MAPPING ALTERED AND MINERALIZED ROCKS an introduction to THE "ANACONDA METHOD" rape moana, Marco T. Einaudi Stanford University 1997 (© MT Einaud), 1907 Dave MaherLntreduction ‘A. General Aspects B. Key Features of Mapping Scheme (1) The “baseline” Q) Use gridded field sheets (6) The rock side litho contacts, faults, veins, density (vol®) of qtz veins (8) The air side ‘Background alteration Alteration halos. C. Organizational hints for efficient mapping (1) Use a double-sided aluminum clipboard (2) The importance of hard-lead color pencils GB) Mapping vests (5) Make several mapping passes (6) Stand up, facing the rocks tcrops: i ‘A. Base Map. B. Alteration Overlay. €. Limonite Overlay. ‘IW, Color Codes (Figs. 3 & 4) ‘A. Lithologic contacts and structure (recorded on rack side, plot true strike, dip) [B. Hypogene mineralization (veins/vcinlets & disseminations). (Plot on rack side) sulfides/oxides Fig. 3) ‘Veinlev/vein fillings other than sulfides/oxides . Leached/oxide/supergene sulfides (plot on rack side). ‘Mineralogy Symbols for degree of leaching D. Alteration of hornblende (and/or biotite) sites (plot on a side) E. Alteration of feldspar sites (plot on ai side) vw 7 ‘A. Distinguishing between Hypogene and supergene alteration. B. Leached and oxidized outcrops. (W) Keeping track of the degree of leaching of primary sulfude sites 2) "Glassy limonite”, indigenous limonites G) Relict sulfides locked in quartz (4) Exotic limonites ‘A. Rock description, B. Quartz veins and veinlets C. Limonite assemblages D. Relative abundance of indigenous and exotic Fe and Cu oxides E. Biotite distribution patterns, especially of “shreddy biotite" F, Magnetite abundance ‘A. Posting sheets and follow-up interpretation B. The Folio. C. Composite maps: exploration models and drill targeting.‘L_Introdustion ‘Color-coded mapping of key features of alteration/mineralization, augmented by quantitative estimates of smineral/vein abundance, measurement of attivudes (strike & dip, or core-axis angle), and relative age between features (differem vein-types, or veins/intrusive contacts) is critical to successful exploration, mine development, and development of accurate descriptions for a genetic understanding. This style of mapping sbould be used to Complement standardized numerical mapping designed for computer data bases. A geologist who draws what s/he sees in the rocks has greater flexibility and frcedom of thougbt than one who is forced to pigeon-bole everything {nto a numerical category. Further, at the stage of map compilation there is no substitute for the detailed, color- ‘coded, geological and mineralogical notes compiled on posting sheets ("fact maps"), whose color and textural Gistincuons allow quick visual correlation of comminon features between outcrops, mine benches, or drill holes. ‘The use of standardized colors also allows a given exploration team or research group to read and understand each other's maps. “Although this tract focuses on mapping in igncous rocks of porphyry-type environments, che approach is easily modified for application in any deposit type or any geological environment. The approach presented here is ‘a direct evolution of mapping schemes devised by Anaconda geologists at El Salvador, Chile, and Yerington, Nevada during the 1960s, What is wriuen here represents in large part a melding of ideas generated during field ‘work and discussions with Jobn Proffet, John Hunt. Bill Atkinson, and John Dilles. ‘TL_Mapping Vertical Faces: trenches, road euts, tunnels, benches A. General Aspects ‘The most efficient approach to mapping vertical walls is to project everything to a horizontal plane (for example, at chest height). The hundreds of strike & dip measurements that are taken during a day's mapping are {ll plotied directly on the map; in other words, she map is being produced as you map. Confusion about strikes of faults, contacts, cic, doesn’t arise as often as it does when drawing in vertical view or when recording data in a notebook. You know exactly where to go in the next cross-cut or trench to find that fault, and geology can be ‘drawn across the drift from one wall 1o the other. (NOTE: (1) some features will not project to chest height, ¢.8. 