizable. Blood vessels begin
to grow out from the heart of the
fetus. A large artery and vein grow
through the umbilical cord, pass
through the placental membranes,
and end in microscopic capillaries
in the cotyledons on the placental
surface.
Where the placenta contacts a
uterine caruncle, a cotyledon (but-
ton) develops. The placenta is
attached to the uterus by these
caruncular-cotyledonary unions,
known as placentomes. The carun-
cle and cotyledon attach together
much like velcro. The cotyledons
have microscopic-sized, finger-
like projections which, by this
time, have grown into the carun-
cles on the uterus. Blood vessels
from the cow end in microscopic
capillaries in the caruncles. The
maternal capillaries in the carun-
cles lie very close to the fetal capil-
laries in the cotyledons.
This intimate association
between the fetal and maternal
blood systems enables nutrients
and gases to diffuse from the
cows blood into the bloodstream
of the fetus. Waste products from
the fetus diffuse into the blood-
stream of the dam where they are
eliminated. In this manner, the
mother feeds the fetus and
voids the waste products from it.
There is no direct connection
between the blood vessels of the
cow and those of the calf.
Nonetheless, if the pregnant cow
consumes certain toxins, for exam-
ple, or is infected by certain
agents, the unborn calf can be
affected. More detail on this in
Chapter 8, 10 and 11.
By 60 days, most of its adult
organs have been formed,
although, by no means, are all of
them functional. From this time
on, the new calf is known as a
fetus. By the time it is 90 days old,
it may be clearly recognized as a
calf.
Then comes the period of most
rapid skeletal growth in the whole
life of an animal. The fetus gains
from about 2 pounds (1 kg) to a
birth weight of 50 to 90 pounds (22
to 40 kg) during the last five
months of pregnancy.
The birth weight of the calf
largely is determined by the size
of the cow and by heredity. The
effect of heredity is evident in the
average birth weights for the dif-
ferent breeds, which vary from 50
to 90 pounds (22 to 40 kg). It is
interesting that all mammals, from
the mouse to the elephant, are
about the same size when life
begins with the fertilized ovum.

EMBRYO IN THE AMNION, the membrane that imme-

diately surrounds the developing calf. There is another
outer membrane (chorioallantois) that has been dissected
away. The two membranes and fluids inside them protect THIS 60-DAY-OLD FETUS was removed from a cow. It
the calf in the uterus and form the placenta, or afterbirth. measures about 3 inches (7.5 cm) long. A growing calf rep-
resents the successful conclusion of thousands of intricate
1 inch, 2.5 cm
events during normal reproduction.

26
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 27

Hormones necessary for birth. leading to

After the fetus is about 8 months birth of the
old, drastic changes begin to occur calf.
in the cow. Progesterone secretion During the
from the corpus luteum begins a beginning
gradual decline. At about this stage of labor,
same time, the ovary begins to the fully de-
release another hormone, known veloped calf is

Weight of fetus (lbs.)

as relaxin. Relaxin prepares the pushed into
cow for calving by softening and the normal
relaxing the tissues that make up birth position.
the birth canal. The cervix, for The forelegs
example, has been closed very are extended
tightly all during pregnancy to with the head
keep foreign material out of the lying on them
uterus. But now the thick mucus ready to pass
making up the cervical plug liqui- through the
fies, and relaxin softens (relaxes) dilated cervix.
the cervix so it can dilate and In any other
expand enough to allow the calf to position, the
pass through. calf is likely to
The calf plays the key role in its cause difficul- Days of Gestation
own delivery. Although the exact ties for the
mechanism that starts the whole cow. The calf GROWTH OF THE FETUS is illustrated in this graph.
process is unknown, it is thought is most often The calf is still very small at 50 days. But the rate of growth
that maturation of the calf's hypo- born free of its increases rapidly as pregnancy progresses to the calving
thalamus is involved. Presumably surrounding date.
the matured hypothalamus membranes.
stimulates the pituitary to secrete Because the
adrenocorticotropic hormone umbilical cord
(ACTH), which in turn stimulates is short, it
the calfs adrenal glands to secrete
more corticosteroids.
The corticosteroids from the
adrenal glands stimulate the pla- FETUS IN PLACENTAL MEMBRANES at 4 months of gestation. The
centa to secrete large quantities of amnion (immediately surrounding the fetus) is bean-shaped and about 18 inch-
estrogenmuch larger quantities es (45 cm) long. Blood vessels radiate from cotyledons on the surface of the pla-
than are secreted at estrus. The centa toward the umbilical cords of the fetus.
large amount of estrogen makes
the uterus more sensitive to other
hormones that stimulate contrac-
tions of the uterine muscles.
As the estrogen levels rise rap-
idly, they stimulate the uterus to
secrete prostaglandin.
Prostaglandin plays two roles.
It causes regression of the corpus
luteum just as it does near the end
of each estrous cycle, and it stimu-
lates uterine contractions. At this
same time, increased prosta-
glandin causes oxytocin release
from the posterior pituitary.
Together, prostaglandin and oxy-
tocin cause uterine contractions

27
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 28

usually breaks as
the calf is born. Fetal Blood

Increasing hormone level

Thus, the calf must
start breathing and
begin its independ-
ent life in a new Estradiol
environment.
Infertility can
originate at almost Corticosteroid
any point in the
development of the
calf. This infertility
easily may result in
the death of the calf. Maternal Blood
But in the long run,
Increasing hormone level

the possibility of
permanent damage
to the cows repro- Progesterone
ductive tract may be
even more serious. Corticosteroid

Estradiol

Estrone

Before After

CHANGES IN CONCENTRATION OF SELECTED HORMONES in the blood of the calf

(top) and cow (bottom) around the time of calving. Each hormone is shown relative to the
changes that occur for it alone. Actual levels may vary more than 100-fold for the hormones
shown, so direct comparison should not be made among different hormones.
Beginning about 2 weeks before delivery, fetal corticosteroids increase, and this stimulates an
increase in placental estrogens (estrone and estradiol) in the cow. Corticosteroids in the calf and
cow, and estrogens in the cow peak around the time of delivery. In contrast, progesterone from
the placenta and the cows corpus luteum declines slowly until 1 to 2 days before delivery when
it decreases rapidly. Not shown is an increase in prostaglandin F2- in the cows blood during 1
to 2 days before delivery and a simultaneous increase in prolactin from the pituitary gland that
initiates milk secretion.

28
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 29

7 Calving time

that indicate the start of calving. ery. During this time, observe ani-

A
FARMER may fertilize the
soil, choose the best variety Several weeks before freshening mals hourly from a distance to
of seed corn, plant the seed the udder fills with colostrum, and monitor their progress.
at the appropriate depth in a prop- as calving approaches, the vulva Stage 2 begins when the water
erly prepared seedbed, and suit- becomes swollen. Pelvic ligaments bag breaks. This is the chorioal-
ably cultivate the growing plants, relax, causing a sunken appearance lantois, the outer membrane that
but if the corn is not harvested around the tailhead. Mucus dis- surrounds the calf in the uterus.
properly, most everything that pre- charged from the vagina becomes Once this membrane breaks, the
ceded the harvest is wasted. flowing and clear, similar to the legs and head of the calf begin to
mucus observed during estrus. The push through the cervix and into
Length of gestation. Gestation actual birth process progresses the vagina. The cow usually acts
begins at fertilization and ends at through three continuous stages: restless and repeatedly switches
birth. For practical purposes, how- preparation, delivery of the calf from standing to lying down.
ever, the time of fertilization is dif- and passage of the fetal mem- When the calfs feet enter the vagi-
ficult to measure. Consequently, branes.
most dairy producers use the time During Stage
of insemination as the beginning of 1, the cervix
gestation. relaxes and
The duration of gestation varies dilates. The cow
with age and breed of the cow, sex may act restless
of the calf and number of calves and seek soli-
carried. Probably the season of the tude. She also
year and inheritance also affect ges- may look at her
tation length. flanks, stamp
Surveys of all breeds of cattle her feet, raise
generally show average gestation her tail, arch her
lengths of 276 to 292 days. While back, and uri-
most dairy breeds have gestation nate or defecate
lengths close to 280 days, that of f r e q u e n t l y.
Brown Swiss is about 10 days Weak straining
longer at 290 days. Bull calves are of the abdomi-
carried about one day longer than nal muscles can
heifers. Twins usually are born be seen as well.
about a week earlier than single Stage 1 ends
calves. when the fetal
membranes
Events of a normal calving. become visible.
Understanding the normal pro- In cows this
gression of events during calving process may
and knowing when and how to take 3 to 6
assist an abnormal birth are essen- hours. Heifers
tial to minimize calf deaths and may need 4 to
cow losses. Cows undergo a series 10 hours to pre-
of hormonally-controlled changes pare for deliv-

29
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 30
na, the inner membrane, called the breaks. Heifers may take 2 to 4
amnion, breaks, releasing a thick, hours. During this stage, continue
lubricating fluid. The time to observe the animal every 30
between the breaking of the first minutes, but do not disturb her.
and second membranes is often The final stage, passage of the
about 1 hour. It is best to wait until fetal membranes, is a continued
the calfs feet are visible to move series of uterine contractions and a
her to a maternity pen. Strong rapid decrease in the size of the
abdominal straining can be uterus, a process called involu-
observed as uterine contractions tion. The attachment between the
become more frequent. Another placenta and uterus relaxes, and
delay occurs as the vulva is the placenta separates from the
stretched by the head, which often uterus. Stage 3 ends with the pas-
slips in and out of sight. The cow sage of the fetal membranes, or
continues to push until the head afterbirth. Normally, the placenta
and shoulders are delivered, then is passed within 1 to 8 hours after
typically rests for a few moments. birth of the calf. A placenta that is
Once straining resumes, the rest of not expelled within 12 hours is
the calf is usually delivered quick- considered a retained placenta. Do
ly. Most cows have their calves not attempt to remove a retained
within 1 to 2 hours after the water placenta manually or insert any-
thing into the
uterus. Work with
your veterinarian to
NORMAL BIRTH POSITION of the calf. The calf lies develop a treatment
on its stomach with its forelegs extended and its head plan for such cows.
lying on them. In this way, the calf is presented at its
smallest diameter. Difficult and ab-
normal births.
While the majority
of cows and heifers
calve normally with
little assistance,
roughly 6 percent
of cows and 20 per-
cent of heifers expe-
rience calving diffi-
culty, or dystocia.
Calving problems
are a leading cause
of death in cows. In
addition, 7 percent
of calves are born
dead or die within
48 hours of birth.
Stillborn births
have actually in-
creased somewhat
in recent years,
according to Iowa
research. Dystocia
is more common in
heifers than cows
because heifers are
usually smaller and
30
have not given birth before. When
dystocia occurs in cows, the prob-
lem is likely to be more serious,
often due to a large or poorly posi-
tioned calf. Milk fever may pres-
ent additional complications.
Observation of calving and assist-
ing when needed can reduce the
number of stillborn calves and
increase survival rates.
As dystocia becomes more
severe, calf deaths in the first 48
hours increase. Some causes of
dystocia include age of the dam,
large calves, small pelvic opening
in the dam, weak contraction of
the uterus (possibly linked to milk
fever), abnormal position of the
calf and twins. Pay attention to
sire calving ease ratings, especial-
ly in small cows and first-calf
heifers, and only use bulls with
less than 10 percent calving diffi-
culty on cows at high risk for dys-
tocia. Besides heifers and small
cows, those at high risk include
cows with a history of reproduc-
tive problems (uterine torsion,
prolapse or uterine tears) or meta-
bolic disease (milk fever or keto-
sis). Fat animals also have
increased dystocia risk, due to
fatty deposits around the repro-
ductive tract and pelvic area, and
increased risk of metabolic disor-
ders.
Examining the cow. During Stage
1, examine animals if no progress
has been made after 4 hours. If
progress seems to stop after the
water bag appears, animals
should be examined to see if assis-
tance is needed. Examine cows if
they have made no progress an
hour after the water bag first
appears. For first-calf heifers, wait
2 hours after the water bag first
appears before examining the ani-
mal.
Animals also should be exam-
ined if progress has stopped for
more than 30 minutes after active
straining. Rest periods typically
last only 5 to 10 minutes and a lack
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 31
of progress may indicate the calf is
too large or the cow is weak. In
most cases, there is no need to
rush and immediately pull the
calf; it can live for 8 to 10 hours
after the first water bag breaks.
The exception is a calf presented
backward. In this case pressure on
the umbilical cord can cut off the
oxygen supply. Quickly assist all
calves presented backward.
Before you start the exam,
restrain the animal and tie her tail
to her neck with a piece of twine to
keep it out of the way. Thoroughly
wash the anus, vulva, and pin
bones with soap and water. Wash
your arms and hands with disin-
fectant soap. Using a clean, plastic,
disposable sleeve is advised.
Apply a generous amount of
lubricant. Avoid using soap as a
CALF UPSIDE DOWN. A veterinarian
will usually turn the calf.
Occasionally, such a calf must be
delivered backward.
BACKWARD & UPSIDE DOWN. The
calf must be turned in the uterus to
the normal position for delivery.
lubricant because it removes the
natural lubrication of the birth
canal and can irritate and inflame
vaginal membranes. Commer-
cially available obstetrical lubri-
cants containing methylcellulose
are recommended. Mineral oil also
may be used for lubrication. Form
a cone with your fingers and
thumb and gently push a hand
into the vulva. Once in the vagina,
the hand can be flattened with the
palm facing down and pushed
along the roof of the vagina.
The first step is to determine
the extent of cervical dilation. The
calfs body will stimulate dilation
as it is delivered, but early in
delivery the cervical opening must
be wide enough to allow the nose
and feet to pass easily. Next, deter-
mine what body parts of the calf
ABNORMAL BIRTH POSITIONS
HEAD BENT BACK. If the veterinarian
can push the calf back into the cow,
the head can be brought into posi-
tion.
CALF BACKWARD. Veterinarians try to
straighten the hindlegs and deliver the
calf backward.
31
are presented. Front legs can be
distinguished from back legs by
the direction the joint above the
fetlock bends. If it bends in the
same direction as the fetlock, it is
the knee and a front leg. If it bends
in the opposite direction, it is the
hock and a back leg. The soles of
the feet indicate the position of the
calf; in a normal delivery soles on
the front feet face down, soles on
the back feet face up. Since twin-
ning rates of up to 10 percent
occur in some herds, be sure to
find two legs and determine that
they belong to one calf before
pulling the calf. To find out if a
pair of legs belongs to one calf, fol-
low one leg to the brisket and then
trace down the other leg. Also,
determine the position of the
head. In a normal forward deliv-
FORELEG RETAINED. The retained
leg must be brought forward, joint by
joint, so the calf can be delivered.
HINDLEGS FORWARD is serious if
delivery is far along. Frequently the
fetus must be dismembered.
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 32
ery, the chin rests just above the
knees. In uncomplicated back-
ward delivery, the head will not be
presented; the tail should be down
and between the thighs.
Finally, consider the stress level
of the calf. Determine if the calf is
alive by pinching between the
toes. Live calves will reflexively
draw the foot back. Calves pre-
sented backward can be tested by
inserting a finger into the rectum.
Live calves will squeeze your fin-
ger. The only time to pull a calf
presented in a normal position is
when it is distressed. The color of
the tongue is one indicator of
stress. Normally, tongue color
darkens during hard contractions
and lightens between contrac-
tions. If the tongue stays dark
through the rest period, the calf is
in distress. If blood or pieces of the
placenta appear, the calf likely is
bleeding and should be pulled.
Once you have examined the
animal and assessed the situation,
determine whether you can assist
with the delivery or if extra help is
needed. Three situations that call
for help are: you cannot find the
cause of the problem; you know
the problem, but cannot solve it;
PLACEMENT OF LEG CHAINS
for calving assistance.
Source: Whittier and Thorne, 1995.
Fetlock
Pastern
or you have been trying to correct
the problem for 30 minutes and
have made no progress. If any of
these situations occur, find a more
experienced person to help or call
the veterinarian.
Abnormal birth positions. If
examination of the cow reveals an
abnormal presentation, the situa-
tion must be corrected before
delivery can occur. If the calf can-
not be quickly manipulated into a
normal position, obtain veterinary
assistance. Do not attempt to pull
a calf in an abnormal position; this
may injure the cow, kill the calf or
both.
Calves presented backward can
be delivered, as long as the legs
are stretched out behind the calf.
However, a backward calf must be
delivered quickly because the
umbilical cord is pinched between
the calf and the pelvis early in
delivery. Pinching the cord slows
blood circulation and may cause
death or brain damage. To correct
abnormal positions, it is often nec-
essary to push the calf back into
the uterus where the cows pelvis
will not interfere with manipula-
tion. Before moving the calf, attach
CORRECT TECHNIQUE FOR PULLING A CALF: pull one leg at a time
(top) to avoid wedging shoulders in the pelvis (bottom).
Source: Whittier and Thorne, 1995.
32
obstetric chains to one leg to
enable retrieval. Between strain-
ing episodes, firmly push the calf
back and manipulate it into the
correct position. When moving a
foot, place your hand over the
hoof to prevent tearing the birth
canal. It is essential to determine
the exact position before attempt-
ing to correct it. Correcting any-
thing more than a turned leg or
head usually requires veterinary
assistance.
Assisting delivery. Most births do
not require assistance. Rushing
delivery can injure the cow and
should be avoided. However,
waiting too long after the water
breaks to assist may deprive the
calf of oxygen and cause death.
When it is necessary to assist, use
the following techniques to
increase the number of live calves
born and decrease injuries to
cows.
First, remember to wash the
external genitalia of the cow and
wash and lubricate your hands
and arms. Keep two buckets of
warm water nearby, one to wash
the cow and one to wash your
hands and arms and store obstetri-
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 33
cal chains and handles. The birth
canal may be dilated manually to
assist delivery and minimize tear-
ing injuries. To do this, insert both
arms into the vulva and vagina,
clasp your hands and bend your
elbows outward to stretch the
birth canal.
Attach obstetrical chains to
both legs, making two loops, one
above and one below the fetlock
joint as shown on page 32.
Position chains to pull from the
underside of legs. Pull one leg out
until the pastern is about four
inches [10 cm] outside the vulva.
While holding the leg in this posi-
tion, pull the other leg out to the
same distance. Use a back and
forth motion between the two legs
as pulling both legs at once may
cause the calfs shoulders (or hips
in a backwards delivery) to lodge
in the pelvic opening as illustrated
on page 32. If the shoulders lock in
the pelvis, place a rope or chain
around the calfs poll and through
the mouth as shown below, left.
Pulling on the calfs head in this
manner reduces the size of the
shoulders and chest and may
loosen the calf.
Once the head and shoulders
have been delivered, rotate the
PULLING ON THE CALFS HEAD as shown reduces the
size of the calfs shoulders and chest.
Source: Practical Techniques for Dairy Farmers.
calf about half a turn. This allows
the widest part of the calfs hips to
pass through the widest part of
the cows pelvis as shown below.
Without rotation, the calfs hips
pass through the narrowest part of
the cows pelvis, which may result
in hiplock. If pressure continues
after hiplock, the cow can suffer
nerve damage or tearing of the
reproductive tract. If the calf is
coming backward, rotation must
be accomplished as soon as the
legs are available, because the hips
will come through the pelvis next.
To be effective, rotation must
occur before the hips enter the
pelvic opening. If hiplock occurs,
push the calf back and rotate it
before pulling again.
The direction and strength of
extraction are also critical.
Initially, pull straight back to
move the calf into the pelvis. Once
the head is delivered, pull down-
ward in an arc toward the udder
to slide the calf through the birth
canal more easily. In a backward
delivery, change the pulling direc-
tion once the base of the tail is
delivered. Too much force can tear
the birth canal or break the calfs
legs or ribs; so no more than two
people should pull on a calf.
ALIGN THE WIDEST PART of the calfs hips with the
widest part of the cows pelvis.
Source: Practical Techniques for Dairy Farmers.
33
Extraction force should never
exceed 400 pounds [180 kg]; a
strong person can exert about 200
pounds [90 kg] of force. Calving
gauges are available that measure
the force exerted. To prevent
injuries to the cow, pull on the calf
only when the cow strains. Do not
allow the calf to slip back into the
cow in between straining, but do
not exert force while the cow rests.
Instead, use rest periods to reposi-
tion the calf if necessary.
Mechanical pullers or calf jacks
are a last resort and should be
used only by an experienced per-
son. Applying excessive force is
very easy when using a jack as
many can exert 2,000 pounds [900
kg] or more. Pullers that work off
of the cow, rather than a stationary
object, are preferable. This allows
movement with the cow and may
change the pelvic angle and open
the birth canal. Once the last rib is
outside the vulva, stop pulling
and allow the cow to finish the
delivery.
Care of the newborn. The newborn
calf represents the primary prod-
uct, and prompt attention must be
given to the calf at harvest time.
Oxygen is the first requirement to
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 34
assure survival of the calf. Make
certain that the nostrils are clear of
membranes and fluids. Breathing
may be stimulated by blowing
into the nasal cavity or tickling the
nasal cavity with a straw.
Undoubtedly, the most impor-
tant factor in promoting calf sur-
vival is feeding four quarts/liters
of colostrums (large breed calves)
within one hour after birth, and
another three quarts/liters 8 hours
later. Colostrum is essential to get
calves off to a good start. It pro-
vides a rich supply of nutrients;
helps in activating the digestive
system; and, most importantly, it
provides protection against infec-
tion and disease.
In fact, colostrum provides the
only source of protection (called
passive immunity) for the calf
against disease-producing organ-
isms for about the first two
months of life, while the calfs
own immunological defense sys-
tem (called active immunity) is
developing.
Intact antibody proteins in
colostrum can be absorbed
through the intestine only for the
first few hours of life. The ability
to absorb antibodies diminishes
after the calf is two hours old.
Thus, it is extremely important to
get colostrum into calves within
an hour after birth and preferably
within 15 minutes.
The first two weeks of life are
the most critical period for calf
losses. Certainly, prompt feeding
of colostrum, sanitation, good
housing and adequate nutrition
will help get the calf off to a good
start in its own environment.
Expulsion of the afterbirth. After
the calf is born, uterine contrac-
tions continue, which expel the
fetal membranes from the uterus.
This is the afterbirth. It should be
disposed of as soon as expelled.
From natural instinct, cows will eat
fresh membranes and may choke
or have digestive disturbances.
If the afterbirth is not expelled
within 12 hours, it is considered a
retained placenta. The placenta
usually dies whether or not it is
expelled. The retained placenta
will usually be shed within a few
days. The lower portion of the
retained placenta may be cut off,
but some should be allowed to
extend from the cows vulva. This
will help the placenta become
detached. Do not tie weights to the
afterbirth.
Physically removing the after-
birth from its attachments is no
longer a recommended procedure.
Usually, when forcefully removed,
small fragments of afterbirth are
left in the uterus where they decay
and result in pus that may remain
for weeks. Research has shown
that even successful manual
removal of the afterbirth pro-
longed the interval from calving to
first appearance of a functional
corpus luteum by 20 days,
increased the interval to first serv-
ice, increased the severity of uter-
ine infection, and prolonged the
presence of pathogenic bacteria in
the uterus compared with allow-
ing the retained afterbirth to expel
spontaneously.
Currently, research does not
support use of prostaglandins,
estrogens nor manual removal of
retained afterbirth. Accepted prac-
tices include 20 to 30 IU of oxy-
tocin every 3 hours; systemic
antibiotics; anti-inflammatory
therapy; fluid therapy and better
yet, preventive strategies.
Recovery of the cow. Calving
places a tremendous strain upon
the well-being of the cow. On top
of this, the sudden surge of milk
secretion places another great
stress on her. These factors make
the cow easy prey for many infec-
tious agents during the first days
after calving.
It is essential that the cow be in
a clean environment both before
and immediately after calving. A
34
clean, straw-bedded box stall or a
small grassy pasture is ideal.
Cows should not be allowed to
calve in a box stall that is used
continuously and seldom cleaned.
A box stall bedded with sawdust
is especially dangerous to both
calf and dam. Such a site increases
the chance that infection will be
spread from one cow to the next
and to the calves.
Provided there is no evidence
of disease and the cow calved and
cleaned normally, she should be
returned to the milking herd as
soon as her milk is legally
saleable. Grouping fresh cows can
be beneficial from the standpoint
of easier monitoring for any health
problems, as well as administer-
ing a fresh cow ration.
Following each use, the mater-
nity stall should again be scraped
free of manure and bedding,
washed with soap and water, and
allowed to dry for 24 hours. If
there is evidence of disease, the
stall also should be sprayed or
rinsed with a disinfectant and
allowed to dry for at least two or
three days. The stall is then ready
for the next occupant.
A temporary change in the calv-
ing facility is recommended when
an infectious disease of the cows
or calves is present.
After calving, some bleeding
may occur from the caruncles on
the inside of the uterus. But the
blood supply to these is normally
quite limited by this time, causing
them to gradually decrease in size.
At the time the afterbirth is
expelled, the caruncles may be as
much as 2 inches high and 2 inch-
es (5 cm x 5 cm) in diameter. By
three weeks after calving, they
have decreased to about 1/4 inch
(0.6 cm) high and 1 inch (2.5 cm) in
diameter, dimensions still consid-
erably greater than normal.
A few quarts of fluid, contain-
ing blood and bits of tissue
(lochia) usually are found in the
uterus during the first few days
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 35
after calving. This fluid generally
disappears during the first three
weeks after calving. Normally, this
is not an infection. However, uter-
ine infections frequently occur,
even in normal calvings.
A good indication of the begin-
ning of an infection is the odor of
the discharge. The bloody dis-
charge, which is normal during
the first two to three weeks after
calving, should not have a strong
odor. If the discharge shows pus
or has a foul odor, the cow should
be given prompt attention. More
on this in Chapter 12.
The normal uterine defenses
against bacteria are not as effective
just after calving. This is one rea-
son why a clean calving area is so
important. It is also the reason
why the average dairy producer is
well-advised to call a veterinarian
to assist abnormal births.
As pointed out in previous
chapters, the cow should be in
good physical condition at calving
time. Good nutrition and proper
care during the dry period are
quite helpful in preventing calv-
ing complications. The cow alone
cannot accomplish her important
goal of carrying and delivering a
normal, healthy calf. She is
dependent upon the care and
management given her by the
dairy producer.
Prevention of difficult calving.
Because about 50 percent of the
herd calving difficulties occur at
first calvings, efforts to prevent
this problem are warranted. Most
calving difficulties in heifers can
be prevented by carefully select-
ing sires to which heifers are bred
for the first time. Because heifers
should enter the milking herd no
later than 2 years of age to maxi-
mize lifetime performance and
References cited: Cassell, B., Cull Difficult Calvings, Hoards Dairyman, Sept. 25, 2006
Jones, C., and Heinrichs, J., Hoards Dairyman Calf Care, 2006.
LeBlanc, S., Management and Treatment of Postpartum Uterine Problems, Dairy Cattle Reproduction Council, Nov. 7, 2006 Denver
conference.
reduce their maintenance costs,
inseminating growthy and well-
developed heifers at younger ages
offers the advantage of earlier
recovery of their rearing costs.
However, special attention must
be paid to their nutrition program
and growth (stature and weight).
There are two proofs for calving
ease now: proofs for sires of calves
to be born (Sire Calving Ease-SCE)
and proofs for sires of daughters
to give birth (Daughter Calving
Ease-DCE). DCE is a fairly recent
innovation that hasnt been
around long enough yet to have
much impact on the population.
Proven sires with known calv-
ing ease (less than 9 percent SCE
difficult first births in heifers)
should be used as breeding sires to
avoid extra large calves in heifers.
It is not difficult to find excellent
sires with acceptable levels of
calving ease. An SCE of 8 for a sire
means that only 8 of every 100
calves born to heifers that he sired
will have a calving difficulty score
of 4 or 5 (very difficult birth
requiring assistance). There are
good bulls for overall merit
among the best bulls for SCE. It
could be argued that bulls with
higher SCE should be avoided,
even among older cows, because
the problem of difficult calving
then becomes passed along. Still,
heritability is rather low, 8.6 per-
cent for SCE. Net Merit does take
high SCE into account. But a high
type proof bull might still be
tempting, even if his SCE is high
as well. In all cases, you should
definitely use a low SCE proof bull
when breeding heifers.
Use of sexed semen when used
in breeding heifers has an added
advantage in regard to calving
ease in that heifer calves are usual-
ly smaller.
35
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 36
8 Can we feed
for fertility?
E
ven though we have made
tremendous progress in
developing well-balanced
rations for dairy cattle, during
early lactation when dry matter
intake is depressed it is difficult to
meet the cows nutritional needs;
particularly when milk production
exceeds 100 pounds (45 kg) per
day. And in many herds, nearly
every cow peaks at or above 100
pounds of milk per day. The nutri-
tional demands of peak milk pro-
duction usually occur just before
rebreeding cows after calving. It
becomes a real challenge to meet a
cows nutritional needs for both
lactation and reproduction.
One of the major components of
high reproductive efficiency is
obtaining a successful pregnancy in
the high-producing dairy cow by
100 days postpartum. Many stud-
ies have evaluated the effect of var-
ious nutrients on reproduction;
however no one feed ingredient
has been identified to insure repro-
ductive efficiency.
Energy. One of the most common
causes of nutritional infertility
results from an insufficient supply
of energy or negative energy bal-
ance. Many experiments have
shown that underfeeding heifers
seriously delays sexual maturity.
Once the slightly underfed heifer
reaches puberty, her fertility is
apparently normal once fed a bal-
anced diet.
Numerous reports have shown
that stunted heifers or those in poor
condition are likely to have infan-
tile ovaries, irregular estrous cycles
and decidedly lower fertility. In reduced milk production as under-
severe starvation, the estrous cycle fed heifers. In addition, overcondi-
ceases. tioned heifers experience more
Some dairy producers pasture calving problems.
yearling heifers all summer. There Meeting the energy require-
is a tendency to forget those heifers ments of a high-producing cow
until it comes time to breed them. during peak lactation is much more
Then heifers may look thin and do difficult than meeting the needs of
not come into standing estrus. The a growing heifer. Rations designed
vast majority of these difficulties to promote maximum milk yield
can be prevented or cured with an during lactation should also give
adequate grain ration combined the best reproductive performance.
with an effective parasite control Cows attain maximum dry mat-
program. ter intake at approximately 8 to l0
Studies have shown that heifers weeks into the lactation. Since peak
fed adequate forage with proper production occurs earlier, at
energy and protein supplementation approximately 4 to 6 weeks, dairy
will reach breeding size by 12 to 14 cows are usually in a negative ener-
months of age. Holstein heifers gain- gy balance for 4 to 7 weeks after
ing a minimum of 1.6 to 1.7 pounds calving. During this period, the
(0.7 to 0.8 kg) daily from birth to cow usually loses weight accumu-
calving can calve at 24 months of age lated during the last lactation and
weighing 1,200 pounds (540
kg) or more after calving.
A balance of protein and
energy is required to insure
heifers grow in height with-
out getting fat. Often rapid
growth is associated with
fattening, but there is a dis-
tinct difference. However,
many dairy producers still
believe that overfeeding
results in infertility. Ex-
cessively fat heifers are
undesirable (body condition
over 3.75), but not necessari-
ly from the standpoint of
infertility. Studies have
shown that fat dairy heifers
produce less milk after calv-
ing than heifers grown nor-
mally. In fact, excessively fat
heifers are as likely to have
36
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 37
maintained during the dry period.
In high-producing cows, first
breeding after calving may occur
while the cow is still in a negative
energy balance. This may result in
a slightly lower conception rate
than would be the case if the cow
were gaining weight. The second
service occurs during a period
when the energy balance is posi-
tive. Proper energy balance is
important to the resumption of
ovarian cyclicity and the ability to
obtain acceptable conception rates
of 40 percent or greater.
High-energy rations formulat-
ed to provide adequate forage
intake may benefit fertility.
Adding 2 to 3 percent added fat or
oil (from oilseeds such as fuzzy
cottonseed) can increase ration
energy concentration and increase
dry matter intake. Added fat/oil
can also increase ovarian struc-
tures and improve conception
rate. In addition, rations contain-
ing buffering compounds (sodium
bicarbonate) and microbials
(yeast) may reduce off-feed
problems and consequently result
in more feed intake during peak
lactation.
Many dairy producers accept
that high-producing cows are
more difficult to get pregnant. In
one survey of high-producing
herds, days open didnt suffer
compared to average herds, but
there were more services per con-
ception.
The metabolic demand of high
production can affect how soon a
cow will ovulate. Cows experience
negative energy balance during
early lactation, because they cant
consume enough energy to keep
up with production. So a pro-
longed negative energy balance
can mean delayed first ovulation
and also lowered conception rates.
If a cow is carrying adequate
body condition when she calves,
she has body reserves to draw
upon. This lessens the severity
and duration of the negative ener-
gy balance, and will help her
reproductive performance. How-
ever, you dont want cows too fat
when they are dry, or they will
experience a number of metabolic
problems at calving and more
calving difficulty.
Ideally, body condition scores
(BCS), based on the 1 to 5 scale
developed at Virginia Tech, are as
follows: drying off and calving,
3.25 to 3.50; springing heifers, 3.0
to 3.25; prebreeding exam, 2.5 to
3.0; pregnancy exam, 3.0; late lac-
tation, 3.0 to 3.5. A goal should be
body condition score should not
drop more than 1.0 unit between
calving and breeding. Reproduc-
tive performance often will be
impaired if cows lose more than
1.0 body score unit during the first
5 weeks after calving.
Generally, lower or average
BCS in early lactation leads to
poorer reproductive performance.
One herd studied averaged 2.69
BCS at calving and 2.39 at 10
weeks postpartum. Cows with a
BCS one point higher than this
average at 10 weeks postpartum
came into heat 5.4 days sooner,
were bred 6.2 days sooner and had
a 9 percent better conception rate.
It also is important that body
condition is not lost during the
dry period. During late lactation,
the desired body condition should
be obtained and maintained until
calving. Cows that lose body con-
dition during the dry period are
prone to having more metabolic
problems at calving, which have a
negative relationship to subse-
quent fertility.
The body condition of dairy
replacement heifers is also impor-
tant. A heifer that grows too slow-
ly will join the milking herd late. A
thin heifer will not have the need-
ed fat reserves for optimum milk
production during her first lacta-
tion. During the first lactation,
energy outflow is more critical
because milk yield and growth
demand more from a heifer. She
37
quickly finds herself in a negative
energy balance.
At 12 months of age, replace-
ment heifers should average a
condition score of 2.5. At 24
months of age, heifers in high-pro-
ducing herds average a condition
score of 3.0 to 3.25.
As a rule, cows should range
from a 2.0 to a 3.5 score, depend-
ing on their stage of lactation.
Protein. One of the chief economic
advantages of cattle over some
other animals is their ability to
synthesize amino acids in the
rumen. This fact has complicated
efforts to determine protein
requirements for reproduction.
Initially researchers reported a
negative effect of excess dietary
crude protein on reproduction.
However more recently it has
been determined that rumen
degraded protein (RDP) and
rumen undegraded protein (RUP)
not crude protein should be the
types of dietary protein used to
measure the impact on reproduc-
tive performance. High levels of
rumen degradable protein have
consistently shown a negative
relationship with obtaining con-
ception in dairy cattle.
The basis for an adverse effect
on reproduction is an increase in
ammonia and urea in blood and
uterine secretions in cows fed
high-protein diets. High protein
also alters the amount of phospho-
rus, magnesium, potassium and
zinc in uterine secretions or blood.
Overall, it appears that RDP levels
in the ration should be high
enough to support maximum
microbial growth, but not above
that. Protein sources that are not
degraded as rapidly in the rumen
(RUP) may be beneficial in sup-
porting high production without
affecting reproduction.
There is no firm evidence that
non-protein nitrogen (NPN) such
as urea has an adverse effect on
reproduction when added to the
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 38
ration at recommended levels.
Milk urea nitrogen (MUN) and
blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels
have been used to monitor the
effects of rumen degradable pro-
tein on nitrogen concentrations in
an attempt to adjust rations and
reduce negative effects on fertility.
Although excessive NPN and
rumen degradable protein ad-
versely influence reproduction,
they are not cause for concern if
fed at or below recommended lev-
els. MUN levels should range
from 10 to 14 mg/DL.
Protein content normally is
lower in heifer rations in compari-
son to lactating cow rations.
Protein is usually adequate for
reproduction in most heifer
rations, and not normally consid-
ered as a factor affecting fertility in
heifers.
Essential fatty acids. Essential
fatty acids (EFA) provide energy
from a cows diet. The most
important are omega-3 (linolenic)
and omega-6 (linoleic). These are
fatty acids that cant be synthe-
sized in the cows body in ade-
quate amounts. At high produc-
tion levels, cows use these fatty
acids from body stores and cause a
shortage for both milk fat and the
other roles. EFAs serve as building
blocks for several types of
prostaglandins. One specific pros-
taglandin, PGF-2, causes regres-
sion of the corpus luteum if a cow
is not pregnant, allowing her to
get ready for her next estrous
cycle. Prostaglandin allows for
better overall health of the repro-
ductive tract and can lead to earli-
er cycles.
EFAs also are important in pro-
ducing progesterone. Proges-
terone supports a pregnancy, if
one occurs, until the placenta can
sustain the pregnancy later in ges-
tation. In two different studies,
feeding EFAs improved pregnan-
cy rates by 5 percent. Converting
these acids into rumen inert fatty
acids and feeding them as supple- ditions. Good quality green chop
ments ensures that more of the or pasture should provide an ade-
EFAs acids reach the intestine quate amount. All silages, includ-
where they can be absorbed. ing alfalfa, are low in carotene, the
vitamin A precursor, due to fer-
Vitamins. Ruminants, such as the mentation losses. Although alfalfa
cow, are fortunate from a stand- hay may initially have adequate
point of their vitamin supply. vitamin A levels, during storage it
Generally the B vitamins, and is lost. Consequently, most rations
vitamins C and K are manufac- based on stored forage have sup-
tured in adequate quantities by plemental vitamin A added.
the cow. Only vitamins A, D, and Some recent work in Europe
E need be considered here. All suggests that carotene, the plant
three of these fat soluble vitamins precursor for vitamin A, is also
can be provided through supple- required for normal reproduction.
ments or by using certain feeds Cows fed rations devoid of
that contain adequate levels of carotene, but with adequate levels
each of them. of vitamin A had irregular estrous
Vitamin A deficiency in cattle cycles, more silent estruses and a
results in blindness (especially higher rate of cystic ovaries.
night blindness), edema, lower We think of vitamin D relative
milk production and reproductive to its importance in calcium and
disturbances. In addition, vitamin phosphorus homeostasis or in
A is required for spermatogenesis maintaining immune function.
in bulls. Vitamin A deficient ani- The need for vitamin D for repro-
mals are likely to produce dead or duction has been demonstrated.
weak calves. Some abortions may The health of vitamin D deficient
occur late in pregnancy, and animals declines, and they do not
retained placenta is common. The show estrus. Calves from cows on
live calves born are usually weak, rations deficient in vitamin D fre-
and their mortality rate is high. quently are born with rickets,
Eye abnormalities are common in which is characterized by faulty
these calves. These deficiency bone development.
symptoms occur frequently on the In the past this deficiency was
range during and following a dry easily avoided by allowing cows
season. periodic exposure to sunlight and
Vitamin A deficiency is easily by feeding sun-cured hays; how-
avoided under most dairying con- ever as we have moved from pas-
Effect of vitamin E on mastitis cases
Vitamin E dose
During dry period During lactation % mastitis
100 IU 100 IU 26
1000 IU 500 IU 17
4000 IU 2000 IU 3
*Diet selenium was 0.1 ppm
Source: Weiss et al, 1997
38
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 39
ture-based systems to total con-
finement, providing dietary sup-
plementation of vitamin D is rec-
ommended.
Vitamin E is required to main-
tain cellular membranes, immuni-
ty and reproductive function.
Vitamin E content is quite variable
in fresh forages and declines rap-
idly after harvesting, particularly
with increasing light exposure or
heating. In general, concentrates
have low levels of vitamin E.
Vitamin E has consistently
improved cellular immune func-
tion which should improve cow
health. In some clinical studies,
vitamin E has helped reduce the
incidence of retained placenta;
however this has not been a con-
sistent result, probably due to the
interaction with selenium status.
Recently, vitamin E has been
reported to reduce mastitis. Since
mastitis has had a negative impact
on fertility, a reduction in mastitis
could indirectly improve repro-
duction. Recently recommended
levels of vitamin E have been
increased in rations. Since vitamin
E levels decline in stored forages,
it is usually supplemented to meet
these higher requirements.
Minerals for reproduction. Min-
eral deficiencies may have marked
effects upon reproduction.
Generally, mineral deficiencies in
the ration occur when the ingredi-
ents are grown on mineral-defi-
cient soils.
Although phosphorus was
once thought to be a common
mineral deficiency affecting repro-
duction, recent research does not
support that conclusion. In fact
todays dairy rations frequently
have more phosphorus than the
cow requires. This is particularly
true of rations with high levels of
by-product ingredients. Adding
phosphorus can result in environ-
mental problems unless the excess
nutrients are properly managed.
Calcium and phosphorus
intakes should be maintained at
recommended levels, because
these two minerals are closely
associated in many body func-
tions.
Among other minerals essential
to the general welfare of the cow,
deficiencies of iodine, cobalt, cop-
per, selenium, manganese and zinc
have been implicated in reproduc-
tive disturbances. Deficiencies
occur particularly in areas such as
the Great Lakes region, which is
known to be generally deficient in
iodine. Goiter (enlarged neck) in
calves is a common symptom of
iodine deficiency.
Almost all of these trace miner-
al deficiencies can be avoided eas-
ily and inexpensively by provid-
ing trace minerals in the grain
ration for cattle.
Excessive fluorine in the ration
has been reported to cause low-
ered birth weights of calves and to
delay the first heat after calving.
Fortunately, such toxicity occurs
only rarely.
Iron can cause problems if pres-
ent in excess. It interferes with
copper absorption and has other
negative effects. Limit iron to less
than 750 mg/kg DM in the diet,
and less than 0.4 mg/L in water.
Various toxins. Occasionally, a
feed constituent can block or mod-
ify reproduction. For example,
under certain growing conditions,
some of the subterranean clovers
may contain abnormally high
quantities of estrogen-like chemi-
cals.
When fed to cows, these feeds
may easily upset the estrous cycle
or even pregnancy. However, this
cause of infertility rarely occurs in
the United States.
Mycotoxins Molds also pro-
duce a metabolite or byproduct
called mycotoxin that can affect
animals consuming the contami-
nated concentrate or forage.
Although there are hundreds of
mycotoxins, the most common
39
molds producing mycotoxins that
affect cattle are: Aspergillus (afla-
toxin, fumitoxins and ochratoxin),
Fusarium (Deoxynivalenol
[DON], Zearalenone and T-2), and
Penicillium (Ochratoxin, PR
Toxin, and Penicillic Acid).
Probably the most common
mycotoxin is aflatoxin. Its meta-
bolite, aflatoxin M1, is a potent
carcinogen that is excreted in milk;
consequently FDA regulates afla-
toxin in milk (over 0.5 ppm) and
feed (over 20 ppm). When aflatox-
ins are fed, cows frequently go off-
feed, have reduced feed efficiency,
decreased milk production and
reproductive inefficiency.
Most of these mycotoxins cause
decreased feed consumption and
suppress the immune function.
Zearalenone has a chemical struc-
ture similar to estrogen, which can
negatively influence reproduction
through increased abortions,
increased vaginitis and general
low fertility.
Although analytical methods
for testing for mycotoxins have
improved, cost of analysis can be
prohibitive. In addition, collecting
a representative sample is chal-
lenging since the mycotoxins level
may be highly variable within a
load of feed. Consequently, pro-
ducers must focus on preventing
mycotoxin contamination by min-
imizing drought and insect dam-
age during the growing season,
storing concentrates below 13 per-
cent moisture, aerating grains dur-
ing long term storage, protecting
stored feeds from rain or other
water sources, cleaning storage
facilities to eliminate sources of
inoculation and checking for heat-
ing and molding. Dry down hay
to keep molds from growing dur-
ing storage. When making silage,
harvest at the proper moisture
content, chop uniformly, fill the
silo rapidly, add silage inoculants
when appropriate, pack the silage
continuously, cover immediately,
and manage the face when feed-
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 40

ing, including discarding moldy Unless a producer knows the dry because this can cause prob-
pockets. Mycotoxin binders also variety of cottonseed grown and lems at calving. Cows that are too
can be added to rations to reduce tests for gossypol levels, whole fat or too thin at calving are more
the absorption of mycotoxins by cottonseed should be limited to 6 likely to have problems delivering
dairy cattle. to 8 pounds (2.7 to 3.6 kg) per cow the calf, and consequently are
Gossypol Whole cottonseed is per day. If cottonseed meal is fed more likely to have postpartum
increasingly being used in dairy in addition to whole cottonseed, problems (retained placentas,
rations to increase the energy con- the maximum amount of cotton- uterine infections and cystic
centration while simultaneously seed products per day should not ovaries).
providing some fiber and protein. exceed 10 pounds (4.5 kg). You must focus particularly on
In addition, some areas are using calcium, potassium and phospho-
cottonseed meal as a protein sup- Dry cow feeding. A period not to rus levels during the dry period to
plement. Unfortunately, cotton- overlook in feeding is the dry peri- prevent milk fever and low blood
seed and cottonseed meal contain od. Care should be taken to avoid calcium (called hypocalcemia),
a compound called gossypol, getting cows too fat when they are possibly feeding anionic (acidic)
which has been shown to cause
infertility in males, reductions in
embryo quality, decreased concep- Suggested nutrient levels for early lactation dairy cows
tion rates, and greater fetal losses.
Gossypol is toxic to mammalian
cells. Nutrient Holstein Jersey
The gossypol content varies Body weight, lb (kg) 1500 (680) 1000 (454)
considerably depending upon Dry matter intake, lb (kg) 66 (30) 52 (23.5)
type of cotton (Upland or Pima); Milk yield, lb (kg) 120 (55) 88 (40)
growing, harvesting and storage
conditions, and processing meth- Crude protein, % 16.7 17.6
od. For example, six varieties of RDP, % 9.8 9.7
Pima cottonseed (also called black RUP,% 6.9 7.9
seed; usually cracked prior to Metabolizable protein, % 11.6 12.6
feeding) had a total gossypol
range from 0.95 to 1.58 percent of Net energy-lact, Mcal/lb (Mcal.kg) 0.73 (1.61) 0.76 (1.68)
the meats (on a 100 percent DM NDF, % 28 28
basis). These varieties were all ADF, % 18 18
grown in test plots at three differ- Non-fiber carbohydrate (NFC), % 38 38
Starch, % 24 24
ent locations. Based on the loca-
Sugar, % 6 6
tion, total gossypol ranged from
Fat/oil ,% 5.5 5.5
1.02 to 1.39 percent of the meats on
a DM basis. The variation is just
Calcium, % 0.70 0.73
as evident in the Upland cotton
Phosphorous, % 0.38 0.36
varieties (also called white or
Magnesium, % 0.30 0.30
fuzzy cottonseed). In one study
Chlorine, % 0.29 0.27
with 24 varieties, the average total
Sodium, % 0.25 0.25
gossypol ranged from 1.01 to 1.95
Potassium, % 1.07 1.04
percent of meats, DM basis.
Sulfur, % 0.25 0.25
Processing whole cottonseed
reduces the total gossypol present. Vitamin A (IU added) 100,000 70,000
For example in one study the Vitamin D (IU added) 30,000 20,000
whole cottonseed averaged 0.61 Vitamin E (IU added) 1000 1000
percent total gossypol, DM basis.
When the cottonseed was extrud- Trace mineral added to ration (expressed as ppm in the ration dry matter):
ed the free gossypol fell to 0.26 cobalt 0.11 ppm; copper 10 ppm; iodine 0.4 ppm; iron 25 ppm; manganese 40
percent and if it was extruded- ppm; selenium 0.30 ppm; and zinc 40 ppm.
expelled the free gossypol was
reduced even further to 0.10 per-
cent.

40
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 41

salts in the dry period to enhance
calcium mobilization. Anionic
salts are most easily managed in a
dry cow total mixed ration (TMR).
To verify that anionic products are
working, urine pH for Holsteins
should be between 6.0 and 6.5 and
for Jerseys 5.8 to 6.2. Conversely,
anionic salts can decrease feed
intake if fed incorrectly, a disaster
for dry cows. Although the anion-
ic products are beneficial for cows,
heifers do not require them.
Make sure that dry cows
receive adequate trace minerals
and vitamins. Dry cow rations can
provide a good start for the fresh
cow and her calf. For a detailed
discussion, see the book Caring
for Transition Cows, available
from Hoards Dairyman.
Remember, there are no nutri-
ents specifically required for
reproduction. Instead, reproduc-
tion requires most of the same
nutrients that are required for
other body processes. The protein,
energy, vitamin and mineral
requirements for reproduction
(even for pregnancy) are small
compared to the requirements for
growth or for milk secretion.
For most practical circum-
stances, feed cattle for optimum
growth and milk production.
Cows pregnant with twins. The
current NRC model accurately
predicted energy needs for a sin-
gle pregnancy, but underestimat-
ed energy requirement for a twin
pregnancy. You also can assume
protein needs for the twin preg-
nant cow are underestimated. In
the case of twins, the cow is
attempting to support a total fetal
mass that is at least 60 percent
greater than a single fetus. So it is
no surprise that a cow pregnant
with twins has greater negative
energy balance and resulting
metabolic problems at calving.
An early diagnosis of twins
can give an advantage. Twin
pregnant cows need sufficient
body condition coming into the
dry period. Keep cows with
twins on a higher plane of nutri-
tion to build up nutrient reserves.
You may wish to dry off preg-
nant cows carrying twins one to
two weeks early, especially as
these cows often calve five to
eight days earlier than cows with
a single pregnancy.
Once theyre dry, feed twin
pregnant cows a diet that is bal-
anced to account for lower intake
and higher energy and protein
requirements. Those with a large
enough herd might establish a
separate, special needs dry group
for the twin cows, or they could be
moved directly onto the close-up
dry diet for the entire dry period.
This may not be feasible if you are
feeding anionic products in your
close-up diet.
Based on intake and estimated
requirements, a suggested dry diet
for cows with twins should con-
tain 14 to 16 percent crude protein
and have an energy density
between 0.69 and 0.72 Mcal/lb.

Dry matter intake of pregnant cows (heifers and mature

cows) in the close-up period
Days before calving Mature cows Springing heifers
Lbs [kg] DM per day
21 days before calving 28.2 [12.7] 22.4 [10]
1 day before calving 9.4 [8.7] 16.3 [7.3]
Average last 21 days 25.5 [11.5] 21.6 [9.7]

References cited: Goff, J. et al, Transition Cow Nutriton: Effects on Immune Function and Postpartum Health, Dairy Cattle
Reproduction Council, Nov. 7, 2006 Denver conference.

Pryce, J.E. et al, The Relationship Between Body Condition Score and Reproductive Performance, JDS, 84:1508-1515, 2001

Hutjens, M., Hoards Dairyman Feeding Guide, 2003

Hutjens, M., and Aalseth, E., Hoards Dairyman Caring for Transition Cows, 2005.

Santos, J., Embryo Losses: Prevalence, Timing and Associated Causes, Dairy Cattle Reproduction Council, Nov. 7, 2006 Denver con-
ference.

Van Saun, R. The How and Why of Twins, Hoards Dairyman, March 10, 2001.