8 flat fault at ankle level: these require notes, a quick sketch, or a projection (see below). (2) When mapping an Underground decline or a surface wench up a hill, continue to map at chest height; your map will be an inclined plane. which later can be corrected to a different datum plane depending on the ultimate goal). The essential idea is to record by means of a golor code the various features of rock type, structure, veins, alteration minerals and ore minerals (see Figs.1& 2). Color coding is a means of reducing note-taking to some epree, but, more importantly. to force the geologist to look more critically at the rocks. Color also helps to ‘Visually stimulate the brain during mapping and afterwards during the compilation process. ‘Another important aspect of we mapping scheme is that in mapping altered wall rocks, you are mapping ‘minerals. not alicration types. This means that you are not classifying alteration types as you map (tink of all the Variations on the theme of advanced argillic or of potassic alteration types!) and, therefore, you are coming closer to the ideal of recording observations rather than interpretations. Map what you sec. Notes are used for those features that cannot be recorded in the drawing, such as rock descriptions, relative ages between features (e.g., between faults, veins, veinlets, intrusive contacts), percent total sulfides, percent magnetite, sulfide ratios, and veinlet abundance. Notes are writen for intervals of the bench face or tunnel Wwhere such features arc relatively uniform in character Gigs. 1&2). B. Key Features of Mapping Scheme Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the style of mapping being described here, Figure 1 represents a map of sulfide- bearing rocks, whereas Figure 2 represents a map of the oxidized (weathered) equivalent. The various aspects of the mapping scheme are illustrated by these figures and dicussed in the paragraphs that follow. Comparison of the tho Tigres (and Figures 3 and 5) also will allow you to visualize the results of oxidation of hypogene ores Giscussed in a separate section below). {&) The “baseline” consists of the tape laid out at chest height along a drift or wrench wall, This baseline is surveyed by brunton and plotted on the field sheet (taking account of irregularities in the face relative to the straight line of the tape). (0) Use gridded field sheets to enable rapid plotting of strikes and dips with a plastic scale/protracor. The grids represent N-S and E-W lines, not lines parallel to the rock face you are mapping,MTE mapping, p. 2. March 6, 1997 [Assign the E-W line 1 the long dimension of your map sheet (ibe north arrow pois toward the long dimension of {Jour sheet) for ease of use of your clipboard and for intemal consisichey- 5 Locate your baseline in the center ofthe field sheet to allow working room (ots and drawing) on all sides, Start a new field sheet before you ran ou of room toward the edge of the sheet. ides Sars you start mapping, be sure 10 include coordinates, survey points, locality. scale, the date, and your name. AG) Notes and sample locations are writen directly on the mapping shec, rater dan in the field notebook. This ensures that this information is never separated from the map, Sine pasling serves to separate your map sheets ito two area: the “ir side’ and he “rock side" (see Figs. 1-5). (6) The rock side is used to record faults, vein minerals, veinlet minerals, dissemination of “ore” minerals, and tibologic contacts. All hrough-going featres are plowed wi true strike and We dip is indicated. oa cons of the close relation between whe diskibution of. quartz veins and Cur Av gragss 1 many porphyry-type deposits, a method of quantifying the density (vol%) of whee Vets 7 highly useful. Experiece aa oy consistency between diferent geologists can be acbieved by estimating (for BN Oe of veins bas sheen bench interval where the veins are of relatively constant spacing and wii): 1) the average width of he wens, and 2) the average spacing between center lines. Write these down in your rete 8S} fraction (e.8. ne, average width and 6 cm average spacing between center lines). Dividing ovt We eee is constituted by this vein set (0.5/6= 8 vol %). This approach works well cot hore veins occupy definite sets; Ube estimate 1S made for each set. The approach also is ridike slong & tape, because such & count has 10 be corrected for the tue width and sre widths and spacing. Clearly, the approach is difficult to apply in rocks where the von are t record vein hc is less Common than is generally believed. For A-B quartz veins, which most key Pete veins with quarz-sericte-pyste (QSP) hale), record the “vein wih? as te distance between CUE ‘edges Poe OSP halo: the fraction will represent the volS ofthe rock that is altered to QSP, (G) The aic ade is used to record alteration minerals and rock type. Alteration minerals ae recorded by color code in two ways. ‘Narrow “imaginary columns” along the baseline (much as the ‘columns used for different minerals in logging core) are used tw record "packground” alteration minerals. Background” alteration is defined here as any alteration minerals that occur throughout a given volume of rock and do not appear to be related as