41
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 42
9 Genetic factors
I
t is well known that certain
types of sterility may be inherit-
ed in dairy cattle. In other
words, certain traits causing sterili-
ty are passed on from the parents to
the offspring through the genes on
the chromosomes in the egg and in
the sperm. Some of these heredi-
tary defects actually result in death
of the offspring, sometimes before
birth.
These hereditary defects are
transmitted by recessive lethal
genes that may have no measura-
ble effect on the carrier bull or the
carrier cow. Since these genes are
not visible, the genetic defects or
harmful traits may be transmitted
in the genetic material along with
the desirable traits.
When a carrier bull is mated to a
carrier cow, about one-fourth of the
offspring would not survive. About
one-half of the offspring would be
normal in appearance, but would
be carriers of the lethal genes.
About one-fourth of the offspring
would be perfectly normal noncar-
riers. Identification and elimination
of the carrier animals is the only
way to eliminate the lethal genes.
If an animal is born dead
because of a hereditary lethal
defect, the bull is not entirely at
fault. The cow is equally to blame
because most lethal genes cause
death only when they are passed
on from both parents.
Usually, bulls used in A.I. are
carefully selected to avoid the
undesirable lethal genes. But it is
possible that the dairy industry in
this country has given too little
attention to the harmful genetic
defects in cattle. There are over 80
known inherited defects in cattle,
and it has been well documented
that systematic efforts can be suc-
cessful in controlling and eliminat-
ing some of them.
Inherited abnormalities. It is not
necessary for an inherited charac-
teristic to be lethal to hamper the
efficiency of reproduction. Fertility
differences between breeds and
between cow families within the
various breeds provide general evi-
dence that genetic factors are
responsible for varying degrees of
fertility.
Several of these inherited causes
of infertility involve anatomical
abnormalities. Most of these are the
result of improper development of
the reproductive tract. In severe
cases, the heifer is completely ster-
ile. Less severe abnormalities may
permit conception and calving, but
only with considerable difficulty.
These cows may require more
services per conception, even
though they appear to be essential-
ly normal.
Inherited defects and distur-
bances of the body processes (phys-
iological) probably cause consider-
able loss in reproductive efficiency.
However, such defects are not rec-
ognized as easily as defects in body
structure (anatomical), and there is
not complete agreement as to the
role that heredity plays in such
conditions. Environmental effects
complicate these defects so that
losses due strictly to heredity are
difficult to measure.
An example of this type of defect
42
is provided by some cow families
which show abnormal gestation
lengths. In one report involving 27
closely related cows, the gestation
period varied from 302 to 370 days.
All of the calves were overweight at
birth, averaging 146 pounds (66 kg).
Because of the size of the calves,
there were serious calving difficul-
ties. Most calves had to be dismem-
bered to save the cows. Others
were born dead or lived only for a
short period of time after birth.
Thus, it appears that the length of
gestation may be inherited, at least
in some cow families.
Many investigators have report-
ed that cystic ovaries are usually an
inherited trait transmitted by both
the dam and the sire. In Sweden,
the incidence of cystic ovaries has
declined over 50 percent in less
than 20 years by intense efforts in
identifying and eliminating A.I.
sires producing a higher-than-nor-
mal number of daughters with cys-
tic ovaries.
Recessive hereditary disorders
in cattle of importance in recent
years include BLAD (Bovine
Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency),
DUMPS (Deficiency of Uridine 5-
Monophosphate Synthase), Bovine
Citrullinaemia and, first identified
in 2000, CVM (Complex Vertebral
Malformation).
Most genetic disorders are reces-
sive, meaning that both parents
would have to carry the disorder
and pass it on in a homozygous
state to the calf for the disorder to
appear. In years past, the only way
to determine whether a sire or dam
was a carrier for a genetic disorder
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 43
was through the offspring, which
took considerable time and
expense. Now molecular tech-
nologies promise quick progress
in identifying carriers.
When widely used elite sires
produce large numbers of calves
and then turn out to be carriers of
a defective gene, the impact can be
very negative, particularly when
inbreeding also is involved. U.S.
bulls born in 1998-99 were related
to cow populations by 13:1 for
Ayrshires and 10:1 for Holsteins.
Five sires fathered 100 percent of
Ayrshire bulls, and 42 percent of
Holstein bulls in these breeds,
respectively; similarly, five sires
fathered 45 percent of Ayrshire
cows, and 17 percent of Holstein
cows, respectively, limiting mater-
nal diversity as well.
As an example, the Brown
Swiss breed became the most
inbred of any major dairy breed
during the period of approximate-
ly 1940 to 1960 due to the strong
influence of the famed cow Jane of
Vernon. A condition known as
Weaver was detected in the late
1970s, along with two other unde-
sirable recessives in Brown Swiss,
spinal muscular atrophy (SMA)
and arachnomelia and arthrogry-
posis (SAA), referred to as
Spiderleg.
Weaver, a genetic recessive
abnormality, caused gradual loss
of control of the rear legs of affect-
ed animals, though they appeared
normal at birth. When animals
were six to 18 months of age, the
first signs appeared: animals fell
down easily and gradually lost all
control of their rear legs, due to
degeneration of the nerve pas-
sages in the spinal cord and the
brain. Affected animals had to be
slaughtered or they would die.
The effect on the Brown Swiss sire
proving program was devastating,
because there was no way in those
days to determine if a sire was a
carrier of the Weaver gene except
through one of his offspring. It
was prohibitively expensive to
progeny test sons of carrier bulls.
In a small number breed such as
Brown Swiss, this was doubly
devastating when a high percent-
age of the top proven sires were
discovered to be Weaver carriers.
A break came in 1991 when a
reliable and affordable DNA test
was developed to identify carriers
of the Weaver abnormality.
In the U.S., the Holstein Assn.
initiated a program in 1957 to
identify carriers of undesirable
recessives, and has retained
records since then. At this time
there are identification records for
Bulldog calves (achondroplasia 1,
2, &3), Mulefoot (syndactylism),
BLAD, CVM, Prolonged Ges-
tation, Hairless, Dwarfism, Im-
perfect Skin, DUMPS and Pink
Tooth (congenital porphyria).
Mutated recessive genes are the
reason for genetic disease in
breeding animals most of the time.
BLAD. This is what happened
with the genetic defect BLAD.
This and other diseases caused by
mutated recessive genes do not
reveal themselves until descen-
dants of the affected animal are
mated. Calves born with BLAD
have a greatly reduced ability to
fight off diseases. Affected cattle
have severe and recurrent mucos-
al infections such as pneumonia,
ulcerative gingivitis, periodontitis
(these two latter affecting the
gums), loss of teeth, impaired abil-
ity to produce pus and delayed
wound healing, stunted growth
and other problems. Most calves
die before they reach six months of
age. Adult carriers have shown a
poorer ability to utilize feed and
grow more slowly.
The codes for BLAD carriers are
BL and TL for animals found free
of the BLAD allele.
DUMPS. An enzyme deficiency
known as DUMPS (deficiency of
the enzyme uridine monophos-
43
phate synthase) became a concern
in the mid-1980s. The condition is
believed to result in embryonic
mortality during the first two
months when the embryo carries a
homozygous recessive for the
trait. Without this enzyme,
embryo growth ceases. Carriers
(heterozygotes) appear to have
normal growth. The practical
affect of this disorder is that carri-
er cows show a higher rate of
return to service because some of
their pregnancies end in early nat-
ural abortion. Spread of the gene
that caused the enzyme deficiency
was limited by development of a
biochemical test for the activity of
the enzyme in the blood of poten-
tial carriers.
Bovine citrullinaemia. This is a
recessive genetic error of urea
metabolism characterized by high
levels of citrulline, and more seri-
ously, of ammonia in plasma. The
disorder first was described in
humans, then in dogs and was
reported in Friesian calves.
Affected homozygous calves are
unable to excrete ammonia and
display neurological symptoms
that become progressively worse.
They usually die within a week of
birth. Though not as prevalent as
BLAD, citrulllinemia can be costly.
DNA testing is now performed
easily with hair root or blood sam-
ples, with results available in a
few days.
CVM. Complex Vertebral Mal-
formation first was described in
Denmark in October, 2000, in
Holstein calves. Calves that have
one defective gene will appear
physically normal, and their per-
formance will be unaffected, but
they will be CVM carriers.
Typical signs of CVM are a
shortened neck and forelimbs,
severe scoliosis (curvature of the
spine), malformed rear legs, and
in half the cases, heart abnormali-
ties. Many CVM fetuses are abort-
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 44
ed at gestation day 159, while
other CVM calves are born prema-
turely and usually stillborn. If the
fetus is homozygous for CVM,
almost 30 percent of the cows will
abort before day 100; over three-
quarters will abort by day 260. In
2003, 74 sires were confirmed as
carriers of CVM malformations,
with a prominent source being sire
Carlin-M Ivanhoe Bell and his off-
spring. The method of detecting
CVM carriers is based on molecu-
lar genetic detection methods.
Most Holstein herds used some
CVM carrier bulls before the
abnormality was known. Those
herds include carrier females that
are in almost all cases unrecog-
nized.
While A.I. studs no longer sam-
ple young sires that are positive
for CVM, there still are carrier
bulls listed as active sires. Some of
these bulls offer a lot of good
genetics along with the risk of
passing along the CVM gene to a
carrier female, resulting in an
abortion; or to a non-carrier
female, resulting in more carriers.
When a carrier bull is bred to a
carrier dam, its like cutting preg-
nancy rate by 25 percent. Some
feel that an aborted cow is a poten-
tially infertile cow, and may have
to be culled, not to mention loss of
the calf. For this reason CVM may
pose more potential economic loss
to the industry than did DUMPs,
BLAD and mule foot until the car-
rier bulls are inactivated, accord-
ing to some specialists.
Animals found to be carriers
will be identified with the code
CV on all pedigrees and similar
lineage statements, and those not
found to be carriers will be identi-
fied with the code TV.
Genetic potential for improved
fertility. While genetic selection
programs have led to rapid gains
in milk yield and conformation
traits, performance for female fer-
tility, longevity and susceptibility
to disease has declined. Genet- the U.S. was introduced over 10
icists have been focusing more on years ago. PL is an indirect predic-
these latter traits in the past tor of fertility.
decade. A more direct selection for
Some have suggested that improved fertility is daughter
increased milk production is relat- pregnancy rate (DPR), introduced
ed to subfertile specifically in 2003. Differences in sires rated
anovulatory cows. But recent for this trait are dramatic: the
studies (Lopez) found no relation- highest and lowest available
ship between the percentage of Holstein sires differ by 7.2 percent
cows showing anovulatory condi- in DPR. Because a 1 percent differ-
tion and the daily milk yield level. ence in pregnancy rate corre-
Similarly, there was no significant sponds to approximately 4 days
link between milk yield and the open, daughters of the highest and
rate of embryonic loss between 31 lowest sires differ by roughly 29
and 45 days post-breeding. days open per lactation.
Rather, high milk yield is often Breed differences also exist, as
associated with inadequate body mean DPR for Jerseys is 4.5 per-
condition, which is in turn linked cent higher than that of Holsteins
to numerous metabolic disorders or Brown Swiss.
and impaired fertility. Cows with There also is potential to further
poor body condition in early lacta- improve fertility through genetic
tion or significant loss of body selection for resistance to metabol-
condition during lactation tend to ic and infectious diseases. Health
have impaired reproductive per- data collected from on-farm herd
formance, including longer time management software programs
from calving to first ovulation, could be used effectively for
lower conception rate, and genetic selection purposes. Con-
increased days open. sidering the six problems of dis-
More specifically, one study placed abomasums, ketosis, masti-
showed that among lactating tis, lameness, cystic ovaries and
Holsteins with a body condition metritis/retained placenta, these
score of 2.5 or less, over 80 percent usually occur during the first 60
were anovular. Of cows with a days after calving. Heritability
score of 3.5 or more, only 9 percent estimates are 0.14 for DA; 0.06 for
were anovular. ketosis; 0.09 for mastitis; 0.04 for
In short, selection for higher lameness; 0.04 for cystic ovaries
milk yield is not to blame for and 0.06 for metritis/retained pla-
reduced fertility. Scandinavian centa. Genetic selection for
countries have selected for health, improved overall health is possi-
fertility and longevity for over 20 ble, as is genetic selection for
years, and genetic evaluations for resistance to specific diseases and
length of productive life (PL) in disorders.
DAUGHTER PREGNANCY RATE (DPR)
DPR = Number of cows that became pregnant during a given 21-day period
Number of cows that were eligible for breeding
A 1% difference in herd pregnancy rate = ~4 days open
A bull at +3.4 DPR equals an advantage of about 13.6 days open
44
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 45

Combined with direct genetic
selection for improved female fer-
tility through DPR, fertility also
could be improved indirectly
through selection for longevity
and resistance to common health
disorders.
Multiple births. The most com-
mon abnormality characterized by
underdevelopment of the female
reproductive tract is found in the
freemartin. The abnormal repro-
ductive tract of the freemartin is
not inherited. However, free-
martins occur only among heifers
born twins to bulls and the fre-
quency of twinning seems to be
inherited.
When heifer-bull twins occur in
cattle, the male sex hormone
(testosterone) from the bull calf
enters the blood system of the
heifer calf. In addition, there is
A FREEMARTINS REPRODUCTIVE TRACT. It is badly underdeveloped.
The vagina is only 4 inches (10 cm) long, the cervix is blind and the uterus is
absent. Growth of some male parts in the freemartin heifer is due to testos-
terone (male sex hormone) from the bull twin. Note the male sex organsthe
seminal vesicles and vas deferens.
Bladder
Short
vagina
Blind Seminal
cervix vesicles
usually an exchange of some
blood cells between the two
calves. This leads to sterility in
over 95 percent of heifers born
twin to bulls. Also this may cause
an increase in sperm abnormali-
ties and a decrease in semen qual-
ity in some of the bulls.
Male organs in female. In the
freemartin, the heifers reproduc-
tive tract does not develop nor-
mally. In fact, as shown in the pho-
tograph, the freemartin heifers
reproductive tract may actually
develop parts (such as seminal
vesicles) that belong to the bull.
Twins may be one of two types.
The most frequent type occurs
when two eggs are ovulated at one
estrus. Each may be fertilized sep-
arately and develop into twins.
These twins are no more related
than any two calves born from the
Vas
deferens
mating of the same bull and cow
at two different times.
The other type of twins occurs
less frequently when an egg splits,
to form two eggs, shortly after fer-
tilization. Both then may develop
and result in twins. The result is
identical twins since the two
calves resulted from the union of
one egg with one sperm. The
freemartin condition never occurs
in identical twins because they are
the same sex.
On the average, twins occur
about once in every 25 births, and
triplets once in every 500 births.
However, these frequencies are
considerably higher in certain cow
families. Genetics, cystic condi-
tions, hormone treatments and
high milk production all have
been implicated as potential risk
factors for twinning. Second-calf
and older cows have a much high-
er twinning rate than heifers.
Total costs associated with a
twin pregnancy may exceed $500
per lactation when accounting for
greater disease risk, greater days
open, premature culling and
replacement costs. Cows with
twins have more metabolic prob-
lems (total number of cases and
prevalence rate) and are more dif-
ficult to get bred back.
A first concern is early diagno-
sis of twins. Ultrasound can help.
Work with your veterinarian to
improve early diagnosis of twin
pregnancies. Cows with twins
need a higher plane of nutrition to
build up nutrient reserves. These
cows also need special attention at
calving. They are at greater risk
for both calving difficulties and
fresh cow problems.

References cited: Hansen, P., Strategies to Improve Embryo Survival, Dairy Cattle Reproduction Council, Nov. 7, 2006
Denver conference.
Spahr, S., Hoards Dairyman The Dairy Cow Today, 2003
Van Saun, R., The How and Why of Twins, Hoards Dairyman, March 10, 2001.
Weigel, K., The Impact of Genetic Selection on Female Fertility, Dairy Cattle Reproduction Council, Nov. 7, 2006
Denver conference.

45
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 46
10 Diseases of
reproduction
R
EPRODUCTIVE DISEASES
commonly cause serious
economic losses in dairy
herds. Disease may strike sudden-
ly, as in abortion storms, or may be
more difficult to notice as the
cause of increased days open or
services per conception. As dis-
cussed in Chapter 1, increased
days open beyond the optimum
110 days or so become very costly
to the producer. Many times this
economic loss due to days open is
not recognized; the economic loss-
es due to reproductive diseases
usually are easier to identify
because of the finding of aborted
calves and uterine infections.
Reproductive inefficiency caused
by infectious disease must be con-
sidered after eliminating problems
with cyclicity, estrous detection,
A.I. techniques, semen handling
and nutrition.
On average, microbial diseases
cause about 40 percent of all abor-
tions. Noninfectious causes lead to
about 9 percent of abortions, but
there is no known cause for about
half of all abortions, a sobering
statistic. The issue of embryonic
loss due to noninfectious causes
will be dealt with in the next chap-
ter.
The diseases that affect repro-
duction in dairy cows can be clas-
sified into four main categories:
1. Intrauterine infections which
are associated with bacterial
organisms. Arcanobacterium pyo-
genes and various anaerobes are
the major bacteria that cause
endometritis (infection of the uter-
ine lining) or the less common
metritis (infection of the uterine
muscle wall).
2. Venereal diseases specifically
and selectively attack the repro-
ductive tract of the cow and are
spread by natural or artificial
breeding. Campylobacteriosis
(vibriosis), trichomoniasis and
ureaplasmosis are examples of
these diseases. They are spread
from infected animals to non-
infected animals during breeding.
3. Infectious diseases that attack
other organs of the cows body
and also affect the reproductive
system. Leptospirosis, Infectious
Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR),
Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD) and
Brucellosis are examples. These
diseases are spread by several
routes.
4. Other conditions affect repro-
duction by lowering the overall
health status of the animal.
Pneumonia and hardware disease
are examples of individual animal
conditions, while selenium defi-
ciency and other nutritional disor-
ders typify herd problems. Several
studies have shown a strong rela-
MICROBIAL CAUSES OF BOVINE FETAL LOSS
IN THE U.S.
Viruses Bacteria
BVD Leptospira spp.
IBR Listeria
A. pyogenes
C. fetus
Salmonella spp.
Coliforms
Brucellosis
46
tionship between mastitis and
reproductive inefficiency from an
increased risk for pregnancy loss
and decreased conception.
Uterine infections usually pre-
vent conception but are not always
accompanied by outward signs
such as an abnormal discharge or
abortion. Many dairy producers
fail to recognize their importance
in causing reduced reproductive
performance.
Aside from abortions, the vene-
real diseases present subtle symp-
toms that usually require laborato-
ry tests to aid a veterinarians
diagnosis. Often these diseases are
undetected until the cow aborts.
By this time it already may be too
late, and you must move fast to
salvage the cow. Depending upon
the stage of lactation when the
abortion occurs, economics will
require some cows to be culled fol-
lowing abortion.
The last two categories are easi-
er to detect since they may also
cause a sharp drop in milk produc-
tion, poor appetite, rough hair coat
or other externally visible changes.
Other
Neospora
Trichomonas
Mycotic
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 47
Endometritis and metritis. While
the uterus is normally a sterile
environment, the vagina hosts a
large number of microorganisms.
Whether normal vaginal flora or
pathogens from the environment,
they most often invade the uterus
at mating and at calving.
Essentially, all cows have contam-
ination of the uterus with bacteria
in the first few weeks after calv-
ing. The healthy uterus easily rids
itself of these invaders. Within
days or weeks postpartum, the
sterile uterine environment
should return. When infection
persists, chronic or subacute
endometritis develops and nega-
tively affects fertility.
Excessive stretching of the
uterus caused by twins, a diffi-
cult calving or improper calving
assistance interferes with uter-
ine involution. Rapid involution
is key to naturally expelling fluid,
placental membranes and bacte-
ria from the reproductive tract.
Inadequate nutrition also can
interfere with the uterus ability
to contract. Even if a cow expels
her placenta, uterine contraction
and involution still may be
delayed.
Most cows have spontaneous
resolution of endometritis by four
weeks after calving. So there is no
benefit in treating them before
then. Use of intrauterine infu-
sions of antibiotics before this
time may give the producer a
feeling of positive action, but may
be not justified economically.
Several studies indicate that rou-
tine postcalving use of prosta-
glandins (PGF2-) was as effec-
tive as or preferable to
intrauterine infusions for treat-
ment of uterine discharges, espe-
cially endometritis, and an equal
number find PGF2- of no value
in the first three weeks.
Endometritis must be distin-
guished from acute metritis that
occurs within the first week after
calving and often following a dif-
ficult birth. In this case the infec-
tion has entered the bloodstream,
and the cow is outwardly sick.
The cow is depressed, runs a
fever and is off-feed. Milk pro-
duction is down and the uterine
discharge is watery and bad-
smelling. This acute condition
responds well to systemic antibi-
otics combined, if needed, with
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs and possibly fluid therapy.
Do twin births, retained placen-
ta and endometritis necessarily
impair fertility? The answer is no!
Exams for endometritis
should start after approximately
28 days in milk and should
include vaginoscopy. Two simple
clinical findings by Guelph
researchers identify cows at risk
for reduced fertility: presence of
a mixture of pus and mucus dis-
charge (more than 50 percent
pus) OR enlarged cervix (larger
than 3 inches/7.5 cm).
Visual inspection of vaginal
discharge will identify about half
of those with clinical endometri-
tis; the rest must be determined
by using a vaginoscope: requiring
only a few seconds per cow,
researchers used a disposable, 20-
inch, foil-lined cardboard tube
that was inserted into the vagina
up to the cervix. Gently inserting
a sleeved hand (single-use gloves
are required to prevent spreading
disease) into the vagina to check
for pus is an alternative.
An important finding of the
research was that uterine palpa-
tion was pretty much worthless
as a diagnostic tool to predict
endometritis associated with
reduced pregnancy rates.
The principle behind the bene-
ficial effects of PGF2- is to
induce estrus and its associated
normal uterine contractions that
rid the uterus of unwanted pus,
mucus, fluid and so forth, to
assist the uterus in a healing
process. These PGF2- injections
often are given during the volun-
47
tary waiting period before any
A.I. breeding. The Presynch pro-
tocol (two injections of PGF2-
given 14 days apart) likely fulfills
some of these positive effects by
synchronizing the estrous cycle
prior to using the Ovsynch proto-
col. More on this in Chapter 18.
On the other hand, intrauter-
ine infusion or PGF2- injection
was more effective if the cow has
a corpus luteum, and cows with-
out a corpus luteum treated with
PGF2- actually had impaired
subsequent fertility.
To summarize, cows should be
selected for treatment of endo-
metritis after four weeks postpar-
tum. Visual inspection and
vaginoscopy mandate action by
the criteria described earlier. If
you are using the presynch proto-
col (set-up injections of PGF2- )
before a timed A.I. breeding,
cows with endometritis should
not be given PGF2- unless they
have a corpus luteum. Delaying
set-up injections to 40 or 50 days
postpartum can assure that cows
are more likely to be cycling and
have a corpus luteum. Timed A.I.
would then occur closer to 80 to
90 days in milk for these cows
with abnormal uterine condi-
tions, but would also more likely
result in success.
BHV-4. Similar to the herpes
virus in humans that causes cold
sores and other maladies, cattle
also harbor a variety of herpes
viruses. Recently, a serious metri-
tis associated with what appears
to be a mutated strain of bovine
herpes virus-4 (BHV-4) has been
confirmed, more common region-
ally in the South and Midwest.
The infection occurs during the
first month after calving, causing
painful ulcers in the cows uterus.
Over the next weeks, the uterine
ulcers enlarge and bacteria nor-
mally inhabiting the uterus after
calving are able to invade the
uterine wall.
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 48
The uterine discharge becomes
dark and foul-smelling. Cows
become depressed, go off-feed,
become weak and eventually go
down. They appear to be in pain.
Herds affected by this strain of
BHV-4 have experienced high
rates of uterine infection and high
death losses. While a similar syn-
drome attributed to BHV-4
occurred during the 80s in
Europe, prior to 1999 it was not
recognized in the U.S.. The U.S.
strain of BHV-4 may have mutat-
ed to a strain that has the ability
to attack the uterine wall and
cause ulcers.
Blood titers taken on animals
show that cows were infected
with BHV-4 prior to calving, but
the virus was not active. Then at
calving, the virus became active
and infected the uterus. BHV-4,
like other herpes viruses, can be
present but latent, and then
appear later in association with
nutritional or physiological
stresses or both at calving.
Metritis associated with BHV-4
also appears linked to fatty liver
syndrome, which is itself related
to poor immune function after
calving.
Suspect a BHV-4 diagnosis
when the herd experiences a rapid
increase in severe, post-calving
metritis that is not responsive to
routine treatments. The disease
can be fatal, and your veterinarian
should perform a post-mortem on
cows that die of acute uterine
infection after calving.
Eliminating cow purchases
from unknown sources might
reduce chances for introducing
the virus, though this is not
known for certain at this time.
Venereal diseases. Presently,
Campylobacteriosis (vibriosis) is a
serious cause of infertility only in
certain locales in the United
States. Since it is transmitted
mainly by natural mating, it is
much more prevalent in beef
herds than in dairy herds. But
many dairy producers continue
to keep and use bulls, thereby
increasing the chances of intro-
ducing vibrio into their herds.
Repeat breeding problems or
abortions between the fourth and
seventh months of pregnancy are
the first indications of vibrio
infection. Most infected cows in
the herd require several services
before they settle. Estrous cycles
are irregular and many cows will
have uterine discharges.
For positive diagnosis, a veteri-
narian should culture the vaginal
mucus from a cow, fluids from a
freshly aborted fetus or mucus
from the prepuce of the bull.
Cows develop an immunity a
few months after infection with
vibrio. Therefore, any new ani-
mals (fresh heifers or purchased
additions) added to the breeding
herd become infected from con-
tact with bulls. Bulls of 4 or more
years of age are true carriers of
the disease. Younger bulls may
transmit infection from cow to
cow, but the organism only will
set-up housekeeping in the pre-
puce of older bulls. This becomes
an important control considera-
tion. Following an infection,
which may or may not cause
abortion, some cows remain sub-
fertile and a few become totally
sterile.
CAMPYLOBACTERIOSIS caused this aborted fetus in
the fifth month of pregnancy. Most vibrio abortions occur
between months four and seven.
48
A vaccine is available to pro-
tect cows against vibriosis, but it
requires cows to be vaccinated 30
to 60 days prior to exposure to the
bull. For most dairy cattle, this
would mean at calving or shortly
thereafter.
Vibriosis also can be prevented
by artificially breeding with
semen from recognized bull
studs. This method is nearly 100
percent effective in controlling
the spread of the disease from the
bull to the cow. All A.I. centers
certified by the National
Association of Animal Breeders
(N.A.A.B.) regularly test their
bulls for vibriosis and use only
vibriosis-free bulls. Look for the
letters CSS on the semen straw.
These letters stand for Certified
Semen Service and represent the
N.A.A.B.s health program.
Trichomoniasis, like vibriosis,
became less prevalent with the
use of artificial insemination, but
with the continued use of bulls on
dairy operations, the chance of
trichomoniasis causing cattle
infertility also continues.
Trichomoniasis is usually
transmitted at the time of natural
mating. Even though bulls never
show external symptoms of the
disease, they are usually the
source of infection in a herd.
Abortions usually occur during
the first four months of pregnan-
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 49
cy. Large quantities of greyish,
abnormal fluid may be dis-
charged during the first half of
pregnancy as a result of uterine
infection caused by trichomonia-
sis. The only signs a herd manag-
er may notice, though, are irreg-
ular estrous cycles and increased
services per conception.
Since trichomoniasis is caused
by a protozoa, the organism must
be identified microscopically for
a positive diagnosis. Fluids from
an aborted fetus, vaginal mucus
from the cow or preputial smeg-
ma or semen from the bull are
collected and examined for the
organism. The trichomonas
organism is very difficult to iden-
tify even by trained personnel,
and more than one sample may
need to be examined before a pos-
itive diagnosis is achieved.
There is no reliable treatment
for trichomoniasis in the dairy
cow. Cows that have aborted usu-
ally develop an immunity. If they
subsequently have a normal calf,
they may be regarded as uninfect-
ed. Once treated, bulls must be
checked once weekly for 4
months to make sure that they no
longer carry trichomoniasis.
Because of a recent Food and
Drug Administration ruling on
available drugs, infected bulls are
not as successfully treated.
Consequently infected bulls are
generally culled.
Prevention is now paramount.
A vaccine is available which will
decrease losses, but may not
restore fertility to normal.
The best method of preventing
trichomoniasis is by using semen
from uninfected, tested bulls. A.I.
organizations regularly test their
bulls to guard against this dis-
ease. Again, check for the letters
CSS on the semen straws.
Infectious diseases. Brucellosis is
an old disease that has changed
very little in the last few years,
but the rules and regulations con-
cerning its eradication have
changed dramatically in some
instances.
Brucellosis (Bangs disease) is
caused by a bacterium and is eas-
ily transmitted from animal to
animal. It is most often spread by:
1. An aborted fetus, afterbirth
or fluids.
2. Feed or water contaminated
with vaginal mucus from an
infected cow.
3. Contact with an infected
cow or bull.
People can contract the disease
(called undulant fever) by drink-
ing unpasteurized milk from
infected cows, or by direct contact
with vaginal discharges.
After the cow becomes preg-
nant, the brucella bacteria invade
the junction of the cotyledons of
fetal membranes and the carun-
cles of the uterus. In this way,
they destroy the delicate transfer
of nutrients to the fetus. As a
result, the fetus may be aborted
anytime, but usually abortion
occurs after the fifth month of
pregnancy.
After abortion occurs, retained
afterbirth, infection of the uterus
and infertility are common. These
symptoms also may be due to
many other causes. Therefore,
specific diagnosis is required.
There is no cure for brucellosis,
although some cows develop an
immunity and subsequently
carry a calf to term. Such cows
usually continue to show a posi-
tive blood titer to brucellosis for
life and may spread the disease
for long periods of time.
Slaughter of infected animals is
the only effective way to elimi-
nate the disease.
Calfhood vaccination of all
potential breeding females pro-
vides adequate protection against
the spread of brucellosis. Strain
19 was the standard vaccine until
about 1995. It had the disadvan-
tage of occasionally triggering a
false positive for Bangs on the
49
herd milk brucellosis ring test
(BRT). From 1997 on, RB51
became the standard. Mandatory
calfhood vaccination was
dropped by most states, though
in 2004, about 4 million calves
still were vaccinated against bru-
cellosis. Certain states in the
western U.S. still require calfhood
vaccination. The states of
California, Washington, Idaho,
Utah, Colorado, Oregon and
Arizona do not permit entry of
replacement animals that are not
calfhood vaccinated.
Artificial insemination with
semen from brucellosis-free bulls
is an important weapon in pre-
venting the spread of Bangs dis-
ease at breeding. All A.I. organi-
zations in the United States rou-
tinely test for brucellosis and use
only brucellosis-free bulls.
Hopefully, brucellosis will be
eradicated from the U.S. in the
future.
Leptospirosis is an economically
important disease of dairy cattle
caused by a microorganism called
a spirochete. It is presumed to be
the most widespread disease
caused by an organism in the
world.
In some areas of the United
States there has been a dramatic
increase in the diagnosed cases of
leptospirosis in dairy cattle.
Leptospirosis causes severe eco-
nomic losses due to its effects on
milk production and reproduc-
tion.
Leptospirosis is most common-
ly contracted following exposure
of an animals skin and mucous
membranes to urine from infect-
ed animals, or surface waters con-
taminated with urine from infect-
ed animals. Contamination can
occur from domestic species or
wildlife, and infection may per-
sist for considerable lengths of
time. Common hosts for the
Lepto serovars (strains) bratisla-
va, canicola and icterohaemorrha-
giae are pigs, dogs and rats,
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 50
respectively. Mating with infected
animals can be a route of infec-
tion, but only in limited situa-
tions. The most common cause of
lepto among cattle is infection
with Leptospira belonging to the
serovar hardjo. Cattle appear to
be the primary host. The serovars
pomona and grippotyphosa also
cause lepto in cattle.
Symptoms of high fever, lack
of appetite, bloody urine and
generally poor health are evident
in young animals (under 1 year)
and are sometimes present in
adults. But the clinical syndrome
can vary from severe illness to
mild signs that go unnoticed.
Abortions, stillbirths and birth of
weak calves are the most obvious
signs most commonly associated
with leptospirosis in cattle.
Abortions usually occur in the
last trimester of pregnancy, from
one to many weeks after infection
by the leptospira organism.
Abortions due to the hardjo
serovar tend to occur sporadical-
ly, compared to abortion
storms which may occur as a
result of infection with Lepto
pomona or grippotyphosa.
Following the first invasion of
the cows bloodstream, the lep-
tospira localize and persist pri-
marily in the kidneys and the
genital tract. Leptospira located
in the kidneys are voided in the
urine and serve as a source of
infection for other animals.
Persistent infection of male and
female genital tracts is a feature
of hardjo infections and may last
longer than a year.
This persistent infection of the
reproductive tract may be the
most economically significant
result of a hardjo infection.
Infertility, which results in
increased services per conception
and prolonged calving intervals,
results from this infection. It
appears that presence of lepto in
the uterus and oviducts of infect-
ed cows may interfere with
implantation of the embryo or
other early pregnancy events. The
presence of mastitis that is unre-
sponsive to treatment and blood
in the milk of dairy cows should
also alert you to the possibility of
leptospirosis.
Diagnosis of leptospirosis
infection is based on clinical
signs, history of abortions, post-
mortems of stillborn and weak-
at-birth calves, and serological
testing of the herd. Because of
variations in cows responses to
leptospirosis, it is suggested that
at least 10 percent of the cow herd
be sampled for serological testing
to provide an adequate cross
sampling of cows.
The best form of prevention
and control is an adequate vacci-
nation program against lep-
tospirosis. Bacterins are available
to immunize dairy cattle against
the five major serotypes of lepto,
although additional vaccination
against hardjo is also sometimes
recommended. Initial administra-
tion of the bacterins should be
boostered within 2 to 4 weeks,
with subsequent revaccination at
6-month intervals. Also consider
management strategies that
reduce exposure to wet areas
(ponds, bogs, etc.).
Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis
(IBR) is a viral disease that has
widespread distribution through-
out the United States. There are
three forms of the disease seen in
dairy cattle:
1. Upper respiratory form
2. Conjunctivitis
3. Infectious pustular vulvo-
vaginitis (IPV)
Exposure to the IBR virus can
cause a variety of clinical signs,
including combinations of all
three forms, or mild inapparent
infection that may go unob-
served. The upper respiratory
form can be manifested in any
age animal but is most likely to
cause death in animals under 6
months of age. The signs of the
50
upper respiratory form may
include high temperature,
labored breathing, snotty nose,
sharp decline in milk production
and lesions of the lining of the
oral and nasal cavities.
Conjunctivitis may be the only
form of IBR evidenced in a herd,
and it is usually associated with
increased tearing, reddening of
the tissue surrounding the eye
and corneal ulcers. IBR conjunc-
tivitis may look similar to pink-
eye and is very difficult to differ-
entiate without close examination
by a veterinarian.
IPV is first noticed when cows
show evidence of pain in the recto-
vaginal area by raising of the tail
and holding it up for abnormally
long periods of time after urination
or defecation. Examination of the
vulva and vaginal canal reveals
whitish ulcers and pus on the vagi-
nal floor.
Abortion can occur after or at
the same time as an undetected
infection, respiratory disease,
conjunctivitis or IPV. Abortion is
most common in the last half of
gestation. Fetuses are usually
decomposed because expulsion
occurs two or more days after
death. Occasionally, fetuses are
retained longer and show partial
or total mummification at the
time of abortion. Abortion and
subsequent infertility are the
major economic losses incurred in
a dairy herd infected with IBR.
Diagnosis is very difficult in
the case of IBR and requires the
conscientious efforts of the dairy
producer, veterinary practitioner
and diagnostic lab. The entire
fetus and placenta from an abort-
ed cow should be refrigerated
and submitted to the lab for full
diagnostic workup. Paired blood
samples can be submitted for
serological testing, but always
keep in mind that the cow may
expel the fetus 2 to 3 months after
IBR infection.
Vaccination is currently the
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 51
best means of controlling IBR.
Since the virus is so widespread,
isolation of a herd of dairy cattle
from IBR is almost impossible.
There are three basic forms of
vaccine against IBR: intranasal
(modified live virusMLV), and
intramuscular (both killed virus
and MLV). Seek veterinary assis-
tance to fit the various vaccine
types into the herd vaccination
program. Some MLV products are
not recommended for use in preg-
nant animals. In using any IBR
vaccine several important items
should be kept in mind:
1. Label and package inserts
should be read carefully and the
instructions followed.
2. Vaccine should be used on
healthy, well-fed cattle that have
not been stressed by moving or
exposed to other diseases.
3. It is best to vaccinate calves
after 6 months of age and at least
1 month prior to breeding.
4. The protection induced by a
vaccine should last for a lifetime
in most cattle. Some feel that peri-
odic vaccination may be neces-
sary in adult cattle, so consult
with your veterinarian for the
best procedure for your herd.
Bovine virus diarrhea (BVD) is
another viral disease that has
widespread distribution in the
Infertility
Immunotolerance
EED* * Early Embryonic Death
0 1 2 3
Timeline of BVD effects, by month of gestation
dairy cattle population in the
United States. It is commonly
associated with respiratory, gas-
trointestinal and reproductive
symptoms. Today, reproductive
losses may be the most economi-
cally important consequence
associated with BVD infection,
and evidence suggests the inci-
dence of BVD-related reproduc-
tive losses are increasing in the
U.S.. These losses can range from
an insidious reduction in repro-
ductive performance at the herd
level to devastating abortion
storms.
As with the IBR, the BVD virus
may cause a variety of signs in cat-
tle from mild, inapparent infection
to a severe gastrointestinal disor-
der resulting in death. If a cow is
infected 9 days prior to breeding,
there is a dramatic drop in her fer-
tility. If infected after breeding up
to about 45 days, BVD is believed
to directly cause embryonic death.
Abortion can be any time, though
the first two-thirds of gestation are
more common. Fetal expulsion
can be delayed, and the virus then
can be gone, making diagnosis dif-
ficult.
If the cow is infected between
100 and 150 days of gestation, the
calf may be born with a variety of
congenital defects. These include
Congenital infections
Normal? Seropositive
Congenital
defects
Abortion
4 5 6 7 8 9
51
malformations of the eye and cen-
tral nervous system. In addition
to timing of infection, the strain
of BVD also makes a difference in
how the calf is affected. During a
short period around day 150 of
gestation, fetal abnormalities
usually result with death at birth.
Some animals show no symp-
toms because of a complicated
immune status commonly known
as persistent infection (PI).
Fetuses that survive infection
with noncytopathic BVD between
18 and 125 days of gestation
invariably develop immunotoler-
ance to the virus and subsequent-
ly become persistently infected.
Their immature immune system
does not recognize the virus as
foreign. Circulation of the virus
during the period of gestation
when immuno-competence is
developing (90 to 120 days) is a
prerequisite for persistence. If a
PI animal is infected with a cyto-
pathic BVD strain possibly from
internal mutations of the virus
Sources of BVD
Exposure
PIs or Transient infections
- Replacements
- Exhibition
- Fenceline
- Shared pastures
- Semen
- Embryos/Recipients
Other species
- Sheep/goats
- Llamas, alpacas, etc.
- Deer, elk, etc.
- Insects
- Humans
Inanimate objects
- Vehicles
- Equipment
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 52
from external sources it is high-
ly fatal and known as mucosal
disease.
Cattle persistently infected
with BVD (PIs) are the major
source of virus spread within and
between farms: they shed incred-
ible numbers of the virus and
invariably give birth to persist-
ently infected calves.
Calves infected in late gesta-
tion may be able to mount an
effective immune response to
BVD and effectively clear the
virus. These calves are usually
normal at birth, but may have
higher risk for a serious post-
natal illness of some kind. A
study of these calves born with
BVD neutralizing titers showed
they were twice as likely to expe-
rience a severe illness during
their first 10 months of life and
were at increased risk for failing
to conceive as breeding heifers.
As with IBR, abortion resulting
from BVD infection may be
delayed several months after ini-
tial exposure to BVD virus, mak-
ing diagnosis difficult. Again, a
concerted effort by dairy produc-
er, veterinarian and pathologist is
needed to establish a diagnosis of
BVD.
EAR NOTCH SAMPLES to test for BVD can be obtained with a tool used for
ear-notching hogs. Samples are taken along the lower edge of the ear.
The incorporation of BVD vac-
cines into the herd vaccination
program should be done pre-
breeding under your local veteri-
narians specific recommenda-
tions. Both killed and MLV prepa-
rations are available, usually in
combination with IBR and other
viral components. MLV products
are not intended for use in preg-
nant animals. The accurate identi-
fication of persistent infection
may alter vaccination schemes. A
three-pronged approach to con-
trol BVD is biosecurity when
introducing new animals; identi-
fy and destroy persistently infect-
ed animals; and vaccinate.
Confirming the presence of BVD
in a herd. This is the first step in
developing a control and eradica-
tion program. The gold stan-
dard diagnostic test is virus iso-
lation on blood samples. It is rela-
tively expensive, at $20 per sam-
ple. Other tests are available to
determine persistently infected
animals, and each has specific
advantages and disadvantages;
they again are generally limited
by practical application and cost.
A simple and lower cost test
recently available is the Antigen
52
Capture ELISA skin test that is
used on an ear notch from the
animal. It is highly accurate, and
the ear notch skin samples can be
stored frozen in sterile saline for
up to 6 months. Turnaround for
results is within 48 hours.
Smaller dairies could use the
approach of testing all cattle at
once, taking blood or ear notch
samples from all animals over 6
months of age and ear notch sam-
ples from animals less than 6
months of age for the skin test.
This approach may be econom-
ically impractical in larger herds.
Here an alternative strategy is to
test all calves at birth using the
ear notch test. Calves testing pos-
itive should be retested before
culling. The dam of a positive calf
must also be tested, as she may be
persistently infected as well.
Dams of all negative calves can be
considered negative.
Bulls and any nonbreeding cat-
tle (steers, for example) also
should be tested, as should abort-
ed fetuses and their dams. Do not
allow calves to commingle or be
housed within 20 feet (7 meters)
of breeding-age cattle until the
calves are confirmed negative.
This strategy is continued until
all animals on the farm have been
tested or have had a calf that test-
ed negative. PIs should be eutha-
nized or sold directly to slaugh-
ter.
Polymerase Chain Reaction
(PCR) tests on bulk milk can be
used to determine if BVD is circu-
lating in the milking string. The
bulk milk PCR can detect a single
PI animal within a group of 200
cows with a sensitivity of 98 per-
cent and specificity of 99 percent.
This test costs about $85 per sam-
ple. A positive test requires fur-
ther testing to find the individual
PIs.
Neospora caninum is a protozoal
infection. Neospora infects many
animals, including cattle, sheep,
goats and horses. It also infects
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 53
dogs and coyotes, which appear
to be definitive hosts for the
species that infects cows.
There are two probable ways
cattle become infected: first, eat-
ing or drinking material contami-
nated by dog feces. Second is
from mother to calf through the
placenta. It has not yet been
proven whether the infection is
transmitted through milk. About
80 percent of calves born to
infected cows have this disease.
Neospora typically causes abor-
tions in the last two trimesters of
gestation in cattle, either when
introduced to a herd for the first
time or when a cow is stressed by
another disease (like shipping
fever). The incidence of
Neospora-related abortion varies
by region, and has been estimated
to be as high as 46 percent in
California. Cows that are sero-
positive to N. caninum have a
higher risk of aborting than
seronegative herdmates.
A vaccine is available for this
disease, and it seems effective. It
is given to pregnant (and presum-
ably infected) cows to prevent
them from spreading the disease
to their offspring. Neospora is a
life-long infection, so the vaccine
does NOT cure the adult cow
being vaccinated.
Other diseases. Fungal and other
sporadic infections of the placen-
ta cause abortion by decreasing
the placental functions of fetal
nourishment and waste control.
A bacterial disease, ureaplas-
mosis, has been associated with a
repeat breeding and occasional
abortion syndrome. This agent
causes an infectious, granular-
appearing vaginitis and is subse-
quently inoculated into the uterus
during artificial insemination by
the insemination pipette. Diag-
nosis is difficult and may be con-
fused with an IBR virus infection.
Vaginal contamination of the A.I.
pipette is prevented by covering
the pipette with a plastic sheath.
A deficiency of the trace miner-
al selenium has been associated
with abortion, retained placenta,
endometritis and cystic ovaries.
Feed analysis and serologic test-
ing are aids in diagnosis. Short-
term supplementation may be
accomplished with injectable
products, but a long-term solu-
tion involves ration supplementa-
tion.
Preventive measures. The dairy
producer who is faced with an
infertility problem in the herd
should first eliminate disease as a
cause before considering other
causes. Rapid diagnoses are
essential to minimize the extent
of infection in the herd, and also
to minimize the damage to each
individual cow. Periodic veteri-
nary examinations detect dis-
eases early.
Diagnosis of abortion is frus-
trating to dairy producers and to
veterinarians because many times
the calf is too decomposed to
make a diagnosis. Samples to
submit include the fetus, placenta
and blood from the cow. Keep
these samples chilled until your
veterinarian or diagnostic lab
personnel evaluate them. Mul-
tiple fetuses often are needed to
make a diagnosis.
Artificial insemination is
another tool to help prevent dis-
ease. Bulls in most A.I. organiza-
tions are checked for diseases
before they enter the stud.
Thereafter, they are tested period-
ically. If the dairy producer
employed similar preventive
measures in herd management,
most reproductive diseases could
be reduced drastically
Isolation prevents spreading.
In general, disease organisms
(bacteria, viruses and protozoa)
perish without host animals. This
fact is the reason why isolation of
diseased animals is so important.
The organisms responsible for
53
most reproductive diseases die
rapidly (or, at least, lose their
potency) when they leave the ani-
mals body and are exposed to
dry air. However, survival out-
side the body is enhanced by
filth, especially when moisture is
present to provide a favorable
environment.
Isolation pens should be far
enough away from the main
barns to prevent direct exposure
of suspect animals to the rest of
the herd. In addition, inadequate
ventilation can result in aerosol
contamination and therefore
should be considered when locat-
ing isolation facilities.
The length of time an animal
must be isolated to insure the
safety of the rest of the herd
depends upon the nature of the
infection. There are no blanket
recommendations. Instead, rely
upon your veterinarians recom-
mendation for each case.
During isolation, utensils and
tools used for infected animals
should not be used for the rest of
the herd. Wash your hands thor-
oughly with soap and water, and
disinfect footwear before leaving
the isolation area.
After a diseased animal is
removed from isolation, the pen
should be scraped and thorough-
ly washed with soap and water.
The pen should then be sprayed
or rinsed with a disinfectant and
left vacant for at least two or three
days. During this time, most
remaining organisms will die
because of dryness, provided no
manure remains to protect them.
These recommendations are
time-tested. But in view of the
price squeeze on the dairy pro-
ducer, they are at least as impor-
tant today as they ever have been.
Vaccination plan. Because the
cows immune system is
depressed around freshening,
you should not vaccinate within
10 to 14 days of the calving date,
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 54

either before or after. If using nat-
ural service in your herd, a
Campylobacter (Vibrio) and tri-
chomoniasis vaccine is warranted
before breeding. If your herd has
had issues with calf scours, vacci-
nation against Rotavirus, Corona-
virus and E. coli is recommended
six and three weeks before calv-
ing.
Adult cows should be boost-
ered annually with IBR, PI3,
BRSV and BVD Strains 1 and 2 as
well as the 5-way leptospirosis
combination. The multivalent
clostridial vaccines also should be
boostered annually if given to the
animal as a calf.
Bulls also should be up-to-date
on their IBR, PI3 and BRSV and
BVD Strains 1 and 2, and 5-way
lepto vaccines (given annually).
Optional vaccines, depending
on the individual herd status,
include Pasteurella and Mann-
heimia, as needed; H. somnus, as
needed; Neospora, if there are
reproductive problems; and
Brucellosis, if there are reproduc-
tive problems; Salmonella, if
problems with scours; Myco-
plasma bovis, as needed; Moraxella
bovis, if problems with pinkeye;
Fusobacterium and Treponema,
as part of a foot problem manage-
ment plan; Staph aureus, for prob-
lems with chronic mastitis; rabies,
in endemic areas.

References cited: Aalseth, E., Hoards Dairyman Caring for Transitions Cows, 2005

Callan, R., Strategies for BVDV Control and Eradication, Hoards West, October 25, 2002.

Dahl, J., Develop Your Own Herd Vaccination Plan, Hoards Dairyman, February 10, 2007.

Grooms, D., Reproductive Diseases and Pregnancy Losses: Occurrence, Prevention and Management of Disease, Dairy
Cattle Reproduction Council, Nov. 7, 2006 Denver conference.

Stevenson, J., Synchronization Strategies to Facilitate Artificial Insemination in Lactating Dairy Cows, Dairy Cattle
Reproduction Council, Nov. 7, 2006 Denver conference.

54
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 55

11 Embryo losses

follicles in response to GnRH conceive as those not exposed to

A
rather sobering statistic is
that, of all ova ovulated by injections (in timed breeding pro- heat stress. Efforts to reduce heat
the cow, between fertiliza- tocols) also reduce conception stress are well worth it for cows in
tion and birth, some 60 percent of rates. confinement housing and holding
ova never result in a live calf. Most losses of pregnancy occur pens before milking. Fans, sprin-
Reproductive failure in cattle during the first 50 days of gesta- klers, plus plenty of cold water
costs the U.S. over $2 billion each tion. Cows with less than normal available in parlor exit lanes and
year. An average cost of a lost blood concentrations of proges- confinement pens all are good
pregnancy is $640, though this terone are at risk for pregnancy strategies.
varies with stage of gestation and loss. Progesterone secreted by the
risk of culling post-partum. Of 100 corpus luteum sustains the early Cycling and noncycling. When
inseminations, about 28 result in a embryo until attachment via the noncycling cows conceive after
calf. Two sources of pregnancy placenta after 18 to 22 days of ovulation synchronization and
failure after A.I. are fertilization gestation. timed A.I., they are more likely to
failure and pregnancy loss. The developing embryo and have late embryonic losses
Numerous causes lead to preg- primitive placenta must signal between the first and second preg-
nancy losses. Low concentrations through chemical means that a nancy diagnosis (late embryonic
of progesterone during the estrous pregnancy is underway. If this or early fetal loss) than cycling
cycle following A.I. may cause the goes unrecognized, the corpus cows. Studies comparing cows
formation of so-called persistent luteum regresses and results in bred after estrous detection com-
follicles. These persistent follicles embryo loss. pared to cows bred by timed A.I.
produce ova that are less fertile were not conclusive.
and result in early embryonic Heat stress plays a role. Cows
death shortly after conception. exposed to heat stress before A.I. Other factors. Level of milk pro-
Ova ovulated from smaller-size are only 33 percent as likely to duction in and of itself is not a fac-
tor in pregnancy loss. However,
cows losing body condition dur-
ing the first month in milk or los-
ing body condition between 28
and 56 days of gestation had
reduced pregnancy rates by two-
to three-fold. Weve already dis-
EARLY embryonic loss

LATE embryonic loss

cussed how transition and calv-

Fertilization failure

ing-related problems that affect

health of the cow and compromise
uterine environment are detri-
mental to pregnancy. When too
Fetal loss

many cottonseed products are fed

to cows, gossypol can negatively
affect embryo quality as well as
development and conception
AI Day 5-6 Day 17-24 Day 42 Term rates. A general guideline is not to
Characterization of reproductive failure in cows exceed 10 pounds (4.5 kg) per cow
per day of total cottonseed prod-

55
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 56
ucts, including whole cottonseed,
hulls and cottonseed meal.
Its also now known that
gossypol exists in higher concen-
trations and in more toxic form in
Pima cotton compared to Upland
varieties.
Cows fed diets high in ruminal
degradable protein are reported
to have reduced fertility. Feeding
high levels of degradable protein
may suppress fertility because
urea causes lowered uterine pH
and the urea and low pH is toxic
to oocytes and to embryos,
respectively. High amounts of
protein also may worsen prob-
lems associated with energy bal-
ance, since energy is required to
rid the body of the excess
Improving embryo survival. Cows
receiving recombinant bovine
somatotropin (rBST) concurrently
with first insemination have better
fertility, accelerated embryo devel-
opment and improved embryo
quality. Improvement in concep-
Low
uterine
56
tion rates are the result of reduced
embryonic death between days 31
and 45.
Pregnancy failure has been
associated with low concentra-
tions of progesterone as early as
day 6 after A.I. As advised by
your veterinarian, human chori-
onic gonadotropin, hCG (Chor-
ulon from Intervet) on Day 5
after A.I. and use of an intravagi-
nal, progesterone-containing
device CIDR insert improved
conception rates on Days 28, 42
and 90, but late embryonic and
fetal losses were unaffected.
Injection of hCG causes forma-
tion of extra luteal tissue and, in
one study, made those cows 8
times less likely to have fetal loss
than cows with a single CL. Both
these uses are extra label, so your
veterinarians involvement is
necessary.
As mentioned, low concentra-
tions of progesterone in the blood
are linked with poor fertility. Use
of a CIDR is approved for use in
dairy cows in the U.S.. In some
studies insertion of a CIDR from
14 to 21 days after A.I. reduced
pregnancy loss between day 31
and 60 of pregnancy.
Supplementing fat at 2 to 4
percent of the cows diet, particu-
larly fat rich in omega-3 fatty
acids, might enhance embryo
survival because of improved
pregnancy recognition, as de-
scribed earlier. Supplementing
fat during the close-up dry peri-
od before calving improved preg-
nancy rates after calving.
Feeding a calcium salt of
linoleic and monoenoic C-18
trans fatty acids increased con-
ception rates in lactating cows,
compared with calcium salts of
palm oil. These cows have high-
er fertilization rates and higher-
grade embryos.
Embryo transfer technologies
in cattle have been developed
primarily as a means for genetic
improvement. In embryo trans-
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 57
fer, defects in the oocyte, ovula-
tion, fertilization and early
embryonic development are not a
factor, so in theory, pregnancy
rates in embryo recipients should
be superior. Generally, however,
this is not the case, when com-
paring embryo recipients and
cows pregnant following A.I.
Nonetheless, there is a case
where embryo transfer has been
shown to enhance fertility, and
that is for lactating cows exposed
to heat stress. During times of
heat stress, pregnancy rates fol-
lowing embryo transfer in the
summer were similar to rates in
winter using A.I.
A potential problem to per-
forming embryo transfer during
heat stress is the difficulty in
detecting estrus. Using timed A.I.
protocols for ovulation synchro-
nization can overcome this. For
commercial producers, embryos
produced in vitro with oocytes
harvested from ovaries recovered
at slaughter could be a major
source of embryos for transfer in
References cited: Hansen, P., Strategies to Improve Embryo Survival, Dairy Cattle Reproduction Council, Nov. 7, 2006
Denver conference.
Santos, J., Embryo Losses: Prevalence, Timing and Associated Causes, Dairy Cattle Reproduction Council, Nov. 7, 2006
Denver conference.
Stevenson, J., Numerous Causes Lead to Pregnancy Losses, Hoards Dairyman, August 10, 2005.
the summer, because embryos are
less expensive to produce this
way than embryos produced by
superovulation. Moreover, use of
sexed semen and/or from bulls
of high genetic merit is inexpen-
sive for this kind of application,
since one straw can be used to
inseminate dozens of oocytes.
A caveat with using embryos
produced in vitro (fertilized out-
side the cow) as opposed to in
vivo is that the in vitro embryos
are associated with lower preg-
nancy rates, poor freezability and
possible future abnormalities in
the resulting calves.
Lactating cows seem to be
most susceptible to reproductive
failure in part due to poor fertil-
ization rates (76 percent), and
embryo viability during early
pregnancy (50 percent), but also
because of extensive embryonic
and fetal death (60 percent).
Research continues with the goal
of improving the establishment
and maintenance of pregnancy.
57
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 58

12 Health of fresh cows

Impact on reproduction

calvings. The key element in the retained placenta by manipula-

K
EEPING cows healthy is
one of the most important
steps in maintaining good
fertility and efficient milk produc-
tion. Healthy cows produce more
milk, rebreed sooner and have
lower culling rates than their
unthrifty herdmates. A recent
study showed that, regardless of
age, cows in sound health were in
estrus earlier, were rebred by 70
days, had conception rates of more
than 50 percent, bore a calf a year
and experienced reproductive
culling rates of less than 5 percent.
We cover uterine infections and
other infections of the reproductive
tract in Chapter 10, and cystic
ovaries in Chapter 15. Several other
disorders, including milk fever,
retained placenta, displaced abo-
masum and ketosis add to the
cows risk of having uterine disor-
ders and problems with fertility.
retained placenta is failure of the
placentomes (cotyledon and carun-
cle) to detach. Pre-calving suppres-
sion of the immune system is a big
contributor. Contrary to previous
belief, it is not lack of uterine con-
tractions linked to hypocalcemia,
though there is some association,
and certainly contributors are abor-
tion, twin birth, induced calving,
difficult calving, caesarean section,
stillborn calf and milk fever.
Animals with elevated serum non-
esterified fatty acids (NEFA), or
fatty liver syndrome and/or low
levels of vitamin E also are at high-
er risk.
Historically, manual removal of
ALL FARMS SHOULD HAVE A REGULAR PROTOCOL for examining
fresh cows on a daily basis. It will pay off not only in getting cows rebred, but
also in the following lactation.
tion and traction was practiced,
and this is now strongly discour-
aged: it likely does more harm than
good.
The impact of retained placenta
ranges from none to impaired fer-
tility, to severe metritis with loss of
milk production. Like smoking cig-
arettes: a retained placenta is not
bad in and of itself, but it can lead
to bad things. The best estimate is
that affected cows become preg-
nant about 15 percent more slowly
than unaffected cows, and that this
occurs only if metritis or clinical
and/or subclinical endometritis
result from the retained placenta.
Loss of milk production appears to

Watch problem calvers. Calving

difficulty boosts the risk of retained
placenta, uterine infections, cull-
ing, death, milk fever and cystic
ovaries. Twinning increases risk for
stillbirth, retained placenta, uterine
infections, displaced abomasum
and culling. Similarly, retained pla-
centa makes uterine infections,
ketosis, displaced abomasum and
culling more likely. Therefore, all of
these disorders are interrelated and
reduce reproductive performance
of cows.