halos to ‘individual veins, Pervasive biotization ‘of andesite at El Salvador is one ‘example of background alteration. If distinct alteration halos are present on the margins of fractures and vein filings, these are shown as line cravm along the strike of the aricular vein, bot on the air side of the map re ee ne, & eric envelope on a pyfie vein would be shown as brown line on the ai side C. Organizational hints for efficient mapping i) Use a double-sided sluminum ciphoard te ste of the mapping sheet (8.5 X 11 inches ine US) with leater penet holders riveted to one or both sides. Al pencils and scales ar kept in tis clipboard for easy access. te Per her esasors on the ens of cach pencil for easy retrieval of pencils out of their leather sleeves! (2) The importance of a hand which can be sharpened to a fine point cannot be overemphasized. Pencils available in the U-S.which meet these sandards include Eagle Veriiie (or Berol ores Stadler Mars-Lumochrom.,. (Caveat: in topical climates, leas tend to become soft io field wpping, rain obviously places severe limilaions on the quality of your drawing even if ‘water-proof paper is used. APHID. reap! Keep 4 Dloier in your aluminum cip-board facing your map shee and keep the clipboard closed ‘and in your mapping vest when not in use]. “Sharpening pencils is an ar: keep a sharp knife (same one you use 10 scratch rocks) to expose a length of lead, tape a piece of sandpaper to the back inside of your clipboard for a arc pant and do final sharpening by rubbing the poDt at a shallow angle ona ples of pape ae back of your clipboard. ms Manping_vess that have pocksis Jarge enough for an aluminum clipboard to fit in loosely are critical to the success of the mapping method described above. “Loose fit is important because the mapping ciieel euires a contant back-and-forth between map sheet and rocks: every ume you have Tnisto marking & aoa veavour map sbeet, the clipboard is "dumped" back into is pocket, your bands are free, ond 208 get feature oncpuing rocks. Your vest “organizes” your work environment, uch as the "desktop" On Your COmPUlesMTE mapping, p. 3, March 6, 1997 ) Applying color. Features recorded on the rock side can become very densely spaced (especially in highly mineralized zones) and great care needs to be taken 10 maintain color separation with very sharp pencils, A key technique in this regard is to map the youngest features first (¢.g.. post-ore faults, youngest veins), then follow with mapping the older features. In this way, offsetting of older features by younger features can be shown easily as you map and much less erasing is involved! Also, as you apply color to represent a vein, apply first the color of the most abundant mineral as a dashed line; the lesser mineral colors are then applied between the dashes of the first and no color is applied on top of another. (G) Make several mapping passes for any given outcrop or length of bench face; in other words, partition your work. 1 find that I need at least three passes to complete all the observations and note-taking that I need. ‘The first pass should be the one in which you get down on paper the major features of the outcrop: descriptions of lithology, lithologic contacts (indicate whether intrusive, conformable, stratigraphic, or faulted), ‘major faults, and major through-going veins. In subsequent passes you begin to add detail. In a second pass, map veins and veinlets, diagrammatically showing the relative age of different vein types (plot the youngest veins fist), and add alteration haloes, and background alteration. The third pass can be devoted 10 sulfide (or oxide) ‘minerals, their abundance, and relative proportions. (©) Stanciup, facing the rocks, while marking a feature on your map sheet. This reduces the odds of plotting a wrong strike, because you are oriented with your rocks and your map sheet. Fast, efficient, and ‘2ocurate mapping is your goal; to achieve this goal, the best mappers do not sit down with their backs wo the face. (aves time and saves your pants!) 