Retained placenta. Retained pla-

centa is failure to pass the placenta
within 24 hours after calving, and it
happens after about nine percent of

58
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 59
be confined to those cows that
progress to clinical metritis.
As discussed previously with
endometritis, use of intrauterine
antibiotics for retained placenta
will increase the risk of antibiotics
in milk and is not worth the
expense in terms of getting the
cow pregnant sooner. There also is
no strong evidence that use of
oxytocin or prostaglandin will
hasten the expelling of the placen-
ta. However, use of antibiotics is
indicated should the cow become
sickly, i.e. listless and not eating
many have fevers.
A reasonable protocol to treat
retained placenta may be to treat
cows that have at least two symp-
toms of metritis (fever, dullness or
lack of appetite, bad-smelling dis-
charge) with 3 to 5 days of antibi-
otic systemically, following drug
withdrawal guidelines. Because
many things can contribute to
retained placenta, transition cow
management must be optimal and
include optimum feed intake, and
a diet that includes 0.3 ppm seleni-
um and 1000 to 2000 IU per cow
per day of vitamin E.
Milk fever. Some level of milk
fever exists in every dairy herd. A
bottle of calcium gluconate
administered intravenously usual-
ly gets most cows up, and many
dairies have a person with the skill
to administer this treatment.
The clinical term is parturient
paresis, or paralysis following
calving. There is a deficiency of
blood calcium needed for muscle
function. Mild clinical cases will
exhibit some shakiness and stum-
bling. In the most extreme cases,
the cow goes down and is unable
to rise, and if left untreated, the
cow will die. Although in general
it may be treated easily, milk fever
adds to the risk for calving diffi-
culty, retained placenta, ketosis
and possibly mastitis, even
though it may not precede the
clinical signs of these disorders.
Clinical cases mean that the
cow has symptoms you can see.
Many more subclinical milk fever
(hypocalcemia) cases exist, often
undetected.
Hypocalcemia can occur in
over 60 percent of older cows in
high producing herds, based on
Colorado and Florida data. Blood
calcium levels are below 8 mg per
dl, but over 5 mg per dl (signs of
milk fever can be observed at this
lower level). Cows appear slug-
gish and dull. If you observe posi-
tive responses in fresh cows when
fresh cows routinely receive calci-
um tubes or drenches, subcuta-
neous calcium and feeding DCAD
(dietary cation-anion difference)
products, you are treating
hypocalcemia.
When anionic salts are fed,
close-up dry cows experience a
drop in urine pH when DCAD
goals are achieved to acidify the
blood and mobilize calcium.
Normal urine pH is over 8. If an
optimal DCAD is fed, urine pH
should drop to 6.2 to 6.8 (Jersey
cows need to be 5.5 to 6). Urine pH
should not drop below 5.5, or kid-
ney damage could occur.
Commercial pH strips are avail-
able for checking urine pH.
Ketosis. Ketosis can occur a week
before calving to 6 weeks after in
high producing cows. Primary
ketosis is related to an energy
shortage caused by high milk
yield, marginal dry matter intake
or use of low quality ration ingre-
dients. Diseases such as mastitis,
metritis, or milk fever that reduce
the cows intake also can lead to
ketosis.
In the days before calving,
nutrient requirements are greater
due to fetal growth, colostrums
synthesis, and the cows udder is
developing for lactation. At the
same time, feed intake typically
drops 15 to 30 percent. The
amount of energy needed to main-
tain the cow and to support milk
59
production in early lactation
exceeds the amount consumed in
feed. The cow enters a negative
balance for energy and protein as
well as calcium. Cows have some
ability to draw upon body
reserves. They typically draw
energy from body fat mobiliza-
tion. This is a normal process.
But if this process goes on too
long and/or the deficiencies are
too great, the cow loses too much
body condition, and ketosis
occurs. Ketotic cows are more sus-
ceptible to mastitis, metritis and
other infections, and also have
reduced fertility.
Monitoring ketone levels in a
herd can help decide whether
treatment is justified. Keto-Test
strips are available through your
veterinarian and are useful for
monitoring sub-clinical ketosis in
milk or urine. Urine is more sensi-
tive and could be used before calv-
ing. For example, administering
propylene glycol has a positive
effect if the ration cannot support
adequate levels of propionate or if
the cow has sub-clinical ketosis. If
incidence of ketosis is high in the
herd, dry matter intake and feed
quality also must be evaluated.
Fatty liver. This condition occurs
within a few days before calving
to several weeks afterward, most
often among cows that approach
calving with excess body condi-
tion (3.75 or more). These fatty
liver cows act depressed, have
lack of appetite, suppressed
immune systems and general
weakness. It is referred to as fatty
liver syndrome because it almost
always is associated with other
problems, including ketosis, milk
fever, displaced abomasums,
retained placenta, metritis or mas-
titis. Fatty liver is almost always
secondary to another problem.
The close-up dry cow and
recently fresh cow mobilize fatty
acids from body fat stores. The
liver absorbs these fatty acids, and
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 60

then manufactures another fat
called triglyceride. Ideally, the
cow should take up the triglyc-
erides for milk fat synthesis. Fatty
liver develops because the liver
manufactures triglycerides faster
than the triglycerides can be
exported from the liver and
moved to the udder. Once triglyc-
erides accumulate in the liver, it is
very difficult for them to be
removed. They then interfere with
important liver functions, and this
leads to reduced immune func-
tion.
Prevention of this condition is
the key, since treatments have lim-
ited success. The cows body con-
dition is best manipulated while
she still is milking, not by restrict-
ing feed during the dry period.
DAs. Displaced abomasums (DA)
occur when the cows fourth or
true stomach compartment is
twisted to the left or right side
from its normal position. About 9
out of 10 times, the abomasum
moves upward on the left body
wall. The abomasum is trapped
and squeezed between the rumen
and the left side of the cow. The
entrance and exit of the aboma-
sum are restricted, and the aboma-
sum becomes filled with gas and
bloats. The veterinarian taps the
cows left side and listens for the
ping associated with this bloat-
ing.
Right side displacements may
more commonly involve a twist
and are more serious, as blood
supply can be cut off, and recov-
ery rate is much poorer compared
to a left displacement if not diag-
nosed and treated promptly.
DAs cost an average of $340
per case due to treatment, lost
milk production, longer interval
from calving to conception,
greater risk of severe ketosis and
culling.
A common goal is no more than
3 percent of fresh cows have
LDAs, and less than 1 percent is
achievable. Managing the feeding
program before and after calving
is key. Feed the cow bulky feeds
during the dry period to keep the
rumen full and maintain dry mat-
ter intake. Avoid finely chopped
silages. Sudden shifts from a dry-
cow ration to a hot milking ration
can contribute to DAs. Rumen
acidosis can contribute to DAs;
start feeding grain to close-up dry
cows 10 days to two weeks before
calving and increase it gradually.
After calving, cows should be
maintained on a higher forage
ration for 10 to 30 days before
switching to the hot milking cow
ration.
In closing this chapter, one last,
clear message is that measures
taken to prevent one or more of
these disorders probably will
decrease the risk and incidence of
other related problems, as well as
improve fertility.

TIPS FOR VACCINATING DRY/FRESH COWS

Cow is immune-suppressed for up to 2 weeks pre- and post-

calving; this reduces her response to vaccines administered
during this time.

Risk of disease is highest at calving, so administer vaccines

well before the cow is at risk.

For mastitis vaccines:

- 2 weeks before drying off
- Boost at dry-off
- Boost again 2 weeks before calving

References cited: Aalseth, E., Hoards Dairyman Caring for Transitions Cows, 2005

Goff, J., et al, Transition Cow Nutriton: Effects on Immune Function and Postpartum Health, Dairy Cattle Reproduction
Council, Nov. 7, 2006 Denver conference.

LeBlanc, S., Management and Treatment of Postpartum Uterine Problems, Dairy Cattle Reproduction Council, Nov. 7,
2006 Denver conference.

60
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 61
13 When should cows
be bred?
mean that she is ready to breed.
B
REEDING COWS AT THE
WRONG TIME is one of the The uterus usually requires from 3
main causes of infertility. to 6 weeks to recover from the pre-
This statement is unanimously vious pregnancy. And fertility is
supported by those who work in appreciably lower until after this
reproduction. recovery is completed.
Infertility caused by breeding at If you were to see the interior of
the wrong time is a needless waste! a uterus within the first weeks fol-
Certainly, there are many causes of lowing calving, you would quickly
infertility that cannot be predicted recognize that it has not yet recov-
and consequently, are very difficult ered from the effects of calving.
to avoid. But timing of the insemi- There are many blood clots and
nation is one thing that we can con- some inflammation of the uterine
trol if a good job is done in the area wall. Having seen it, you will not
of estrous detection. likely recommend breeding a cow
too soon after calving.
Recovery after calving. Cows may By 45 to 60 days after normal
show their first estrus any time calving, the uterus is usually back
from 2 to 10 weeks after calving. to normal, and at least 90 percent of
However, just because a cow shows the cows should show signs of
estrus soon after calving does not standing estrus by this time.
Experiments have shown
that fertility of matings made
at 45 to 60 days after calving
is about 80 percent as high as
INSIDE OF A UTERUS after calving shows
fertility of matings made at
the damage resulting from the birth of the calf.
80 to 90 days after calving.
However, not much increase
in fertility is gained by delay-
ing breedings beyond 80
days after calving.
Earlier breeding after calv-
ing is one means of shorten-
ing the average calving inter-
val of the herd. Cows should
not be rebred before 60 days
unless palpation of the repro-
ductive tract reveals that the
cow is ready for rebreeding.
Even 60 days may be insuffi-
cient recovery time for cows
that had difficulty at calving.
Another way to ask this
question is how long should
61
you wait before initiation of breed-
ing after calving? There should be a
herd goal of when to start breeding
or an established voluntary waiting
period (VWP). This varies from 45
to 80 daysif your veterinarian has
examined the cows and declared
them OK to breed. With good
estrous detection or an estrous syn-
chronization program (Chapter 18),
the average days to first breeding
should be 70 to 75 days.
If the cow is bred successfully
soon after calving, her production
for the lactation will be somewhat
lower. The first 5 months of preg-
nancy have no apparent effect
upon lactation. Following 5
months, however, the effects of
pregnancy become progressively
greater. Thus breeding too soon
after calving could have an adverse
affect on economic returns from
some cows.
Experiments have not shown
consistent effects of stage of lacta-
tion on reproduction. High-pro-
ducing cows will breed back on
schedule if they are healthy and
well fed. In some herds, high-pro-
ducing cows are less fertile than
lower producers. However, in
other herds fertility is similar
between high and low producers.
Some of the differences in repro-
ductive performance between high
and low producers may be due to
differences in how cows are man-
aged rather than to differences in
level of milk production.
Silent estrus (heat). Actually, most
so-called silent estruses are simply
missed estruses due to poor estrous
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 62
detection techniques. About one
quarter of estruses can be classi-
fied as low intensity and short
duration, meaning that they were
less than 1.5 standing events per
hour and less than 7 hours in
duration. Other studies find that
high-producing dairy cows had
shorter periods of estrus (6.2
hours compared to 10.9 hours)
and fewer standing events (6.3
versus 8.8) compared to low-pro-
ducing cows.
Estrus involves a series of
changes affecting almost every
part of the cow. The cow is usual-
ly more excitable, showing signs
of restlessness. A clear mucous
discharge from the vagina and
reddening of the vulva are typical.
Cows in estrus usually mount
other cows. These are all impor-
tant signs of estrus.
However, standing to be
mounted by another cow is the
best single characteristic of estrus.
You cannot watch cows for stand-
ing estrus while they are confined.
They must be free to move about
plus have confidence of good foot-
ing. Dirt footing is preferred, but
not always available. When cows
are maintained on concrete, it
should be grooved to improve
estrous detection, as well as mini-
SCORING SYSTEM FOR ESTRUS BEHAVIOR
SIGN
Mucous vaginal discharge
Pestering other cows
Restlessness
Sniffing vagina of another cow
Mounted but not standing
Chin resting on another cow
Mount (or attempted) other cows
Mounting head side of other cows
Standing estrus
* based on proposal by Van Eerdenburg et al, 1996
mizing slipping at other times,
Estrous detection is one of the
most important, yet most abused
areas, of reproductive manage-
ment. Missed estruses are not the
only estrous detection problem.
Studies from New York, Virginia
and California have revealed that
about 15 percent of all cows that
were bred were misidentified as
being in estrus and had no chance
to conceive.
A good estrous detection pro-
gram should give cows a place to
exhibit estrus and should increase
the chances that someone will be
on hand to observe that behavior.
The following are management
suggestions for an effective
estrous detection program.
Appoint specific people to be
responsible for estrous detection,
and allow time to do the job prop-
erly. This should be a clear part of
their job description.
Observe cows three or fours
times daily; 50 percent of all cows
are in estrus less than 8 hours.
Spend at least 15 minutes
during each observation period
mounts only last 2 to 3 seconds,
and the cows must be given
enough opportunity to interact.
Avoid combining estrous
detection with other chores.
POINTS
3 the U.S. has made the old recom-
3 mendation for twice-daily estrous
5 detection outdated. Even with
10
10
15
35
45
100
62
Record all estruses whether
the cow is to be bred or not.
Estrous detection will improve if
future estruses can be anticipated.
Pregnancy status should be a
key criteria for grouping cows.
Keep open cows together to stim-
ulate more estrus activity. Cows
that are approaching estrus, in
estrus and going out of estrus
form sexually active groups
(SAGs). The size of the SAG can
determine overall activity of the
individual cow in estrus. Because
of this, estrous synchronization
can improve estrous detection,
because more cows are in estrus at
the same time.
Provide an area where cows
are free to interact and have good
footing and few obstacles. Turn
cows out on a dry, dirt surface for
best results. Sore feet and legs can
diminish overall activity, and the
number of mounts received by
lame cows was decreased by 70
percent in one study.
When cows are lying down,
check for mucus, rough tailheads,
abnormal discharges or the
bloody discharge that indicates a
previous estrus (2 to 3 days prior).
Then encourage cows to move
around to increase interaction. At
the same time, remember that con-
ditions that distract or frighten
cattle will decrease estrus expres-
sion.
Considerations for monitoring
estrus. The increase of herd size in
three- or four-times-a-day moni-
toring with visual detection, larger
pen size makes it impossible for
one person to see the entire pen at
one time.
Difficulties with visual detec-
tion are pushing large herds in one
of two directions: either intensive
use of timed A.I. (TAI) or toward
using methods for estrous detec-
tion that supplement or replace
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM
visual detection. Many larger
herds now use tail chalking to
identify cows with rubbed tail-
heads that have been ridden by
herdmates.
These methods tend to be sim-
ple and efficient, but with poten-
tially high error rates (once daily
tail chalking and A.I. based on
rubbed tailheads) or automated
systems of estrous detection
(mount detection or pedometers)
that are more expensive but tend
to be more accurate.
Timed A.I. We use signs of estrus
because these help us to predict
the time of ovulation: this is what
really directs the timing of insemi-
nation. Ideally we would like to
know the exact time of the LH
surge, because ovulation occurs
about 30 hours following the LH
surge in a very predictable man-
ner. If we knew the exact time of
the LH surge, then we would not
need to observe for estrus. That is
the underlying beauty of TAI. The
final GnRH injection of the
Ovsynch protocol causes the LH
surge. There is no need to detect
estrus because the time of the LH
surge is known, and cows can be
inseminated at a set time after the
GnRH injection.
Source: Nebel et al, Anim. Reprod. Sci., 2000.
Page 63
Simple systems to detect cows in
estrus. An ideal system for estrous
detection would include these five
features: 1) Continuous surveil-
lance of the cow; 2) accurate and
automatic cow identification; 3)
operational for the cows lifetime;
4) require minimal labor and 5) be
accurate.
Devices to identify cows in
standing estrus include tail chalk,
tail paint, Kamar Heatmount
detectors, Estrus Alerts, and other
pressure-sensitive non-electronic
devices. These all work on the
principle that cows that stand
when mounted by another cow
received pressure and rubbing on
the tail head. If chalk/paint is
rubbed off, or the device is activat-
ed, this is an indication of estrus.
These devices were traditionally
viewed as aides to supplement
visual observation, though large
dairies may chalk tailheads once-
daily and inseminate cows with
rubbed tailheads. Of the five crite-
ria, the above methods do allow
continuous surveillance and
require minimal labor. But they
are not operational for the cows
lifetime and their accuracy may be
low if used alone with no other
information on the cow.
ESTRUS, THE LH SURGE AND OVULATION
Onset of
estrus
OVULATION
Duration of
estrus
0 12 24
Fertile life of sperm in female reproductive tract
24 to 30 hours
63
Electronic systems to detect cows
in estrus. Systems such as Heat-
Watch will record the number and
time of mounts through a trans-
mitter located on the tailhead.
Data can be transmitted to a com-
puter on the farm, otherwise the
devices themselves must be exam-
ined daily to retrieve information
and determine which cows are in
estrus. Limitations are their
expense and the labor require-
ment to manage the system.
Activity monitors (pedometers
or neck chain monitors) detect
estrus using the principle that
these cows are more active. A
threshold is set and cows whose
activity is above the threshold are
considered in estrus. If the thresh-
old is set too low, there are more
false positives. Conversely, false
negatives are higher if the thresh-
old is set too high. The high rate of
false positives tends to be the
biggest drawback to these devices.
Integrating a variety of infor-
mation on the individual cow may
be the best: in other words, com-
bining data from HeatWatch,
activity and visual observation.
A sobering statistic that affects
these systems that depend on the
cows behavior to detect estrus is
that about half of cows in estrus
Fertile life
of ovum
28 32 38 HOURS
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 64

do not show standing estrus, par-
ticularly high-producing cows: in
other words, they have a silent
estrus. At the present time, there is
not a commercially available test
to measure approaching ovulation
or the LH surge in the cows
blood. This leaves TAI as an
attractive alternative for handling
these cows with silent estruses.
Fertility best toward end of
standing estrus. If inseminations
are not made at the correct time in
relation to the time of ovulation,
then fertility is reduced. Ovulation
occurs about 25 to 30 hours after
the onset of standing estrus. But
under most conditions, we seldom
know the exact time that standing
estrus begins. Therefore, relying
on visual observation alone, when
a cow is first seen in standing
estrus, she usually has already
been in estrus for several hours.
For example, if cows are observed
at exactly 6 a.m. and 6 p.m. every
day, a cow could have been in
estrus for many hours before she
was first observed to stand. Or she
could be just beginning estrus. So,
on the average, a cow observed in
estrus under these conditions
would have been in estrus about 5
to 6 hours when she was first
observed standing.
Sperm have to spend some time
in the cows reproductive tract
before they develop the capacity
to fertilize the egg. Therefore,
inseminations should be made
several hours before ovulation. To
achieve highest fertility, a cow first
observed in estrus before noon
should be bred late in the after-
noon that same day. Similarly, a
cow first observed in estrus in the
afternoon should be bred the fol-
lowing morning. This AM-PM
system is easy to follow and under
most conditions should result in
good conception rates.
However, the AM-PM system
works best with intense estrous
detection programs. If cows are
observed only twice a day, it is
impossible to predict when onset
of estrus occurred, thus timing of
insemination is guesswork at best.
Based on life span of the ova
and sperm, transport time of
sperm to the site of fertilization
and now accurately knowing that
on average, cows ovulate 27.6
hours after the onset of standing
estrus, current recommendations
are to inseminate about 8 hours
after the best estimated time of
peak estrus, with somewhat later
than 8 hours being better than
earlier.
Some cows may deviate slight-
ly from the herd average. For
example, a cow may ovulate a few
hours earlier or later than normal.
But it is impossible, even for expe-
rienced veterinarians, to pinpoint
the exact time of ovulation, even
with ultrasound scanning of the
ovaries. The same cow variation
exists for other phases of repro-
duction, including the length of
the estrous cycle and length of
gestation, another reason why

REPRODUCTIVE TRACT ABNORMALITIES decrease with time after calv-

ing, while the expected fertility increases as the tract returns to normal. A PEDOMETER alerts you to cows
that are more active, a sign of estrus.

Fertility
Percent

Reproductive tract
abnormalities

Days after calving

64
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 65
reproduction records on individ-
ual cows are so important.
Also, the discharge of blood fol-
lowing estrus provides a good
clue as to whether the cows were
bred at the proper time during
estrus. Post-estrus bleeding usual-
ly appears (if observed at all)
about 48 to 54 hours after the
onset of standing estrus. The
appearance of blood should fol-
low breeding by about 30 hours.
If blood is observed consistently
40 to 48 hours after service, it indi-
cates the cows were bred too soon
after coming into estrus. If it is
observed at or soon after breeding,
then the cows were bred too late.
Management of anestrus and
anovulatory cows. Anovular
refers to cows that are not ovulat-
ing at or near the time that breed-
ing of these cows should occur.
While this can be confirmed by
ultrasound or measurement of
progesterone in the blood, cows
that dont show estrus (anestrus)
may be assumed to be anovular
when this is not always the case.
There are many physiological and
environmental reasons why a cow
A BLOODY DISCHARGE indicates
that estrus occurred two to three
days prior.
may not display signs of estrus,
even though the cow has an LH
surge and ovulates.
One example is high milk pro-
duction: a study showed that cows
with high milk production have a
much shorter duration of standing
estrus. A higher percentage of
high producers also had silent
ovulations: no standing estrus
events, compared to lower pro-
ducing cows. Regardless of the
reason, higher producers are less
likely to be found in estrus and
might be misdiagnosed as anovu-
lar cows.
On the other hand, some cows
may be detected in estrus, either
inaccurately or due to expressing
estrus but not actually ovulating.
Well be discussing anovular cows surge or ovulate.
in the following paragraphs.
Incidence and causes of anovula-
tion. Identification of anovular
cows by testing for blood proges-
terone levels shows an incidence
ranging from 15 to 54 percent by
49 to 71 days post-calving. In
addition, first-calf heifers have a
higher incidence than second or
later lactation cows. On average,
at 60 days in milk, some 25 percent
of cows are anovular, and it often
goes undiagnosed.
Presence of a persistent corpus
luteum on the ovary is the most
common condition preventing
ovulation. This condition is pres-
ent in pregnant cows, and in this
case is not a problem. But some
non-pregnant cows (1.5 to 6.4 per-
cent) also may have a persistent
corpus luteum that does not
regress during a 25-day time peri-
od. The incidence of this condition
increases dramatically in cows
that ovulate during the first 25
days after calving (25 percent)
compared to cows ovulating later.
An effective treatment is using
prostaglandin (PGF2-) to cause
the persistent CL to regress.
Three follicular growth pat-
terns are observed in anovular
65
cows. One is growth of relatively
small follicles. This is associated
with lower body condition score
(2.5 or lower) and negative energy
balance. These cows never have a
follicle that reaches sufficient size
or estradiol production to induce
the cow to come into estrus and
have an LH surge and ovulate.
The second follicular growth
pattern readily identified by vet-
erinarians is growth of follicular
cysts. In most cases, these cows do
not ovulate or show behavioral
estrus, in spite of the presence of
high concentrations of estradiol.
The cystic cows hypothalamus
does not respond to the effects of
estradiol, so she does not show
estrus and does not have an LH
The third pattern of follicular
growth in anovular cows is most
prevalent and also the most diffi-
cult to diagnose on commercial
dairies. The follicles grow to ovu-
latory size (16 to 24 mm) but do
not ovulate. The ovary does not
appear to have cysts but seems to
be in a similar state as if it did.
These cows also have high levels
of circulating estradiol but do not
show standing estrus or ovulation.
Some secondary signs of estrus
may be present (mucus, activity)
but the cows do not ovulate.
On-farm factors associated with
milk production. Although high
levels of milk production do not
cause anovular cows per se, in
herds that are limited for energy
or other nutrients, higher milk
producers would logically have a
much greater likelihood of being
anovular than lower producers. In
high-producing, well-fed herds,
incidence of anovulation probably
is related to factors other than
level of milk production.
Body condition score (BCS) and
incidence of anovulation at 60
days post-calving are strongly
related. Yet 44 to 63 percent of
anovular cows (two studies) were
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 66

anovular yet had good BCS. So
while cows with low BCS have a
higher incidence of anovulation,
many cows with anovulation do
not have low BCS.
Most studies have shown
greater incidence of anovular
cows among first-calf heifers com-
pared to cows with two or more
calves. Yet this relationship is
somewhat controversial and
appears to vary by herd.
The rather frustrating fact is that
in well-fed dairy cows with good
BCS, there still is a surprisingly
high incidence of anovulation.
Prevention through nonhormonal
means. Improving nutrition is
mentioned most often as a way to
reduce the number of anovular
cows. Another simple approach is
to delay the time of first breeding,
or increase the length of the VWP:
over half those cows anovular at
71 days post-calving spontaneous-
ly recover by 100 days, according
to one study.
A method currently under
investigation is to shorten the dry
period in 2nd+ lactation cows.
One study showed that in cows
where the dry period was short-
ened from 56 days to 34 days, the
days to first ovulation was
reduced from 43 to 35 days, and
the percentage of cows that were
anovular at 70 DIM declined from
18 percent to 8 percent. Note that
cows with the reduced dry period
received a steam-up, moderate
energy diet at initial dry off and
never received the typical low
energy, dry-cow ration. Sub-
sequent milk production did not
appear to be affected.
Hormonal treatments of anovular
cows. Hormonal protocols are
needed to insure that anovular
cows have every opportunity to
become pregnant during their lac-
tation. Most used in the U.S. is the
Ovsynch protocol (illustrated on
page 80). This protocol appears to
induce ovulation in a high per-
centage of anovular dairy cows,
but some of these cows have a
subsequent short luteal phase.
Nonetheless, while Ovsynch may
induce ovulation in non-cycling
cows, there is still likely to be a
lower conception rate in these
cows at the induced ovulation.
The later the DIM at the start of
Ovsynch, the more successful it
will be in cycling or noncyling
cows.
Use of a CIDR with the
Ovsynch protocol is termed CIDR-
Synch. Cows have the proges-
terone insert placed in the vagina
at the same time as the first injec-
tion of GnRH in the Ovsynch pro-
tocol. The CIDR is removed at the
time of PGF treatment. Study
results have been variable, with no
clear advantage as of this writing.

References cited: Lucy, M., Estrus: Basic Biology and Improving Estrous Detection, Dairy Cattle Reproduction Council,
Nov. 7, 2006 Denver conference.

Nebel, R. and DeJarnette, J. M., Artificial Insemination Programs for Heifers, Dairy Cattle Reproduction Council, Nov.
7, 2006 Denver conference.

Wiltbank, M., Management and Treatment of Anestrus and Anovulatory Conditions in Dairy Cows, Dairy Cattle
Reproduction Council, Nov. 7, 2006 Denver conference.

66
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 67

14 Breeding heifers

little effect on the percentage that cy toward poorer reproductive per-

H
eifer rearing or replace-
ment cost accounts for become pregnant. This is true for formance. Females not mated
about 20 percent of the heifers bred at 14 to 16 months of before 4 years of age may tend to
dairys operational cost, often the age, and for older animals bred for develop irregular estrous cycles,
dairys second largest expense. the first time at 2 to 3 years. cystic ovaries and other reproduc-
Working to shorten the time After that age, there is a tenden- tive disturbances.
between the heifers birth and the
birth of her first calf can do a lot to
reduce this cost.
At the same time, A.I. is a pow-
erful tool for genetic improvement
that enhances the value of bred
heifers. Its generally a more effi-
cient process to get heifers bred
using A.I. because they have a
longer estrus. For example, while a
study showed duration of estrus as
7.4 hours for Holstein cows and 8.9
hours for Jersey cows, heifers
exhibit estrus for a 40-percent
longer period: 10.8 hours for
Holstein heifers and 12.7 hours for
Jersey heifers. Heifers also show
more mounting activity than cows,
and while there is no best time to
observe heifers for standing activi-
ty, movement of heifers prior to
observing for estrus seems to
increase standing activity.

Age of heifer. Well-fed heifers nor-

mally show their first estrus
(puberty) at 9 to 11 months of age,
though they may ovulate even ear-
lier. Poorly fed heifers, however,
may not come into estrus until they
are 20 months or more of age.
Puberty appears to occur when
heifers achieve about two-thirds of
adult size, rather than at a constant
age.
Nevertheless, once heifers reach
puberty (start coming into estrus),
age and size have comparatively

67
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 68
There is a popular opinion that
breeding heifers while they are too
young will retard their ultimate
size. Experiments have shown
that the age of breeding has little,
if any, effect upon the ultimate
body size, provided the animals
are well fed during pregnancy and
during the first lactation.
Another popular opinion main-
tains that breeding heifers when
they are too young may shorten
their life expectancy. This idea is
largely unfounded. Little or no
indication of shorter productive
life exists due to earlier calving.
Actually, heifers calving at about 2
years of age have a higher lifetime
production total than if they calve
for the first time at 3 years.
It is true that older heifers yield
more milk in their first lactations
than do younger heifers. How-
ever, after the first lactation, age at
first calving has only a small effect
on milk yield. Early-calving
heifers start paying for their keep
sooner and maintain a higher
cumulative milk yield all their
lives.
Recommended body weight for
first service is when heifers reach
approximately 65 percent of their
expected mature body weight, or
750 to 800 pounds (340 to 363 kg)
for Holsteins and 550 to 600
pounds (250 to 272 kg) for Jersey
heifers. An adequate nutrition and
development program is critical
for success in a heifer A.I. pro-
gram.
Perhaps the most important
consideration in determining
when to breed heifers is the ability
of the heifer to deliver a calf. Small
heifers may have severe calving
difficulties. Such difficulties can
cause permanent infertility or
even death of the cow. They may
also lower the expected milk pro-
duction in the next lactation. Thus,
ease of calving is much more
dependent upon size than upon
age.
In order to assure safe calving
size, the postcalving weight of
heifers should be at least 1,200
pounds (545 kg) for Holsteins, 850
pounds (386 kg) for Jerseys, 1,000
pounds (454 kg) for Guernseys,
about 950 pounds (430 kg) for
Ayrshires and about 1,100 pounds
(500 kg) for Brown Swiss.
Breeding dairy heifers to beef
bulls, in an effort to produce a
smaller calf that might result in
less calving difficulties, is a ques-
tionable procedure. In the first
place, if the heifers are grown out
well at the time of calving, there is
no need for this practice. In the
second place, experiments have
shown that the size of the dam is
the primary factor in determining
the birth weight of the calf. Third,
within beef breeds, some bulls
have larger calves than others, so
unless you have selected the bull
based on calf size you may be bet-
ter off with a calving ease dairy
bull. Finally, you are losing the
genetic merit and production in
this generation of cross-bred
calves.
The sire also affects a calfs birth
weight. There is almost as much
difference in birth weight of off-
spring between bulls within a
breed as there is between bulls of
different breeds. This means that
certain Holstein sires may be just
as effective as some beef bulls in
siring small offspring from first-
calf Holstein heifers. These
smaller offspring from Holstein
matings do not necessarily remain
smaller all their lives. See the dis-
cussion in Chapter 7 on using SCE
scores of sires to avoid calving dif-
ficulty in first-calf heifers.
First-calf heifers make up about
30 percent of the herd. This means
that 30 percent of the heifer calves
born are from first-calf heifers.
If 30 percent of the heifer calves
born each year are sired by beef
bulls, nearly all of the other heifer
calves (from the older cows in the
herd) must be kept for herd
68
replacements, eliminating selec-
tion of heifers as a tool in herd
improvement. It is highly recom-
mended that heifers be bred A.I. to
a good dairy bull.
Estrus detection in heifers. In gen-
eral, A.I. after detected estrus usu-
ally is associated with higher con-
ception rates compared to timed
A.I. (TAI) following synchroniza-
tion of estrus or of ovulation in
heifers. One study showed the
proportion of heifers pregnant
was nearly equal using four proto-
cols that ranged from A. I. follow-
ing detected estrus to three popu-
lar synchronization programs. The
conception rate was highest in the
groups that relied on tail paint
combined with visual detection of
estrus.
Tail-chalking is performed by
applying a stripe of chalk or paint
down the tailhead from the hooks
to where the tail slopes off the
topline of the heifer. All heifers in
a breeding group or pen must
have a stripe applied because dur-
ing daily observation, the absence
of the stripe indicates that the
heifer possibly stood to be mount-
ed by herdmates. However, the
absence of the stripe should be
only an alert: the observer should
look for other secondary signs
such as swollen and red vulva,
mucous discharge either on the
rump, tail or suspended from the
genital tract and muddy flanks.
The tail stripe is freshened up on a
daily basis as needed. Referencing
prior breeding dates is also help-
ful to determine if this suspected
estrus is within a normal estrous
cycle interval of 18 to 24 days.
With training and experience, you
can determine which rubbed-off
stripe markings are results of legit-
imate estrous activity and which
were licked or worn off naturally.
The major reasons for not using
A.I. for heifers are perceptions of
lowered conception rates com-
pared to natural service, time
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 69

commitment for detection of A three-week earlier A.I.

estrus, heifers kept at an incon-
venient location, and lack of
restraint facilities. When the onset
of estrus cannot be accurately
determined, producers should
consider estrus synchronization
and a concentrated A.I. breeding
program for selected months dur-
ing the year.
Sex sorted-semen. As noted in
chapter 2, the dairy industry rec-
ommends use of sex-sorted semen
primarily in dairy heifers. Field
trials show conception rates with
sex-sorted semen to be 70 to 73
percent of those obtained with
conventional semen.
Taking this reduced concep-
tion rate into account, a proposal
for the best use of sex-sorted
semen would be a strategy of ear-
lier breeding of heifers with sex-
sorted semen followed by use of
conventional semen for repeat
services.
scheme would provide 62 to 66
percent female offspring at first
calving with no detrimental
effects on average age at calving
or difficult calving (dystocia).
Efficient application of sex-sorted
semen use in heifers would be
further enhanced with recent
advances in estrus synchroniza-
tion technology.
At present, sex-sorted semen is
only recommended in highly fer-
tile virgin heifers detected in
standing estrus. Also, sex-sorted
semen is NOT recommended in
conjunction with either timed A.I.
(TAI) protocols or in lactating
cows. Producers should be aware
that the flow cytometric technolo-
gy developed by USDA, subli-
censed to XY, Inc., and presently
commercialized in the U.S. by
Sexing Technologies of Navosota,
TX, is the only validated sex-sort-
ing technology in the market
place.

References cited: Nebel, R. and De Jarnette, J.M., Artificial Insemination Programs for Heifers, Dairy Cattle
Reproduction Council, Nov. 7, 2006, Denver.

Stevenson, J. Synchronization Strategies to Facilitate Artificial Insemination in Lactating Dairy Cows, Dairy Cattle
Reproduction Council, Nov. 7, 2006, Denver.