7) In segional exploration, | recommend that prior to commencing a mapping project at a small scale (say, 1:5,000) that some key represemtative outcrops be mapped first at a large scale (say, 1:250). ‘The reason is that napping at a large scale gives the geologist the opporumity to spend some time looking at the rocks in detail and this enables him to develop an idea of the key features of a given prospect. Armed with this information, he can then move out more confidently at higher speed at a smaller scale. ‘TIL_Mapping ontcrops:_use multiple overlays Tn mapping sub-borizontal exposures (Le., outcrops), color codes for alteration, veins, and ore minerals imonites) are used as above but are applied to successive overlays. Color separation is mainisined by plotting. + Tithologic contacts, faults, veins, and other structure on a base map (Fig. 6, Base Map): + pervasive (or background) alteration and alteration halos on the first overlay (Fig. 6, Overlay #1); + and ore minerals or their oxidation products on a second overlay (Fig. 6, Overlay #2). Notes for these various features are written on their respective overlays. A. Base Map. ‘The limit of outcrop is sketched first on the base map (along with any additional "cultae" such as trenches, paths, etc) and the major features of structure and lithology are mapped in. Rock-type symbols can be assigned to various units, and these symbols can be applied in black pencil (rather than assigning a color-code to rock types) along the outer perimeter of the outcrop outline. Veins are plotted directly on the base map, using color codes for dominent vein-flling minerals. Notes can be written outside the outcrop area. B. Alteration Overlay. ‘On Overlay #1, lines are used to identify alteration halos on veins shown on the base map. Care should be taken to ensure that the alteration color-code is applied directly over the vein shown on the base. This points out the need to plot tbe veins first on the base map, then quickly apply the alteration-halo color over that vein on overlay #1. For example, on Fig. 6, the NE-dipping qtz-(Kspar-mag) veins at the north end of the outerop (base ‘map) have Kspar alteration talos (alteration overlay). ‘Background alteration not related to individual veins is shown next by color-coded dots for the minerals present. Because only one overlay is used for alteration, feldspar sites and mafic mineral sites afe difficult to keep Eeparate. . This tums out not to be a major disadvantage, because, for example, a mix of brown dots and olive green dots implies clay in the feldspar sites and secondary biotite in the mafic mineral sites. The density of dots Should reflect the relative abundance of alteration minerals seen in the outcrop. For example, in Fig. 6. Dackground sericite alteration increases in intensity southwesterly and then declines abruptly into a zone with ‘minor epidote and chlorite. As another example, an intensely silicified rock would be represented as 2 solid ‘range color on overlay #1 (but apply the color of any minor minerals fist as dois, then color-in the orange around the dots in order not to get superposition of colors). ‘An alternative approach (John Dilles, pers. comm., 1997) is to place major alteration balos (color coded) fon the base sheet, and save the alteration overlay for background alteration. This allows the distinction t be maintained between mafic and feldspar mineral site, in the following manner: 1) diagonal NE-SW lines representMTE mapping, p. 4, March 6, 1997 slweraion of mafics, and 2) diagonal NW-SE lines represent alteration of feldspars. The lites °° color-coded aerate ie normal codes. The degree of alteration of individual mineral sites are denovct by Ho heavily you pply the color solid lines denote 100 to 80% of dat mineral st is altered. dase nt indicate 5-80% of that apply the coir otad. and dated lines indicale <54% t0 trace amounts of what mineral site are occupied Py hydrothermal alteration products. C. Limonite Overlay. cients overiay’ because ulmately it will allow you to draw a map tha displays the dstsauon a relative abundance ef the oxidation products of sulfides. The Key minerals whose distribution and abundances need reite tapped include the green copper carbonates and silicates, black capper pitch (enone) lassy limonite (Giten lionie), poetite, earthy hematite, and jrosite. Together with te alteration and eit the (pit Timon ee rinrals wil allow you w say something about original sulfide zoning and about secondary dispersion of metals, Woh 20 tet aa re and symbols used in mapping Linotite uinerals are summarized on the right-hand-sde of Figure 3 and in Figure 6 and detailed in section 1V.C and VIB (below). An interpretation of he original sulfide ‘Henttation pattere, based on the limonites and the styl of alteration and veins (Shown forthe same outcrop on Figure 4) is illustrated on the left-hand-side of Figure 3 STbe separation of tbe mapping shet into air sid and rock side (or overlays for outcrop maBPin#) allows for effciens vat of colors: in the ist below, 12 colors are used 10 record some 40 diferent mineralogica fears for ftiien A features, The Hist is instructive because it indicates those features that can be mapped eontnuonsly by bane-lens inspection of freshly-broken rock surfaces im igneous rocks related wo Porpayey syne Colors are aed by “Eagle Verthin’ (or "Berol Verihin’) numbers, Simplification of the color coding for regional ‘mapping is discussed in Section VI below. |A. Lithologic contacts and structure (recorded on rock side. plot true strike, dip) black 1. Lithologic contacts: use your lead pencil (black). dark blue 2, Faults (breccias, clays, shears) and fault contacts: use indigo blue (741). black 3, Follation, joints, bedding: use your lead pencil (black). B. Hypogene mineralization (veins/einlets & disseminations). (Plot on racks). Schematic representation of mineral cistibution in approprite color (Fig. 3 & 4). Doss fr disseminations, random, short lines eee ec ead, Acwnls) or fracture coatings, continuous nes for through-going veins («2 B- and D- era Gare: should be taken to approximate relative vein densities and relave abundance of Hissimisaes aac cece the face by te density of color added to map._ Plot veins and veinlets with true suske ond ares de Veins ae drawn with color of dominant minera; additional minerals indicated by dos aos ines 2 sncictfine consisting of 50% quar and 50% chalcopyrite, would be drawm asa dashed orange and red line: ‘sullides/oxides Orie 3) purple 1. bornite: purple (752) red 2. chalcopyrite: carmine red (745) dark green 3, molybdenite: green (739) ‘med yellow 4. pyrite: canary yellow (735) black ‘5, magnetite, hematite: mapping pencil) sry 6. specular hematite "Veinlet/vein fillings other than sulfides/oxides orange dark green olive green 3, biotite: olive green (739 1/2) yellow-green 4. epidote: light green (738 1/2) — — meMTE mapping, p. 5, March 6, 1997 C, Leached/oxide/supergene sulfides (plot on rock side). Schematic drawings of textures, abundance, mineralogy, and degree of leaching, (Fig, 3) Mineralogy red 1. glassy limonite (conchoid fract, red internal reflections): carmine red (745) pastel green 2. oxide Cu minerals (malachite, tenorite, etc): true green (751) dark brown 3. goethite (orange streak): brown (756) reddish brown 4, earthy hematite (red streak); tuscan red () med yellow 4. jarosite (yellow to boney yel'w wals; pale yel'w streak): canary yellow (735) med blue 5. supergene chalcocite: medium blue Symbols for degree of leaching in former sulfide sites (the most useful minerals are glassy limonite, goethite, and hematite; jarosite and Cu oxide generally are transported/exotic and less useful): black 1. total leaching, empty leached cavities (no Fe-oxide left): black circles brown 2 moderate leaching (limonite-rimmed cavities): brown circles brown 3. weak leaching (limonite pseudomorphs and/or boxworks): brown dots red 4. very weak leaching of chalcopy sites (glassy limonite): red dots Exotic oxides on fractures are denoted by random, short, lines (brown for goethite, tue green for copper oxides). D. Alteration of hornblende (and/or biotite) sites. (recorded on air side in innermost column next to baseline; if alteration occurs as a distinct halo on a fracture or veinlet, plot the alteration color as a line extending ‘outward from base line on air side.) Fig. 4. lack 1. fresh hornblende (dark black, glassy, good cleavage visible): write lower case b's along baseline. dark green 2. ehloritized hornblende (no shreddy texture that might imply that the hl had first been biotitized): green (739) (pervasive chloritization use solid green line; partially chloritized use dashed green line: local chlorite use dots). yellow-green 3. epidotized hornblende: use light green (738 1/2). olive green 4, biotized hornblende (sbreddy biotite occupying the hbl site): olive green (739 1/2) (solid, dashed and dotted to indicate degree of biotization). dark green. 5. chloritized biotized-hornblende (chioritic alt'n superimposed on biotitic; this is a tough call): olive green (739 1/2) with dark green dots (739) dark brown 6. sericitized and/or argillized mafic minerals (tan- or white-colored pseudomorphs after ‘mafic mineral sites including mixtures of sericite, clays, leucoxene): brown 756) biack 7. mafic sites absent or only Ieucoxene visible: use lead pencil (lack) E. Alteration of feldspar sites. (recorded on aic side, outer colum: intensity of color application in this ‘column denotes degree of alteration; if alleration occurs as a distinet halo on a fracture or veinlet, plot the alteration color as a line extending outward from base line on air side.) Fig. 4. magenta 1. of plagioclase to secondary Kespar (pinkish-lavender hue in groundmass and in plagioclase sites); magenta (759) med yellow 2. of omthoclase and plagioclase to secondary Na-spar (bard, white feldspars ‘with cleavage preserved: yellow (735) (NOTE: feldspar color és not in every case diagnostic of feldspar type! Use thin-sections as back- ‘up, Even if that white feldspar tums out to be Kspar, you will have recorded the distribution of white Kspar!). yellow-green 