69
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 70
15 Pregnancy diagnosis
R
emember that the most
important information from
pregnancy testing is identi-
fying open cows; identifying preg-
nant cows is secondary. Non-preg-
nancy diagnosis then requires rap-
idly returning the cow to A.I. serv-
ice to improve reproductive effi-
ciency.
Palpation, ultrasound and blood
tests. Veterinary palpation through
the rectal wall used to be the only
option for early detection of a
cows pregnancy status. The use of
ultrasound has grown, particularly
since portable, battery-operated
units improved in quality and
could be used in larger herds.
Dairy producers can purchase
their own ultrasound, but veteri-
nary-grade machines are expen-
sive, $8,000 to $16,000. Possibly
more daunting is the training and
experience needed to use the
machines and obtain accurate
results.
In addition, new tests are just
becoming available that test for
unique components in the cows
blood if she is pregnant. One test
confirms the presence of a protein
secreted by a type of cell that is part
of the placenta. The protein is
known as pregnancy-specific pro-
tein B, also known as pregnancy-
associated glycoprotein (PAG). It
becomes detectable in the blood-
stream in about 28 days in preg-
nant heifers and 30 days in preg-
nant cows.
This test for PAG is most accu-
rate for blood samples collected on
or after Day 30 post-A.I. Lactating
cows should be at least 90 days in gram. Ultrasound also has a defi-
milk when the test is performed to nite advantage in diagnosing other
ensure the protein from the previ- details that palpation cannot, and
ous pregnancy has been eliminated these are discussed below.
from the bloodstream. This isnt a
problem for cows inseminated on Estrous detection still valuable.
or after Day 60 postpartum, and Regardless of when and how often
blood is collected 30 days after A.I. pregnancy diagnosis is carried out,
(at least Day 90 postpartum). the best way to reduce inter-insem-
An average minimum of days by ination intervals is to rebreed the
which veterinarians can confident- cow at her first eligible estrus after
ly predict a pregnancy through the last A.I. breeding. Good estrous
trans-rectal palpation of the uterus detection for cows that have been
could be set at 35 days. For ultra- inseminated 19 to 25 days previ-
sound, assuming some of the ously lets you rebreed more cows
newer, more sensitive equipment is sooner.
being used, 28 days could be the Using various heat-mount
minimum (you could find those detectors, activity monitors, elec-
who would argue several days ear- tronic devices, pressure-sensitive
lier or later for either of these fig- tailhead patches, and tail paint or
ures). The bottom line is that ultra- tail chalk may all be helpful. But
sound has at least a
seven-day advantage
over palpation. None-
theless, since the
embryo loss following ULTRASOUND has at least a seven-day advantage
successful A.I. tends to over rectal palpation in diagnosing pregnancy, and
occur early, some of in determining cows that are open.
these cows diagnosed
pregnant at 28 days
may be open a few
days later. Depending
on the routine and
strategies to get open
cows rebred, those
seven days may or
may not have an
advantage over palpa-
tion. Yet knowing that
cow is definitely open
at 28 days lets you re-
start the cow that
much sooner in an
estrus induction pro-
70
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 71
nothing can surpass visually
watching cows for signs of mount-
ing and standing activity.
Rebreeding options. How often do
you have your cows preg
checked? Frequency of checks
may be monthly in smaller herds.
Others have their cows checked
every two weeks (biweekly) or
weekly.
Weekly or bi-weekly checks
allow earlier determination of
open cows, fewer missed estruses,
and potentially shorter inter-
insemination intervals. Monthly
checks could mean potentially
missing up to three estruses or
three opportunities to re-insemi-
nate your open cows.
Various synchronization proto-
cols will be described in Chapter
18. In brief, if you find that follow-
ing pregnancy checks, more than
70 percent of your cows are preg-
nant, on average, you may not
choose to use an aggressive
approach of starting all cows on a
synchronization protocol seven
days before pregnancy check: you
would be wasting 70 percent of the
GnRH injections on pregnant cows.
On the other hand, if less than
50 percent of your cows are aver-
aging pregnant, you may want to
choose this option. Then all cows
determined not pregnant at preg-
nancy check could receive a first
injection of GnRH seven days
prior to pregnancy check: all cows
not pregnant on that day receive
prostaglandin, followed by GnRH
again in two days, followed by
TAI. This protocol then ensures
that all nonpregnant cows are re-
inseminated within three days. If
you wait to give the first GnRH
injection, all open cows wont be
re-inseminated until 10 days after
pregnancy check, costing you an
additional seven days open.
Consider doing more frequent
pregnancy checks in your herd, to
optimize the number of cows pre-
sented for insemination.
Other uses for ultrasound. Cystic
ovaries. When the veterinarian pal-
pates a cystic ovary, usually a
large blister-like structure is
detected which is two or three
times the size of a normal mature
follicle. For the most accurate
diagnosis, a second palpation 10
to 14 days later was required to
verify that the cyst was still pres-
ent. Frequently this didnt occur.
Furthermore, the vast majority of
cystic ovaries diagnosed in the
first 60 days in milk recover spon-
taneously, so could be considered
a normal part of the return to
cyclicity. Twelve to 14 percent of
all problem breeders have cystic
ovaries. Furthermore, between 10
to 40 percent of all dairy cows
develop cystic ovaries during
their lifetimes, and 35 to 45 per-
cent of all dairy cows with ovarian
cysts are repeat offenders.
There are three types of condi-
tions that usually fall within the
cystic ovary categoryfollicular,
luteal, and those involving the
corpus luteum. Follicular cysts are
thin-walled, anovulatory (not
ovulating) cysts that may occur
singly or in multiples. Some cows
with this type of cyst will be in
estrus every three to five days and
may be known as chronic
bullers. However, cows with cys-
tic ovaries more frequently fail to
show any signs of estrus and are
termed anestrus. Follicular cysts
secrete variable amounts of the
hormone estrogen, which induces
estrus.
Luteal cysts are also formed
from follicles that did not ovulate
properly. However, luteal cysts
are thick-walled cysts, which
secrete low levels of proges-
terone. Cows with this type of
cyst almost always will be
anestrus. Many researchers now
believe that most luteal cysts
were once follicular cysts that
were not detected and progressed
from an estrogen- to a proges-
terone-producing structure. Ul-
71
trasound is very useful in detect-
ing which type of cyst exists, or
whether what would be palpated
as a possible cyst is a large and
otherwise normal CL.
Treatment. Frequently a combi-
nation of GnRH and prosta-
glandins are used to treat the cys-
tic cow. When GnRH is given to a
cystic cow, it causes the release of
large amounts of LH from the
pituitary. The LH, in turn, causes
the follicular cyst to luteinize or
ovulate and then produce proges-
terone in a pattern much like a
corpus luteum. However, luteal
cysts are nonresponsive to GnRH.
The second segment of this treat-
ment is the administration of
prostaglandin, usually 11 days
later, which now can regress both
cystic types. When this occurs, the
cow responds by showing a nor-
mal estrus within two to five days.
Improper hormones and improper
amounts injected into cows can
cause more problems than they
cure. Hormones should be admin-
istered only upon the advice of a
veterinarian.
Years ago, a recommended
treatment (no longer recommend-
ed) for some cows with cystic
ovaries was to squeeze the persist-
ent cyst by rectal palpation until it
burst or popped off from the
ovary. This procedure may result
in some bleeding. This forms a
blood clot around the oviduct and
the fragile infundibulum. The clot
frequently causes adhesions that
may prevent an egg from entering
the oviduct. Such a cow would not
become pregnant at the time an
egg was ovulated from this ovary.
Hormone injections, which have
fewer known complications, have
replaced the old method of treat-
ing cystic ovaries.
Presence or absence of a corpus
luteum helps determine pregnan-
cy status, especially when con-
ducting pregnancy exams early
post-A.I. When present, the size
and location (left or right ovary) of
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 72
the corpus luteum indicates the
location of the embryo within the
uterus if the cow is pregnant.
Diagnosing twins. The presence
of multiple corpora lutea is one
indicator of twins. By 40 to 55 days
post-A.I., twins can be accurately
identified, by scanning the entire
length of both uterine horns. Most
twins are due to double ovula-
tions, and not the splitting of an
embryo. So these twins resulting
from two eggs would most likely
occupy separate uterine horns.
Nonetheless, it can be tricky to
scan both horns carefully to iden-
tify with certainty two embryos.
At times the same fetus shows up
at different angles and would
appear to be twins. In addition,
twins resulting from splitting of
one fertilized egg (homozygous,
identical twins) would not have
multiple corpora lutea and would
both occupy one horn. Again, care
must be taken for accurate diagno-
sis of twins.
Although multiple births are
sought in some animals, they are
considered a liability in dairy cat-
tle. Upon identifying twins, some
have considered aborting the twin
pregnancy with intention of
rebreeding the cow. However,
induced abortions tend to greatly
lengthen the time required for suc-
cessfully rebreeding the cow. In
theory it also should be possible to
abort one of the twins at 30 days, if
they are in different uterine horns.
Letting the cow calve carries a
greater risk for future twinning in
References cited: Fricke, P., Ultrasonography as a Diagnostic Tool for Monitoring Reproduction, Midwest Dairy Herd
Health Conference, 2000.
Fricke, P., Synch Programs and Ultrasound: Are We Getting in There Too Early? AABP, St. Paul, September 2006
Stevenson, J., One- and Two-Week Herd Checks Pay, Hoards Dairyman, June, 2006.
subsequent pregnancies, as this
trend tends to increase as produc-
tion increases with advancing age.
On top of that, a heifer calf born
twin to a bull (close to half of all
twin births) is most likely a
freemartin and sterile. Finally,
cows calving with twins have more
likelihood of problems at calving
time as well as greater likelihood of
retaining their placenta.
Knowing ahead of time which
cows carry twins can be useful,
because depending on the value of
the dam and calf, culling might be
a better alternative. Or should you
decide to let the cow carry the
twins to term, you can manage her
better by drying her off a little ear-
lier and moving her into the close-
up pen 10 days sooner. This will
allow cows to still have two to
three weeks in the transition pen
despite having a shorter gestation
length.
Fetal sexing. Beginning on Day
55 to 60 of gestation, ultrasound
can quite accurately detect the sex
of bovine fetuses. Day 60 also is a
good time for reconfirming preg-
nancy. After this time, it becomes
more difficult to view the fetus
and make an accurate diagnosis.
Though not economical as a rou-
tine test, filling a sales contract for
a calf of one sex or the other could
justify this expense. In addition,
this information could help deter-
mine the decision whether or not
to cull the cow.
Pyometra or pregnancy? When
manually palpating the uterus, it
72
sometimes is hard to determine
whether an enlargement is a preg-
nancy or a pyometra. Pregnancy
fluid as viewed in an ultrasound is
completely black in appearance
with membranes and/or embry-
onic tissues clearly visible. In con-
trast, ultrasound shows pus as
gray with floating flecks of white-
appearing debris.
In addition, other signs of trou-
ble include lack of a heartbeat (vis-
ible as early as 30 days) and dis-
ruption of the membranes and the
fetus itself can be detected with
ultrasound. When these signs are
recorded, the cow can be
rechecked in a week or given
prostaglandin.
How early is too early? Following
conception, a 13.5 percent rate of
embryonic death is common in the
industry. There are factors that can
help you minimize this, but
embryonic death most commonly
occurs between conception and 60
to 70 days gestation.
So while its very useful to
detect pregnancy early (28 to 35
days of gestation), its also very
wise to follow up four to five
weeks later on a cow diagnosed
pregnant early in gestation to
reconfirm the pregnancy.
Otherwise, if a cow loses the
embryo and it goes undetected,
considerable time will be lost
before this open cow is identified
as open and rebred.
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 73
16 How do we achieve
reproductive efficiency?
A
rtificial insemination (A.I.)
is one of the most impor-
tant agricultural technolo-
gies of the century, and most dairy
producers use A.I. to some degree.
However, reproductive inefficiency
in lactating dairy cows substantial-
ly reduces the impact and advan-
tage of A.I. in dairy operations.
A calving interval of 13 months
has long been an ideal. With
approval and use of recombinant
bovine somatotropin (rbST), some
researchers wanted to reconsider
this ideal and suggested extended
calving intervals. But regardless of
rbST use, extending calving inter-
val beyond 13 months results in a
decrease in annual revenue per
cow. One study showed an annual
return of $813.19 per cow when the
calving interval was 18 months (76
weeks), compared to $959.18 per
cow with a calving interval of 13
months (56 weeks).
The time after calving until the
cow is eligible to receive her first
A.I. service is called the Voluntary
Waiting Period (VWP). Volun-
tary implies that it is a manage-
ment decision on the dairy, and it
usually varies from 40 to 70 days.
Since the VWP includes the time
immediately after calving, it
includes part of the transition peri-
od, when the cow is at great risk for
numerous disorders related to the
stress of calving and start of a new
lactation. Naturally these disorders
would have an impact on how fast
the uterus returns to normal (invo-
lutes), the first postpartum ovula-
tion and the start of reproductive
cycling for the cow.
Once a cow passes the VWP, she
is eligible for breeding. For dairies
relying on visual estrous detection,
the time following the VWP before
the cow is bred depends greatly on
how efficiently estrous detection is
carried out on a farm; to a lesser
extent, the cows physiological sta-
tus also affects the length of this
time period.
The ideal would be that 1) all
cows are cycling by the end of the
VWP, 2) the estrous cycle is 21 days,
and 3) estrous detection is 100 per-
cent: in this ideal scenario, time
between end of VWP and breeding
would average 10.5 days.
Sadly, field research paints a
bleaker picture: over a quarter of
fresh cows were anovulatory at 60
days in milk (DIM); this means
they would not express estrus at
the end of the VWP. Second,
estrous cycle length varies widely
among lactating cows; in this study,
the average was 24 days. Finally,
estrous detection efficiency is esti-
mated to be less than 50 percent on
most dairy farms in the U.S. This
latter increases the interval to first
A.I. and also increases the average
time between services to 40 to 50
days.
Some definitions. Pregnancy versus
conception rate: Conception rate is
the number of cows that become
pregnant after one insemination
divided by the total number of
cows inseminated during some
defined period of time.
Lets say we give prostaglandin
to 10 cows on Monday morning,
check for estrus, and inseminate
73
those detected in estrus during the
next 21-day period (an average
cycle length).
A = the 10 cows.
B = cows detected in estrus and
inseminated, 8 in this example.
C = cows diagnosed pregnant, 4
in this example.
Heat detection rate, or A.I. sub-
mission rate is B A, or 8 10, 80
percent
Conception rate is CB, or 4 8,
50 percent. (Half of the cows
inseminated conceived)
Pregnancy rate (sometimes
called 21-day pregnancy rate) for
this cycle of 21 days is the number
of cows diagnosed pregnant
divided by the number eligible to
be bred by A.I., or C A, 4 10 or
40 percent. The difference is those
two cows that were never detected
in estrus and were not bred.
An unfortunate trend is illustrat-
ed by the overall average pregnan-
cy rate in 1951 of 61 percent declin-
ing to an estimated 40 percent in
1997 for lactating cows. On the
other hand, pregnancy rate in
heifers has remained steady at 70
percent during this same period.
Since less that 50 percent of all
estruses are accurately detected,
this means that fewer than 50 per-
cent of eligible cows are being pre-
sented for A.I. breeding. A key to
improve poor reproductive effi-
ciency, then, is to improve the A.I.
submission rate.
Lets look at a second example
where we take our cows and apply
the Ovsynch protocol. We will
inseminate all the cows whether or
not they show estrus. So the A.I.
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 74
submission rate is 100 percent.
Of the 10 cows bred, 4 conceive:
C B is 4 10, or 40 percent
Conception Rate
Since all 10 cows were bred,
Pregnancy Rate also is 40 percent:
C A is 4 10, 40 percent. When
timed A.I. is used and all cows are
bred A.I., conception rate is identi-
cal to pregnancy rate.
When people refer to pregnan-
cy rates of 13 to 14 percent, they
are referring to a continuous preg-
nancy rate that is similar to a
rolling herd average. An open cow
has a pregnancy rate of 0 until she
becomes pregnant. Poor rates of
estrous detection reduce pregnan-
cy rate because of missed opportu-
nities to inseminate each cow
when not detected in heat every 21
days.
When estrous detection and
conception rate are quite low,
pregnancy rate is low because it is
the product of these two processes.
Large dairies always have had
difficulty performing visual
estrous detection. Instead they
often have relied on secondary
signs of estrus, using tail chalk, for
example. Relying on secondary
signs can often be inaccurate, and
studies have shown that almost
one-fifth of inseminations were
performed on cows not in estrus
or in the early stages of pregnancy.
Insemination of pregnant cows led
to 17 percent embryo loss.
By using a synchronized breed-
ing and pregnancy diagnosis pro-
gram as described (Chapters 15,
18), you can improve overall preg-
nancy rate. One study using this
protocol showed a pregnancy rate
of over 20 percent, compared to
the national pregnancy rate of
around 14 percent.
Reduce days open. How early is
too early for pregnancy diagnosis?
Rectal palpation traditionally
starts at 35 to 40 days post-A.I.
Anything less than 30 days is
unreliable. Use of ultrasound
shrinks the days for accurate preg- the cow is reenrolled in the tradi-
nancy diagnosis into the mid-20s. tional program within two days,
Emerging technologies might the difference between palpation
allow diagnosis even earlier, per- and early ultrasound still is 14 to
haps the low 20s or high teens in 16 days. This reduces the days
the future. Why is earlier better? open by two weeks or more. Still,
Use of synchronization pro- there are some drawbacks.
grams and not relying on estrous
detection can be efficient when Pregnancy loss in early gestation.
there is timely rebreeding of open Weve talked about embryo losses,
cows. While there is a high A.I. which do tend to occur earlier in
submission rate to first Timed gestation rather than later. If this
Artificial Insemination (TAI), you loss occurs from about Day 25 to
lose this advantage if 60 days or Day 60 during gestation, doing
more go by before cows failing to preg checks at Day 26 will give a
conceive are inseminated again. false sense of higher pregnancy
Assuming about 60 percent of rates than preg checks at Day 42.
cows that first receive TAI fail to This may not actually be the case.
conceive, these cows need an The reality is that the examiner
aggressive resynchronization will declare the cow open, but will
strategy to rebreed them and not know whether it was due to
reduce days open. failure to conceive or pregnancy
When the veterinarian comes loss.
every two weeks and if the preg- Studies seem to indicate that
nancy check limit was set at 35 the rate of pregnancy losses slow
days, the range of examination around 60 to 70 days postbreed-
would be from 35 days to 49 days, ing. Therefore, in any program, it
averaging 42 days. Recently, vari- would be wise to confirm the
ous studies have been evaluating pregnancy at 60 to 70 days post-
different strategies to reduce the breeding, regardless of when the
days until cows can be identified initial preg check was performed.
as not pregnant
and re-inseminat-
ed in TAI pro-
grams. Although
weekly ultra- ITS WISE TO CONFIRM PREGNANCIES at 60 to 70
sound pregnancy days postbreeding in any breeding program to catch early
diagnosis could embryo losses, regardless of when the initial preg check
occur as early as was performed.
26 days, recent
work indicates
this is not the best
choice.
In traditional
palpation pro-
grams, the open
cow is then reen-
rolled for estrous
d e t e c t i o n .
Depending on
how good your
estrous detection
is, the cow may
not be rebred for 1
to 30 days. Even if
74
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 75
If very early diagnosis (mid 20s or
early 30s) is performed, an addi-
tional confirmation around day 40
may be useful to detect open cows
and minimize days to re-insemi-
nation. Finally, while losses dimin-
ish in mid- to later gestation, con-
firmations of pregnancies at later
stages are in order.
Conception rates lower. The most
aggressive resynchronization stra-
tegy, where GnRH is given at day
19 after A.I. with re-insemination
on Day 28 following preg check on
Day 26 also results in an unaccept-
ably low conception rate com-
pared to waiting 7 to 14 days. For
better conception, here are two
ways for a Day 42 rebreeding:
1. Preg check at Day 33, fol-
lowed by giving the first GnRH at
time of open diagnosis.
2. Inject GnRH at Day 33 with-
out examination, followed by preg
check at Day 40. A plus to this
approach is better accuracy in
diagnosing pregnancy at Day 40
versus Day 33.
Remember that GnRH used in
the ways described above is con-
sidered extra label use, and you
must work with your veterinarian
in setting up a program.
The use of GnRH at 7 days
prior to pregnancy check on all
References cited: Fricke, P., Aggressive Management Strategies for Improving Reproductive Efficiency, Dept. of Dairy
Science, UW-Madison
Fricke, P., Resynchronization Strategies for Dairy Cows, Dairy Cattle Reproduction Council, Nov. 7, 2006 Denver con-
ference.
cows lets you give the
prostaglandin in an Ovsynch pro-
gram at the time a cow is identi-
fied as not pregnant. The second
GnRH is given two days later with
TAI 16 hours later, saving at least a
week in rebreeding open cows. Of
course, the GnRH at 7 days prior
to pregnancy check is wasted on
cows that are pregnant at the diag-
nosis. In a herd with 100 pregnan-
cies a year, this would be around
$250 to $300 in GnRH costs.
Comparing costs. If we can
assume that using synchronized
estrus and timed A.I. improves
reproductive performance, how
does it measure up when it comes
to cost and extra labor? A German
study did a comparison and found
that Ovsynch cows had a some-
what lower conception rate com-
pared to cows bred by estrous
detection, but that more cows got
pregnant sooner with Ovsynch.
This is because the A.I. submission
rate is 100 percent with an
Ovsynch program.
The costs of a pregnancy were:
costs of hormones (purchase and
labor to inject); all costs associat-
ed with each A.I.; the costs of all
palpations; the costs of days
open; and the culling costs (dif-
ference between cull cow sale
75
and cost of a pregnant replace-
ment heifer).
Culling (replacement cost) and
the cost of days open were the
most costly items, representing 68
to 83 percent of the value of a
pregnancy. The study showed that
the benefit from using the
Ovsynch protocol is far more pro-
nounced in herds with poor
estrous detection efficiency. In
herds with acceptable estrous
detection, use of Ovsynch may be
of limited value, even if it increas-
es reproductive performance to
some extent.
If you feel your estrous detec-
tion is efficient, consider an alter-
native use of the Ovsynch proto-
col. Begin estrous detection and
A.I. breeding after a 60-day VWP.
All cows not inseminated by 80
days in milk receive the Ovsynch
protocol. So if you inseminate
about 40 percent of your cows
after estrous detection, you only
need to apply Ovsynch to the
remaining 60 percent. But if you
only inseminate 22 percent by 80
days, then Ovsynch may be the
most economical approach for all
cows before first service. Re-
gardless, dont forget the value of
Ovsynch for all cows not found
pregnant, since it does offer a
speedy re-insemination.
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 76
17 Inseminating your
own cows
W
hile many farms use the
services of a professional
A.I. technician, a large
portion of cows in the U.S. are
inseminated by a farm employee,
the owner or a family member. This
allows dairy producers to purchase
semen from bulls in different A.I.
organizations. The main disadvan-
tage of direct service A.I. is that
some producers or herd managers
do not develop sufficient skill in
A.I. techniques to maintain accept-
able conception rates in their herds.
Along with the technique of cervi-
cal penetration, the importance of
sanitation must be emphasized and
skills perfected to consistently
obtain acceptable conception rates.
The producer assumes the full
responsibility of record-keeping
required for registration/identifi-
cation of animals, keeping up-to-
date on new recommendations on
semen handling and insemination
techniques, and keeping current on
bull proofs. He or she must become
a purchasing agent to maintain
their supply of semen, liquid nitro-
gen and other insemination equip-
ment.
The quality of frozen semen
when it arrives at the farm is deter-
mined by the bull and by the A.I.
organization that processed the
semen. Semen obtained from rep-
utable A.I. organizations has been
processed under standard con-
trolled conditions and is routinely
subjected to stringent quality con-
trol tests. However, high quality,
highly fertile semen can deteriorate
rapidly if it is handled or stored
carelessly.
Handling semen before thawing. In
the farm semen tank, dangerously
high temperatures for frozen
semen exist in the upper half of the
neck tube. Semen is exposed to
these temperatures when you try to
locate and thaw a specific unit of
semen or when you transfer semen
from tank to tank. Thermal injury
to sperm should be minimized,
because it is permanent and cannot
be corrected by returning semen to
liquid nitrogen.
Although sperm cells, when
processed properly, can withstand
the rigors of long-term storage at
320 F below zero (-196C), they are
very delicate and must be handled
with extreme care during thawing
and insemination. There are rules
that must be followed completely
in handling frozen semen to mini-
mize thermal damage.
1. Establish a semen inventory
that keeps track of the location of
each bull, preventing unnecessary
searching that increases semen
exposure.
2. Wash your hands. Insem-
inating cows is equivalent to a sur-
geon performing an operation.
Bacteria on your hands would like-
ly be transferred to your insemina-
tion gun during the loading proce-
dure. If carried into the uterus dur-
ing insemination, these organisms
could thrive and grow rapidly,
resulting in metritis and infertility.
3. Keep unused straws cold.
Raise the canister just high enough
in the neck region to grasp the
desired cane of semen, keeping the
canister top below the frost line.
Any time it takes more than 8 to 10
76
seconds to locate a particular cane,
the canister should be lowered into
the tank to cool completely.
4. Use forceps to remove straws.
This allows you to keep the canister
and semen further down in the
neck of the tank during straw
retrieval. Immediately after the
semen is removed from the cane,
return the cane to the canister,
immerse the straw in the warm
water bath, and return the canister
to its storage.
5. Thaw only as many straws as
can be used in 15 minutes. Once
thawed, sperm cells begin to burn
up their limited energy reserves.
6. Regularly calibrate your thaw
bath thermometer, at least every six
months. Improper thermometer cal-
ibration results in improper thaw
rates and damaged sperm cells.
Never return a unit of semen to
the tank once it has been removed
from the cane.
7. Protect semen after thawing.
Cold shock occurs when thawed
semen is subjected to sudden tem-
perature declines. While we think
of cold shock as only being a factor
during the cooler months of the
year, this is not the case. 70F (25C)
on a warm summer morning feels
very comfortable to you and me.
But it represents a sudden 25F
(10C) change in temperature for a
sperm cell taken from 95F (35C)
thaw water.
The recommendation for thaw-
ing of semen frozen in straws is not
the same for all A.l. organizations.
For optimum results, the recom-
mendations of the semen processor
should be followed. The problem is
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 77
that most dairy producers use
semen from numerous A.I. organi-
zations, and only one thawing
procedure is practiced. The
National Association of Animal
Breeders (NAAB) has recom-
mended that when in doubt, 90 to
95 F (32 to 35C) water for a min-
imum of 40 seconds should be fol-
lowed for those who buy semen
from several sources.
Correct thawing procedures are
critical for the retrieval of the
highest quality semen from the
frozen state. Always use a ther-
mometer to check thaw water
temperature. After thawing for
the required time, dry the straw
thoroughly with a paper towel
and protect it from rapid cooling.
While the semen is thawing,
warm the insemination rod by
rubbing it briskly with a paper
towel. In cold weather, place the
warm rod within clothing so it
will be close to the body and
maintain warmth. After assembly
of the insemination rod, tuck it
within your clothing for transport
to the cow.
ALWAYS USE A THERMOMETER to
check thaw water temperature, and thaw
for the required time.
The cow should be inseminated
within minutes after the semen
has been thawed. The period of
time between removing the semen
from the tank and depositing the
semen in the cow should not
exceed 15 minutes.
When breeding a number of
animals due to large herd size or
timed A.I., it may be necessary to
thaw multiple straws of semen at
one time. Several studies have
shown no reduced conception if
these rules are followed: careful
inseminators may thaw four
straws simultaneously provided
insemination is done in a timely
fashion (within 15 minutes after
thawing). Prevent direct straw-to-
straw contact during thawing to
avoid decreased post-thaw sperm
viability. Maintain straws at a con-
stant temperature and avoid ther-
mal shock between thawing and
transport to the cow.
Semen packaging. When semen
was first packaged in straws, U.S.
A.I. companies chose the 1/2-cc
straw, while European and
PROTECT SEMEN after thawing by
placing the assembled insemination rod
inside your clothing for transporting it to al technicians whose concep-
the cow.
77
Canadian companies marketed
semen in 1/4cc straws. One U.S.
A.I. marketing organization began
a transition to 1/2-cc straws, lead-
ing to the question, whats the dif-
ference? Because of its smaller
diameter, the 1/4-cc straw lends
itself to slightly faster freezing
rates and the potential for slightly
improved post-thaw sperm sur-
vival, provided glycerol levels and
freezing rates are adjusted appro-
priately to accommodate the alter-
native packaging system.
However, the smaller diameter
1/4-cc straw also was found to be
more sensitive to heat and cold
shock after thawing. Inseminators
must exercise a greater degree of
both pre- and post-thaw thermal
protection during straw retrieval,
gun assembly and A.I. when using
1/4-cc straws to get optimum
results.
These facts were major reasons
for the U.S. A.I. industrys deci-
sion to use the 1/2-cc straw.
Greater sensitivity of the 1/4-cc
straw to thermal insult and insem-
inator competence are of little sig-
nificance in Canada and
Europe, where more than 95
percent of all inseminations
are performed by profession-
tion rates can be monitored
routinely. However, in the
U.S., where many insemina-
tions are performed by the
herd owner or an on-farm
inseminator, variation in
inseminator skills and level of
training may interact with
straw type to affect concep-
tion rates. Back in the late
1970s, the variation in A.I.
technician proficiency in the
United States and its poten-
tial impact on semen quality
and fertility was recognized
as a strike against the smaller-
diameter, more thermally
sensitive 1/4-cc straws. This is
still of great concern today.
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 78
Inseminator training. Whoever
breeds the cows on the farm must
be adequately trained. The skill
required for successful artificial
insemination is not learned quick-
ly. An organized training course is
necessary, and frequent refresher
courses are beneficial.
Considerable experience is
needed before a person gains con-
fidence in his ability to inseminate
cows. Poor results are almost a
certainty unless you master the
technique and know where you
are placing the semen.
Site of semen deposition. The bull,
of course, normally deposits the
semen in the vagina next to the
cervix. This location is satisfactory
because he ejaculates about 10 bil-
lion sperm. With artificial insemi-
nation, only about 15 to 20 million
live sperm are used and semen
must be deposited in the uterus.
When using A.I., do not deposit
the semen in the vagina or cervix.
The uterine body is the accept-
ed site for depositing semen when
cows are bred artificially.
On repeat services, the recom-
mendation also is to deposit semen
in the uterine body. Approximately
5 percent of all pregnant cows
show standing estrus. If you sus-
pect the cow is pregnant by a sticky
UTERINE BODY BREEDING: Semen is placed just past the cervix into the
uterine body.
Rectum
Insemination
rod Bladder
feeling when passing the insemina-
tion rod, stop and deposit the
semen about halfway through the
cervix. However, cervical deposi-
tion increases semen loss and low-
ers conception rates by about 25
percent.
When inseminating, guard
against contamination of the
catheter (inseminating tube) as it
passes through the vulva. Clean
the vulva with a paper towel. Use
the gloved hand inside the rectum
to spread the vulva lips so the
catheter end will remain clean.
Insert the catheter gently along
the top of the vagina, guiding it
with the hand in the rectum.
Grasp the cervix firmly with the
gloved hand and guide the
catheter through it. With the fore-
finger, make sure the end of the
catheter is through the cervix into
the uterine body. Expel the semen
slowly.
Ideally, deposit semen in the
uterine body to allow sperm trans-
port up both uterine horns.
Misplacement of semen decreases
sperm numbers in one or both
uterine horns, reducing the odds
of fertilization and subsequent
pregnancy rates.
Research using dye deposition
has shown error rates for deposi-
tion of semen in the uterine body to
Cervix
Uterus
Oviduct
Ovary
78
be quite high (50 to 60 percent).
Cervical errors are common and
they may account for over 20 per-
cent of attempted uterine body
depositions.
Make sure to push in with the
plunger and do not pull back on
the gun. Pulling back may result
in much of the semen dose being
deposited in the cervix and vagina
instead of the uterine body.
Although the recommended site
of semen deposition is in the uter-
ine body, research suggests that
when exact gun tip placement is in
doubt, depositing semen slightly
into one uterine horn is less likely
to compromise fertility than
depositing it in the cervix.
Good housekeeping. Prevent con-
tamination of the insemination
equipment with manure, water or
soap. Even a small amount of san-
itizing solution on the inseminat-
ing tube is sufficient to kill the
sperm. Do not store inseminating
tubes where they will collect dust,
or leave the A.I. kit where it will
become contaminated.
Regardless of who inseminates
the cow, the objectives of A.I. are:
1) Settle the cow; 2) Obtain calves
from the best bulls; 3) Use disease-
free semen; 4) Obtain the first
three at a reasonable cost.
References cited: DeJarnette, J. M,
Select Sires
Dalton, J., and Ahmadzadeh, A.,
Does Batch Thawing of Semen Affect
Conception?, Hoards Dairyman,
June 2004
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 79
18 Synchronization
strategies
A
s dairy herds have become
larger, it has become more
difficult to identify when
cows need to be bred.
Consequently, strategies have been
developed to allow dairymen to
tell the cow when shes to be
bred, instead of waiting for the cow
to tell us shes ready. Advantages of
programmed breeding (Timed A.I.,
or TAI) include: 1) convenience of
scheduling labor and tasks; 2) con-
trolling the occurrence of estrus,
ovulation or both and 3) knowing
the stage of the estrous cycle and
reproductive status of all cows in
the herd.
These reproductive statuses
include: 1) open cows scheduled
for first A.I.; 2) bred cows awaiting
pregnancy diagnosis; 3) open cows
scheduled for re-insemination; 4)
open cows designated as culls (do
not breed list); and 5) cows con-
firmed pregnant.
The two groups eligible for pro-
grammed breeding are 1) open
cows scheduled for first A.I. and 3)
open cows scheduled for rebreed-
ing.
VWP a factor. When cows calve
without complication, the healing
process requires no more than 40
days, so the voluntary waiting peri-
od varies from 45 days to 80 days
on most farms. Using TAI on lactat-
ing cows appears to have greater
success when the VWP is delayed
beyond 60 days.
If a cow is detected in estrus and
then inseminated, or inseminated
as part of a TAI program, the preg-
nancy rate is similar. Conception
rates are actually somewhat higher make estrous detection easier and
if cows are bred following detected then A.I.. After the third biweekly
estrus. The key difference is that injection, you could use timed A.I.
because cows in estrus are not all at 72 to 80 hours after the injection,
detected, more cows are presented in place of trying to detect estrus
for A.I. when using TAI. OR, after failing to detect estrus,
apply the Ovsynch protocol 10 to
Prostaglandin F2- programs. A 14 days after the last PGF2- injec-
simple approach is to inject all non- tion (see figures on pages 80, 81 ).
inseminated, breeding-eligible
cows with PGF2-, detect estrus Select Synch. This program com-
and A.I. Cows not detected in bines control of follicular develop-
estrus are re-injected in 7 days (the ment (GnRH) and the lifespan of
Monday morning program). the CL (PGF2- ). An injection of
Those cows not observed in estrus GnRH is followed in 7 days by an
during the 7 days after injection injection of PGF2- and then cows
will be those that 1) displayed are inseminated after detected
estrus but were not detected and 2) estrus. The GnRH causes release of
did not respond to PGF2- because FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)
they were still not cycling or they and LH (luteinizing hormone) from
have a new CL that was unrespon- the pituitary. The LH stimulates
sive to PGF2-. A downside to this ovulation of any dominant follicle
program is that some weekly injec- that is present on the ovary at the
tions of PGF2- are wasted in ani- time of treatment. In addition, FSH
mals that cant respond. stimulates a new follicular wave to
A partial solution is a program develop. One of the follicles from
of biweekly injections of PGF2- to this wave then becomes dominant,
PRESYNCHRONIZATION TREATMENTS
1x PGF2- 10 d before Ovsynch
1x PGF2- 10 d and GnRH 7 d before Ovsynch
1x PGF2- 8 d and GnRH 6 d before Ovsynch
Ovsynch initiated on day 7 of cycle
Presynch-121
Presynch-141
1 - Two injections of PGF2- 14 days apart. Presynch-12 or Presynch-14
indicated that Ovsynch was initiated either 12 or 14 days after the second
Presynch injection, respectively.
79
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 80

SYNCHRONIZATION PROGRAMS
A = Prostaglandin program

B = Select Synch

C = Ovsynch

D = Presynch + Ovsynch

- 21 or -19

80
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 81
growing larger than other follicles
on the ovary. The prostaglandin
causes the corpus luteum to
regress. Progesterone levels fall so
the developing follicle can contin-
ue maturing, becoming a pre-ovu-
latory follicle.
Ovsynch. Similar to Select Synch,
but it does not require watching
for estrus. It is probably the most
popular protocol in the industry.
Following the first GnRH injec-
tion, PGF2- is injected 7 days
later. Then 48 hours to 54 hours
after the PGF2-, a second GnRH
injection is administered. TAI fol-
lows, optimally at 16 hours after
the second GnRH and before 24
hours after. The first GnRH injec-
tion causes ovulation in 60 percent
of the cows in preparation for
PGF2--induced luteal regression.
The second GnRH injection
induces the pre-ovulatory LH
surge to time ovulation 24 to 34
hours later, with TAI optimally
occurring at 16 hours. If cows are
detected in estrus at any time dur-
ing this program, they should be
inseminated according to the AM-
PM rule to maximize conception,
and the injection of PGF2-,
GnRH or both should be eliminat-
ed. In this case, TAI is used more
Estrus
Estrus
as a clean-up for those cows not
detected in estrus, and cost of hor-
mone injections were reduced.
Presynch + Ovsynch. Research has
shown improved fertility in cows
when estrous cycles are pre-syn-
chronized before applying the
Ovsynch protocol. There are a
number of methods which can be
used; however the most common
method includes two injections of
prostaglandins given 14 days
apart with the second injection
occurring 12 or 14 days prior to
the initiation of the Ovsynch pro-
tocol. See the figure on page 79
and at left.
Intravaginal Progesterone-Re-
leasing Insert (CIDR). Studies of
combined use of the CIDR insert
with either Ovsynch or Presynch +
Ovsynch protocol in lactating
dairy cows have shown varied
results. In one study (Stevenson),
cows treated with a CIDR that did
not have a functional CL at the
time the PGF2- injection of the
Ovsynch was given (cows having
premature luteolysis and those
that were anestrus) had improved
pregnancy rates compared to con-
trols, showing some benefit of the
CIDR in these problem cows.
81
Theoretically, the CIDR should
prevent premature events associ-
ated with estrus and ovulation
while it is in place from the time of
the GnRH (-7) until the PGF2-
injection of Ovsynch is adminis-
tered. Use of CIDRs in heifers is
discussed on page 84.
Proper timing of GnRH and A.I.
One of the initial studies on
Ovsynch evaluated inseminating
cows at 0, 8, 16, 24 and 32 hours
after the second dose of GnRH.
The highest conception rate
occurred at 16 hours, thus that is
the recommended interval to
insemination. There are slight
reductions in conception rates
when insemination occurs at 0, 8
or 24 hours after the second
GnRH. (Note that 0 hours indi-
cates that the second GnRH injec-
tion and A.I. are performed at the
same time: also known as
Cosynch, the practice eliminates
an added handling of animals for
follow-up A.I.) Because there is
only a slight reduction in fertility,
some producers may elect to
inseminate at one of these times to
avoid the hottest part of the day or
for another management reason.
For example, in large herds, either
the injection of the GnRH or the
TAI must be adjusted to accom-
modate an injection routine when
cows are locked up only once
daily at the feedline.
Under no circumstances should
the timing of the inseminations be
delayed to 32 hours as conception
rates are lower and pregnancy loss
is increased (figure, page 82). The
increase in pregnancy loss in cows
inseminated at 32 hours means
even fewer cows calve.
When the second GnRH injec-
tion of the Ovsynch protocol was
given at 48 hours after PGF2-, the
optimal time to A.I. was 16 hours
after GnRH. For large herds, either
the injection of the GnRH or the
TAI must be adjusted to accom-
modate an injection routine when
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 82
cows are locked up only once because of their predictability and
daily at the feedline. likelihood of producing the great-
A different, recent study est proportion of total pregnancies
showed the best pregnancy rates in the herd. Still, the multiple
occurred when GnRH was admin- injections and handling of animals
istered at 56 hours after PGF2- can be complex with the overlap-
and cows were inseminated about ping nature of breeding cluster
16 hours later. To accommodate groups.
that schedule, all cows were inject- For example, if the Presynch +
ed once daily during lockup, but Ovsynch protocol is followed
the second GnRH injection was where a new cluster is initiated
given at 56 hours (afternoon) after every week, injections must be
PGF2-. This protocol probably given concurrently to three differ-
best mimics what spontaneously ent cluster groups during any
occurs in cows during estrus. The given work week. Further, if preg-
second GnRH injection initiates nancy is diagnosed once weekly
the preovulatory LH surge to and open cows are started in their
accommodate ovulation 24 to 34 own separate cluster group, the
hours later. When live sperm are complexity of more cluster groups
inseminated 16 hours after GnRH, increases. It can be a challenge for
capacitated sperm should arrive at personnel to make these programs
the utero-tubal junction or in the work in a disciplined and detailed
lower oviducts about the time the manner: protocol compliance
first cows ovulate after GnRH. must approach 100 percent.
This should maximize conception. Fortunately, computer programs
can create lists of cows which need
Advantages of the various pro- treatments and electronic ID is
grams. The best program should being used to locate the correct
be simple and easy to manage. cows. More on this in Chapter 19.
Simplicity could be defined as The table on page 83 presents
handling cows the fewest times some costs and comparisons of
during a protocol. breeding by detected estrus only
As a result of less efficient and various synchronization pro-
estrous detection or the lack of grams. Most of the reduced cost
expressed estrus by cows in envi- per pregnancy achieved by the
ronments with poor footing or TAI programs was lost if visual
greater milk yield, TAI programs detection of estrus was not used
have become very popular between synchronization cycles to
Comparison of cows conceiving and calving when A.I.
occurs at varying intervals after the second GnRH in
Ovsynch
Time after 2nd GnRH until A.I.
0 hr 8 hr 16 hr 24 hr 32 hr
% conceiving 37 41 45 41 32
% calving 31 31 33 29 20
82
detect the first eligible estrus 20 to
22 days after TAI and before preg-
nancy diagnosis occurred.
At the same time, A.I. programs
that depend solely on estrous
detection must exceed 70 percent
detection of all cows in estrus for
their cost to be less than a hormon-
al protocol. And what was not
assessed was the value of the
reduced hassle factor in being
able to program inseminations
and exercise some control over the
breeding program, including
management of the required
skilled labor.
Systems for managing A.I. pro-
grams for heifers. Estrous synchro-
nization using PGF2-. A study
compared A.I. using a tail chalk-
ing program compared to a modi-
fied Ovsynch protocol. Days to
pregnancy across the 42-day
breeding period were about the
same. Note that PGF2- pro-
grams depend upon regression of
a spontaneously induced CL; they
are therefore not effective on
heifers before puberty.
A two-injection PGF2- pro-
gram uses an 11-day interval
between injections so that a high
percentage of heifers possess a
functional CL at the time of the
second PGF2- injection. All
heifers detected in estrus after the
initial PGF2- injection are insem-
inated, and only those not detect-
ed in estrus are re-injected 11 days
later and inseminated following
detected estrus. Some modifica-
tions to this 11-day program are:
(1) no estrous detection or
A.I. after the initial PGF2-, elimi-
nating the need for two detection
periods;
(2) exclusively appointment
A.I. at a specified time after the
second PGF2- injection, the time
usually varies between 72 and 80
hours after injection and may
incorporate a double insemination
at 72 and 96 hours;
(3) a combination of A.I. fol-
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 83

Inputs for spreadsheet calculations of cost per day open and costs of various ovula-
tion synchronization programs compared with visual detection of estrus before A.I.1

Mailbox milk price 13.23 $/cwt

Feed cost 0.07 $/lb DM $0.15/kg DM
Milk price:feed cost 1.89 Range of 1.0 to 2.5
Replacement cost 1200 $/heifer
Cull price 0.39 $/lb $0.86/kg
Replacement cost:cull price 2.20 Range of 1.5 to 3.0
Milk yield 65.0 lb/cow/d 29.5 kg/cow/d
Cull yield 40.0 lb/cow/d 18.1 kg/cow/d
Days open 160
Do not breed, DIM 300
Reproductive losses 2.99 $/cow/d

PROGRAM
Detected estrus only2 Ovsynch3 Presynch4 + Ovsynch
Annual cost, $ 11,801 17,221 18,507
Unadjusted cost per pregnancy, $ 55.40 73.66 78.59
No. of reproductive culls 37 16 15
Average days open 162 122 116
Cost per day open beyond 85 DIM 3.16 1.16 1.02
Adjusted cost per pregnancy, $ 298.35 115.39 110.49

1
Adapted from Nebel et al. (2003). Calculations are based on a herd size of 250 cows using costs per day open as the
descriptive variable (see text) and detection of estrus before resynchronization (maximum twice) with TAI (43 d after a
previous service). Drug costs: $2.50 for PGF2- and $2.25 for GnRH. Labor cost was $10/h with 60 min of labor required
for detection of estrus per day. Inputs utilized were a maximum of three synchronization cycles followed by detection of
estrus, average of 75 d to first service, 300 DIM (do not breed limit), and $15 per straw of semen.
2
A VWP of 60 d, 40 % rate of detected estrus, conception rate of 40 % (16 % pregnancy rate).
3
Ovsynch = injections of GnRH 7 d before and 48 h after PGF2- with TAI 16 to 20 h after the second GnRH injection.
Average days to first service of 75, 300 DIM (do not breed limit), 33 % conception rate for first and subsequent synchro-
nization cycles.
4
Presynch = two injections of PGF2- 14 d apart. Ovsynch was initiated 14 d after the second Presynch injection.
Assumed 40 % conception rate after the first synchronization and 33 % conception rate for subsequent synchronization
cycles.

83
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 84

lowing detected estrus and by
appointment, with heifers not
receiving A.I. by 72 hours being
inseminated by appointment;
(4) a single PGF2- injection
with estrous detection 6 days prior
to and 5 days after the injection.
Usually, heifers are observed twice
daily and AI occurs using the AM-
PM guideline. After the initial 6
days, heifers not inseminated
receive PGF2- and are observed
for the next 5 days;
(5) usually with larger
groups of heifers or where visual
observation is not practical, com-
bining any of the above programs
with tail chalk/paint and daily or
twice daily inspection for rubbed
tail heads has resulted in accept-
able pregnancy rates; and
(6) varying the time between
injections from 11 to 14 days so
scheduling can be on the same
day.
The table below shows results
of a large field trial, with heifers
not inseminated after the first
PGF2- injection receiving a sec-
ond injection 11 days later. Estrous
detection rate was higher for
heifers that received two injections
of PGF2- a compared to one:
almost 73 percent compared to
53.4 percent. But conception rates
were higher for heifers receiving
A.I. after the first injection (65.4
percent) compared to those bred
after the second (60.9 percent).
Lower still was conception rate for
heifers not detected in estrus after
the second injection and receiving
TAI at 80 hours (40.6 percent con-
ception rate).
Synchronization with progestin.
There are two progesterone prod-
ucts on the market that can be
used in heifers to synchronize
estrus. CIDR inserts or the proges-
terone-like compound melenges-
terol acetate (MGA) both suppress
estrous expression and ovulation.
Use of MGA fed to heifers fol-
lowed by a PGF2- injection is
highly effective in synchronizing
estrus. Most research was con-
ducted in beef heifers, where it is
still widely used, but it also is
effective in dairy heifers with the
following protocol:
MGA is fed at a rate of 0.5 mg
per head per day for 14 days.
There is a waiting period of
17 to 19 days after MGA feeding
followed by a PGF2- injection.
Heifers are bred upon detec-
tion of estrus during the following
week.
This figure below shows a
modified protocol, in which
GnRH is used at day 26. Studies in
beef cattle have shown pregnancy
rates ranging from 55 to 65 per-
cent. MGA is very economical and
lends itself well to use in a feedlot.
However, it is not readily avail-
able in all areas, and you must
have adequate bunkspace and
thorough mixing of the ration to
ensure that heifers consume the
prescribed dosage on a daily basis
for the 14 days. Remember, MGA
is not labeled for lactating dairy
cows.
The CIDR + PGF2- program.
Like MGA, the CIDR insert ele-
vates progesterone levels, gener-

Sequence of events for heifers on the MGA Select system.

MGA GnRH PGF estrous detection & A.I.

0.05 mg/head/day 12 days 7 days at 72 to 80 hours
1 14 26 33 or TAI and GnRH

Estrous detection rate and conception rate of dairy heifers

after injection of PGF2- (PGF).
Estrous detection rate1 Conception rate2
Time of A.I. No. % No. %
After first PGF 1435 53.4b 766 65.4a
After second PGF 1409 72.7a 1025 60.9b
A.I. at 80h after second PGF 561 40.6c
a,b,c
Values within a column with different superscripts differ (P< 0.05)
1
Estrous detection rate is number of heifers that were detected in estrus divided by total number of heifers observed.
2
Conception rate is number of heifers that conceived to A.I. divided by total number of heifers receiving A.I.

84
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 85

ally more effectively than MGA.
The CIDR is inserted into the vagi-
na for 7 days to deliver progestin,
and upon removal after 7 days,
heifers receive an injection of
PGF2- and are inseminated on
detected estrus during the next 72
hours. Heifers not inseminated by
day 10 receive TAI along with
GnRH. The pregnancy rate in one
study was 53.6 percent.
This protocol and others were
compared for conception rates,
pregnancy rates and program cost.
Pregnancy rates overall were quite
similar, including a control group
that received no treatment and
was bred strictly on detection of
estrus. The biggest difference
among the protocols was the cost,
and based upon this, either breed-
ing heifers detected after sponta-
neous estrus or a PGF2- program
(insemination following detected
estrus following a first injection,
with heifers not inseminated after
14 days receiving a second injec-
tion and again bred by estrous
detection). Program costs ranged
from under $33 per heifer for these
two groups, compared to $43.86
and $53.87 for the CIDR protocol
and modified CIDR using GnRH
and PGF2-, respectively.

FEEDING MGA to heifers is an effective way to synchro-

nize estrus, but you must have adequate bunk space and
thorough mixing of the ration.

References cited: Nebel, R. and DeJarnette, J. M., Artificial Insemination Programs for Heifers, Dairy Cattle
Reproduction Council, Nov. 7, 2006 Denver conference.

Stevenson, J., Synchronization Strategies to Facilitate Artificial Insemination in Lactating Dairy Cows, Dairy Cattle
Reproduction Council, Nov. 7, 2006 Denver conference.

85
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 86
19 Fine-tuning your
reproductive program
A
s with a successful milking
routine protocol, there can
be different choices and
approaches to developing a repro-
ductive program for your farm, but
most important is consistency: you
select a protocol, employees know
and understand the steps, and
there is consistency in following
the protocol among all people
involved.
An example that lends itself to
numerical illustration is following
a Presynch + Ovsynch protocol for
submitting cows for first A.I. serv-
ice. Each individual cow receives 5
consecutive injections at the appro-
priate time and in the correct
sequence. Failure to administer any
one of these five injections or
administering one in the wrong
order will reduce the conception
rate to TAI and delay pregnancy.
For a farm that achieves an injec-
tion protocol accuracy of 95 percent
on any given injection day (that is,
95 percent of the cows that should
get an injection actually get the cor-
rect one), on average nearly one in
four cows will not successfully
complete the five injections of the
Presynch + Ovsynch protocol: 0.95
x 0.95 x 0.95 x 0.95 x 0.95 = 0.77.
Farms that cannot achieve
acceptable protocol compliance
should consider focusing on other
methods than those requiring mul-
tiple injection protocols to improve
their reproductive program.
How do you monitor whether
protocol is being adequately car-
ried out? Compliance to protocol
can be monitored through a num-
ber of record management systems.
Most reproductive monitoring is
performed by measuring the days
in milk at first breeding, serum
progesterone levels at time of
insemination and ultimately preg-
nancy rates in the following 21-day
cycles. In evaluating data, you
must ask:
What pregnancy rates are
being achieved? Are they meeting
your goals?
What may contribute to per-
formance that is less than expect-
ed? In addition to protocol compli-
ance, you must consider insemina-
tion technique, anestrous cows,
quality of estrous detection, poor
transition cow care, to name a few.
Are there differences between
lactation groups?
If you are using a synchroniza-
tion program that relies upon
detected estrus followed by TAI as
a final effort, you should note:
Are any cows bred earlier than
mandated by the on-farm program
and for what reasons? Other than
aborts and purchased cows with
unknown freshening dates, there
should be very few.
Are any cows bred later than
the TAI program? If there are, the
program is leaky, indicating
poor compliance in carrying out
the protocol.
Hormone evaluation. In addition to
using a dairy management record
system to evaluate reproductive
performance of the herd, serum
samples from individual cows can
be used to measure compliance
with a synchronization program.
Evaluation of serum progesterone
86
concentrations helps determine the
accuracy of estrous detection, inci-
dence of anestrus, and accuracy of
synchronization for the time of
breeding. A recommended proce-
dure is to sample 20 cows at the
time of breeding (first sample) and
then to resample the same cows 7
to 14 days later (second sample).
Here are possible outcomes:
The first sample has low prog-
esterone and the second is high: the
cow is in estrus and has been prop-
erly synchronized.
The first sample is high in
progesterone while the second is
low: the cow was NOT synchro-
nized properly.
Both first and second samples
are low: the cow is not cycling.
If a herd is following a presyn-
chronization strategy, in which
cows receive two PGF injections 12
to 14 days apart, 90 percent or more
should have an active CL at the
time of the first GnRH injection of
this program. The veterinarian
could choose to sample for proges-
terone at this point in the cows
estrous cycle. The percent of cows
with low progesterone at this time
may indicate the prevalence of
anestrus animals; it also could indi-
cate problems with injection proto-
col compliance.
Those persons responsible for
carrying out the synchronization
program may check off all cows on
the list, though not all are injected.
Sometimes this may be an honest
mistake, but if you think it indi-
cates a pattern, you could include
sham cow IDs into the list and see
if they are also checked off.
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 87
More and more herds are vol-
untarily moving toward Radio
Frequency ID (RFID) for individ-
ual cows, although eventually it
may be a mandated program of
the federal government. Besides
providing government disease
monitoring, RFID can provide
benefits in that major recordkeep-
ing packages have integrated the
ability to read the RFID tags using
a Bluetooth wand that transmits to
a Pocket PC. This device has the
entire herd database in its memo-
ry, can access individual cow
records, and provides an audible
command for the next action step
through headphones, such as
Pass, Prostaglandin, GnRH, BST
and Wrong Pen as examples.
Commands can be recorded in
English or Spanish.
One person in front can use this
equipment while a second follows
through to administer injections,
etc. Data entry also is more effi-
cient, as is transfer of the accumu-
lated action information to the
host computer. Its no longer nec-
essary to transcribe from paper
records. Compliance also should
improve. Reading a pen is easy
for the user of this device. Every
action is announced and must be
COLORED EAR CLIPS can help keep a synchronization program on track.
acted upon. At the end of the pro-
cedure the Pocket PC can produce
a list of cows that were acted upon
and more importantly a list of
cows that were not found.
Recipe for success. The 21-day
pregnancy rate in the U.S. aver-
ages 13 to 14 percent. Yet some
farms do far better than this. What
practices or characteristics do they
share?
A survey of eight herds in vari-
ous parts of the U.S. gave some
common as well as some unique
traits. The following table shows a
summary of their reproductive
performance and a summary of
their management techniques.
Seven of the eight reduced
reliance on humans to detect
estrus. These seven used a presyn-
chronization + synchronization
program. Pedometry without a
synchronization program was
used by the eighth herd. By 100
DIM, 19 percent of all animals had
not been inseminated in this last
herd for the first time.
Common to all herds was rec-
ognizing that key employees were
a crucial element of their dairys
success. Either long-term, trusted
employees or family members
87
were the A.I. technicians. Training
involved A.I. training courses,
working with the head herdsman
and/or veterinarian, and some
used regular refresher training
courses for employees.
To ensure compliance with each
farms reproduction protocol,
methods varied, but each herd
had a system. In those using syn-
chronization programs, there was
extra effort to ensure cows
received scheduled treatment.
One herd gave most treatments
during the weekly veterinary
exam, treatments or insemination.
In terms of cow care, all farms
had cow cooling. All herds also
had close-up dry cow groups as
well as a super fresh group, where
cows stayed from 14 to 30 days,
depending on the herd. All herds
worked with a nutritionist. There
were no magic ingredients, but
rather a silage-based TMR.
Different types of fats were includ-
ed in the ration, and over half
manipulated dietary cation-anion
difference (DCAD) in the close-up
dry cow group.
In the health program, all herds
developed a vaccination schedule
customized to their herd situation.
All used an IBR-BVD-PI3 vaccine
in their lactating animals, and
five-way lepto vaccines were used
in all eight herds.
In summary, each farms repre-
sentative offered tips for success,
which included emphasizing com-
pliance with reproductive pro-
gram protocol; good employee
communications with willingness
to take suggestions and change;
cow care and comfort, and atten-
tion to detail throughout every
aspect of the dairy, from nutrition
to health to employee manage-
ment. Shared factors included:
Technology adopted to over-
come estrus-detection challenges;
Trusted long-term employees
or family members were A.I. tech-
nicians;
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 88

Reproductive performance and management in top performing herds

Herd
Item A B C D E F G H
Location CA CA VA NC WI WI TX NM
No. of Cows 5000 3000 2300 900 1400 1650 2500 1500
% Herd AI 97 99+ 100 100 100 100 100 95
Breed Holstein Jersey Holstein Holstein Holstein Holstein Holstein Holstein
Housing Freestall Drylot Freestall Freestall Freestall Freestall 1 Freestall Drylot
VWP, d 50 50 60 72 74 78 80h, 50c1 65 (45)2
Ave. DIMFS, d 64 62 87 75 76 80 75 61
% w DIMFS>100d <1 <1 19 0 0 0 <1 <1
1st Serv. CR, % 48h, 39c1 39 31 31 35 40 35 33
Annual CR, % 40 32 26 25 30 35 28 30
EDR/AI SR3 63 69 60 58 69 51 63 69
% Preg-150 DIM 60 88 48 53 50 43 47 77
21d PR, % 25 24 19-20 19 22 17 19 18
Preg Check Freq Weekly Weekly Weekly Weekly Weekly Weekly Weekly Monthly
Type Preg. Diagnosis, DCC4Palp-35 Palp-36 Palp-30 Palp-36 US-28 US-31 Palp-39 Palp-36
Embryonic Loss, % 10 NA NA 4.5 10 7 NA NA
% Abortions (>42 DCC) 10 10 7.5 7.5 5 7.3 15.6 5
ED Program Chalk Chalk Pedometer Chalk Visual Synch Chalk Chalk
6X/d Program
Presynch program
*cherry-pick PGF 14-14* PGF 14-14* No PGF 14-14 PGF 14-14 PGF14-12 PGF14*-14* PGF 14-14
Synch Program Ovsynch Cosynch-725 No Cosynch-72 Ovsynch Ovsynch CIDRsynch Ovsynch
48G-16TAI 56G-18TAI -48G-24TAI -48G-24TAI
Resynch Program Ovsynch Cosynch-72 No Cosynch-72 Resynch-(-7) PGF12- PGF7- Ovsynch-
-Ovsynch6 Ovsynch CIDR-Synch 48G-24TAI
1 The values for heifers (h) and cows (c) differed.
2 The voluntary wait period was 45 d until they started the synchronization program in March and moved to 65 d.
3 EDR/AI SR= Estrus-detection rate/Artificial insemination Submission Rate
4 The type of pregnancy diagnosis was either by palpation (Palp) or ultrasound (US) with the shortest interval possible
for days carried calf.
5 Cosynch-72 refers to a modified Ovsynch protocol in which cows receive both the last GnRH injection and are A.I.d at
72 hours after PGF to save handling them an additional time.
6 Resynch-(-7) means the resynchronization program began seven days prior to pregnancy diagnosis.

Most scheduled routine A.I.
refresher courses;
System in place to insure
compliance with the reproductive
program;
Cooling, sand bedding, over-
all cow comfort was stressed;
Close-up dry cow and super
fresh groups for cows;
Over half manipulated
DCAD in the close-up dry cow
group;
All had vaccination programs
customized to their herd situation,
with half having a program to
identify BVD-persistently infected
animals;
Silage-based TMR rations;
Personnel are recognized as
key to success.

References cited: Fricke, P., Resynchronization Strategies for Dairy Cows, Dairy Cattle Reproduction Council, Nov. 7, 2006 Denver
conference.

Jordan, E., Tips for Reproductive Success, Dairy Cattle Reproduction Council, Nov. 7, 2006 Denver conference.

Kirkpatrick, M. and Olson, J., Monitoring Compliance, Dairy Cattle Reproduction Council, Nov. 7, 2006 Denver conference.

88
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 89
20 Using bulls
on the farm
A
doption of A.I. breeding
was nearly universal on
dairy farms after its intro-
duction to the U.S. in the late 1930s.
Only the milking machine and
refrigerated bulk milk cooling
exceeded its adoption rate. Before
that time and since, some dairymen
have chosen to use natural service
sires, either wholly or in part. Some
choose to have pens of cows that
are all A.I. and some that are all
bull breeding.
Various reasons for use. A recent
survey showed that almost 90 per-
cent of California dairies used bulls
to some degree. Those surveyed
cited a number of reasons, includ-
ing problem/hard breeders (over
50 percent), as well as clean-up fol-
lowing A.I., heifer breeding, no
heat cows, reduced labor more
than one reason was given on some
farms.
Bulls used on the farm should
have outstanding pedigrees for
production traits. Pedigrees can be
evaluated by use of a simple index
called Parent Average, or
Estimated Transmitting Ability.
A dairy producer needs the most
recent Predicted Transmitting
Ability (PTA) values from USDA
on the sire and dam of a prospec-
tive herd bull to calculate parent
average. Parent average for a single
trait like milk production would be
calculated by averaging PTA for
milk from the sire and the dam of
the bull.
Standards for acceptable value
for a herd bull should increase
through the years due to genetic
trend. Holstein and Jersey breeds attention to the bulls feet. If the
currently are improving by at least feet become overgrown, have them
150 pounds per year in PTA. Sires trimmed properly. Poor develop-
of herd bulls should be among the ment of feet and legs can cause
very best A.I. sires available, with a problems later on. Also, make sure
Rank Percentile at least above 80 that any parasites that might affect
and preferably above 90. his performance are controlled.
Dams of herd bulls should qual- Most bulls reach puberty and are
ify or be very close to qualifying for able to breed heifers by 12 to 15
USDA Elite Cow status. Breed months of age. However, bulls
organizations can provide you should be older than this before reg-
with current Elite Cow standards ular use on mature cows.
of PTA MFP$. Younger bulls (2 to 2.5 years of
Remember that the herd bull can age) are preferable to older bulls
quickly become the most influen- because they pose less danger to
tial sire used in a herd breeding humans and can be used in multi-
program. His pedigree is extremely sire groups with less social domi-
important, but his best role for nance problems (fighting, broken
genetic improvement would be the fences, etc). Still, their size differ-
smallest possible role com-
pared to good A.I. sires.
Growing the bull. Bull calves
can be fed and housed with
heifers when they are young.
But it is a good practice to
provide separate housing for
bulls over 6 months of age.
Feed the bull to keep him
growing steadily without
fattening. The nutrient
requirements for bull calves
are similar to those for
heifers. Provide bull calves
with a well-balanced ration
that contains appropriate
amounts of minerals and
vitamins.
Make sure that the bull
has plenty of opportunity for
exercise. Dont put the bull in
a small, poorly bedded stall
in the corner of a barn and
forget about him. Pay close
89
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 90
ence should not be greatly differ-
ent than females. For young
Holstein bulls used with mature
cows, this would preclude bulls
less than about 1,000 pounds (450
kg) body weight.
Health exam. Before a bull is put
into use, he should have a breed-
ing soundness exam conducted by
a veterinarian. Take particular care
with bulls from sale barns or from
contract raisers where biosecurity
protocol is unknown. This exam
should include health tests for any
diseases that he may transmit to
cows. Reports of trichomoniasis
being picked up and then spread
widely by herd bulls emphasizes
the need for adequate testing and
care in introducing animals into
the herd. The bull also needs thor-
ough examination of his reproduc-
tive system. A semen sample
should be collected and evaluated.
The bull should be allowed to
breed a cow in heat and observed
to make sure that he performs cor-
rectly.
The breeding soundness exam
will help identify bulls that may
be poor breeders or that may have
some anatomical defect in the
reproductive system. The exam
will not indicate whether the bull
will have high, normal or low fer-
tility. All bulls should have a phys-
ical exam every 6 months and a
full breeding soundness exam
annually.
Using the bull. Once the bull is
ready for use in breeding, he can
be used in two ways. He may be
run with a group of animals or he
may be housed individually and
used to breed selected cows put
into his pen. The first method
reduces the amount of time
required for heat detection.
However, when a bull runs with a
group of animals, he still needs to
be observed regularly.
When a bull is to be used to
breed both heifers and cows, it is
best to use him on the heifers first
and then use him on the cows.
This practice will prevent the
spread of reproductive diseases or
infections from the cows to the
heifers. In addition, if the bull is
young when he is first put into
use, he will do a better job of
breeding and will compete for
feed better if he is with a group of
heifers. Make sure that a young
bull is not overworked. If there are
several heifers in heat at the same
time, he may miss some of them.
One way of identifying which
heifers the bull has bred is to fit
him with a halter-mounted mark-
ing device. These devices have an
ink reservoir and a ball-point
type valve which leaves a streak of
ink on the cows loin or rump
when the bull dismounts. The
reservoir has to be filled periodi-
cally, so some method must be
available for catching and
restraining the bull. Regular filling
of the ink reservoir provides a
good schedule for checking the
bulls condition.
If a young bull is to be run with
a group of animals, it is important
that all fences and gates be con-
structed to keep him confined to
the designated area. A poorly con-
structed gate or fence is not much
of an obstacle to a bull interested
in a cow in heat in the adjacent
pasture. Feeding facilities should
also have ample space so that the
bull does not prevent heifers from
getting their share of feed.
If the bull is to be run with a
group of lactating cows, he should
be introduced into the group care-
fully. One way to do this is to
move the bull into the group at the
time a few other cows are added
to the group.
When a new animal is put into
a group, some fighting occurs
until a new pecking order is
established. If several cows and
the bull are added at once, the
fighting is spread among several
animals so that no single individ-
90
ual is involved in all the encoun-
ters. This should reduce the
amount of stress on the bull as
well as the cows.
When a bull is to be run with
the milking herd, the herd should
be split into at least two groups.
Fresh cows should go into a group
(high producers) that does not
have a bull running with them.
Cows should stay in this high pro-
ducing group until they are past
the peak in lactationusually 4 to
5 months after calving. Any cow
to be bred in this group should be
bred by A.I. Once cows from this
high producing group are moved
to the second (lower producing)
group, most of them should
already be pregnant to A.I. So the
bulls role in the second group is
to breed those cows that failed to
conceive to A.I. and are open too
long. Sometimes he is referred to
as a clean-up bull.
If a bull is run with milking
cows, facilities should be designed
to prevent him from gaining
access to other groups. Also, some
convenient arrangement is needed
to separate the bull from the
group; for example, separating the
bull while the herd is being
milked. Some smaller bulls may
actually go through the milking
parlor with the cows, but this
practice should be discouraged.
A bull running with the milking
herd may fatten quickly if given
free access to the herds ration.
Consequently it is wise to have
him a bit on the thin side before
putting him with the herd. Make
sure that the bull is watched care-
fully so that he doesnt get too fat.
Also, special attention needs to be
given to the bulls feet if he is on
concrete. The feet should be
trimmed regularly and the bull
should have access to a dirt lot if
possible.
Hand mating. Sometimes bulls are
used to breed individual cows that
have been detected in heat rather
EngAug 3MASTER 8/8/07 10:50 AM Page 91
than running with open cows. If
the bull is to be used in this man-
ner, he should be confined to a
sturdy pen that has ample room
for him to breed a cow put into the
pen. The pen should be designed
so that the cow can enter and be
removed from the pen without the
bull being in the way. Care should
be taken when separating the cow
from the bull since this act may
antagonize him. The cow should
not be left with the bull for an
extended period but rather should
be removed after she has been
bred once or twice.
Conception rates. Conception
rates from natural service will be
no higher than those obtained
with a good A.I. program. But if
heat detection in the herd is not
good and if improper semen han-
dling techniques and insemina-
tion procedures are used, then
higher conception rates may be
obtained from the use of natural
service. However, poor conception
rates may occur from natural serv-
ice if the bull has low fertility, if
reproductive diseases are spread
from cow to cow, or if some other
factor (i.e. nutritional deficiency)
affects the fertility of the herd.
Recent studies comparing calv-
ing to conception intervals for
cows in A.I. pens with cows
exposed to natural service bulls
References cited: Smith, J., et al, Managing Herd Bulls on Large Dairies, Proceedings of 6th Western Dairy Management
Conference, March, 2003, Reno.
Stevenson, J., There Is A Money Winner in the Bull Breeding Versus A.I. Game, Hoards Dairyman, May 10, 2007.
have shown an actual advantage
to the A.I.exposed cows: compar-
ing seven large western dairies,
the A.I.-exposed cows were 1.3 to
1.9 times more likely to have fewer
days to conception compared with
bull-exposed cows. This studys
authors concluded that keeping
cows in the A.I. pens longer before
exposing them to clean-up bulls
may improve pregnancy rates
despite the potential decline in
expected conception rates.
Another study showed a pregnan-
cy rate of only 8 percent, mostly
due to the bull being overworked.
If pregnancy rate for A.I. is 15 per-
cent, then natural service at 8 per-
cent obviously is not showing an
advantage. Clean-up bulls may be
better used as a last resort for cows
200 DIM, rather than 150 DIM, as
you may get more pregnancies by
using A.I. longer into the lactation.
At what cost? Looking at all costs
when comparing natural service
versus A.I. breeding, you should
include the milk return from mar-
ginal cows that take the housing
space opened up by not keeping
bulls as well as the greater genetic
merit of A.I. sires. Use of A.I. sires
results in a gain of $89 to $101 in
value of milk production per year
of life by resulting offspring com-
pared with natural service sires.
One study showed a net cost per
91
cow of $10.27 more for natural
service compared to A.I.
Safety first. Bulls can be danger-
ous! All personnel working with
the herd should be aware of the
bulls presence. Whenever the bull
is to be handled, at least two per-
sons should be present. Never try
to physically overpower a bull.
Bulls have been known to attack
workers operating tractors on
loaders in the alleys, so always use
caution in the presence of the bull.
Indeed, safety is a cost that cant
be estimated, but really must be
considered when comparing natu-
ral service compared to A.I.
Custom freezing. If a dairyman
wishes to use a herd bull through
A.I., it is possible to have semen
collected from the bull and then
processed and frozen. Some bull
studs provide this service. This
eliminates some of the hazards of
using natural service. It also pro-
vides a way of getting daughters
from the bull into several herds if
the objective is to obtain a multi-
herd proof on the bull. Bulls that
are to be used in A.I. should be
blood-typed and their semen
processed by an organization that
is approved by Certified Semen
Services.