3. of feldspars to epidote: use light green (738 1/2) ark brown 4 of feldspars to sericite and/or clays: use brawn (256) none 4a. fresh feldspars; if feldspar is hard, clear, glassy, dark, good cleavage: leave column blank. dark brown 4. incipiently ser’d feldspars: if moderately hard, pale-colored, good cleavage (e, "bleached", but hard): sparse brown (756) dots. (NOTE: incipient altn of feldspars to “clays” is difficult to distinguish from albitization and these two altin types can occur together; use thin-section back-up) 5MTE mapping, p. 6, March 6, 1997 dark brown, ‘dc. moderately ser'd feldspars: if partially soft, white to pale colors, cleavage present: closely spaced brown (756) dots, dark brown. 44, highly ser'd feldspars: if soft, white to pale colors, no cleavage, but outline of ‘original feldspar is preserved (rock-texture preserved): contir dark brown 4e, pervasive and total hydrolysis: if soft, white to pale colors, rock texture largely obliterated: continuous. brown (756) tine applied heavily. (NOTE: in rocks containing both plagioclase and orthoclase phenocrysts, because these react differently to acidic solutions, keep tack of orthoclase sites separately (in a third column). ‘This allows the distinction to be made between intermediate argillic and advanced argillic alteration). We how a Tn mapping altered rocks in surface exposures, most ofthe time we are siruggling to read through sustae weathering to pnderstand 1) the degre fo which metals have been leached, tansponed, and redeposites by Stans weather he original hypogene (hydrothermal) distributions of wall-rock alteration and ore minerals. How do ‘we read through all that punky clay? |A. Distinguishing between Hypogene versus supergene alteration. Nis espocally dificult to differentiate between hypogene and supergene alteration types in wealhered rocks thet coosuned abundant pynte. This is because the sulfuric acié generated by oxidative weathering of pynte src atnerals (especially plagioclase) and converts them to various new mineral assemblages that 2) Pe aaa caitorms of nypogene intermediate argilic alteration (e.., monunorlloite, kaolinite) or even acid-sulfate eee aozilic)allerton (e.g. kaolinite, alunite). ‘The lave is especially rue im rocks that originally valved pyrite veins with ql-ser-py halos (e.g. D-veins), but where the halos did not overlap, On weatherings tee rock inbetween the halos can be converted to a supergene qtz-kaolinite assemblage and alunite. may Frecipitte in open fractures, The end result, a rock containing quart, kaolinite sericit, and alunite, Ca Ds ae ena or bycrothermal advanced argllic alteration. How, then, can one distinguish between bydrotherna! Tele alterauon and argilic weathering? Although notin every case definitive, the following observations can help in making the distinction: (1). in igneous rocks with original alkali-feldspar, the presence of relic sores of alkali feldspar phenocrysts would suggest that the tock bad not undergone pervasive advanced areilic (or e¥éh DER it ‘Alkali feldspar does not survive either pervasive sericitic alteration o advanced argillic siiition at hydrothermal temperatures. However, even in very acidic weathering environments, alkaf feldspar aermnly survives (in contrast with plagioclase, which goes readly to montmorillonite or Kaolinite). One always Seeds to consider veins halos and background alteration separately in making these distinctions. ‘O) in igneous rock lacking alkali feldspar, the call s much more difficult. In such rocks, the presence of moderate (0 abundant amoonis Of manunorllouts (rather than sericite- kaolinite) would inca lack ‘of intense hypogene sericitic or advanced arsillic alicration, The ‘montmorillonite could be the result either of ypogene intermediate agillic alleraion or weathering. Again, make separate observations for halos and background alteration. ‘G) ‘The presence of magnetite in punky clay-tich rocks is suggestive of clay alteration due to ‘weathering because hypogene clay alteration (e.g. intermediate argillic) generally converts magnetite 19 homatitesfutile and/or pyrite. This underlines the importance of mapping magnetite abundance in all outcrops {also serves as a basis for interpretation of geophysical data). (2). In rocks that originally contained relatively coarse-grained biotite, the presence of fresh rooking brown biotite in oberwie argilized rock is suggestive of weathering. Like magnet, biol can surive ‘weathering relatively unscathed, but is readily converted to ebloriterclays during intermediate argillic alteration at hydrothermal temperatures. Ty Tntense sericitc alteration occurring as halos generally can be recognized even in intensely weathered outcrops, This 1s because the mixture of sericite and quartz in such halos is very resistent to weathering Gris euble in acid environments) and stands out as resistent, gray ribs in ponky clay-altered rocks, On ist thepeetion, these ibs may look like gray quartz veins, bat recognition of relict rock texture and We fact dat i can be seratebed (though much barder than punky argillized rockc) gives them away. 2) the presence of high-temperature forms of clay minerals, such a8 dickiis (well-erystallized kaolinite) and pyxoph gnostic of hydrothermal advanced angi ion because they are stable only at temperatures above about 270°C. This undertines the importance of submitting samples for mineralMTE mapping, p. 7, March 6, 1997 identification (do your own preliminary mineral separation by plucking out clay-rich portions of the rock or actual feldspar sites, ratber than submitting a whole-rock for XRD). (7) bypogene versus supergene alunite. Textures and association of alunite can be diagnostic of bypogene versus supegene origin of this mineral.: FEATURE ‘SUPERGENE HYPOGENE veins alunite in open fractures without other alunite in association with hydrothermal minerals (€.g.,. monomineralic minerals in veins (e.g, with quartz, alunite, possibly with chalcedonic or _pyrophyllite, barite, etc) ‘opaline silica & jarosite. alteration halos Lack of halos on alunite veins presence of hydrolytic alteration halos on alunite-bearing veins sulfides lack of evidence of former sulfides _—_evidence that sulfides were present associated with alunite intergrown with alunite textures massive, porcelanous fine- and coarse-grained color white, yellow, mixed with jarosite white, yellow, pink B. Leached and oxidized outcrops. In addition to the factors outlined above, there are techniques focused on the "limonites” that are very useful in broadly outlining original, hypogene pattems of alteration and mincralization. These follow directly from the geochemistry of leached and partly leached outcrops, as discussed in Einaudi (1995). (@) Keeping track of the degree of leaching of primary sulfude sites is useful in order to reconstruct ‘both hypogene sulfide zoning and alteration zoning. Sericitic zones leach to a greater degree than potassic zones, ‘The degree of leaching can be recorded during mapping (see section IV.C): increasing dogrees of leaching are recognized by the sequence: + glassy limonite: lowest degree of leaching; copper still present in glassy limonite and in malachive and/or tenorite; indicates absence of abundant pyrite and neutral surface waters; potassic or propylitic alteration typical. + Goethe pseudomorph: low degree of leaching of Cu and Fe in near-neural environments associated with polassic protores (or propylitic fringes, but these with less or no glassy limonite, lack of A,B veins, etc); + goethite boxworks: leaching increasing + partly leached cavities (rimmed with goethite or hematite): indicative of high pyrite:chalcopyrite ratios, likely that sericitic alteration is present; Cu-oxides and carbonates unlikely. iti i ite:soethite ratios indicates increasingly acid conditions: all Cu leached, most of the Fe leached. + Isached cavities (in some cases filled with jaroslic or alunite) represent bigh degree of leaching in very acid environments: sericitic or advanced argilic alteration, acid-sulfate zones, silica-pyrite-alunite ledges, vvuggy silica; Cu-oxides & carbonates absent. All of these forms of limonites (but mainly the goethite) are termed “indigenous”, on the basis of vexture as indicating in-situ oxidation of orginal sulfide sites. (2) 2Glassy limonite” is a term applied to amorphous Fe-hydroxide that commonly contains copper: this phase is important because it denotes very low degrees of leaching (copper still present) and is characteritic of weathering of potassic protores (lots of K-spar and little or no pyrite, hence lite acid generation). Mapping the distribution of glassy limonite can help to delineate the chalcopyrite-(bomite) zone ‘and commonly this represents the zone of highest bypogene Cu-(Au) grade. It is an indigenous limonite. Glassy limonite has the following characteristics: + slassy looking, like obsidian ‘concboidal fracture ddark blackish brown to black bright ruby-red internal reflections in sunlight grain size and morphology that mimics chalcopyrite, () Relict sulfides locked in unbroken quartz An ald in delineating original disuibutions of sulfide assemblages is to make polished sections of quartz collected throughout the leached cap. Study under the microscope in reflected light may reveal unoxidized sulfides that have survived the leaching process.TE mapping, p. 8, March 6, 1997 —_ 4) Exotic Himonites are al th limonites that do not represent original sulfide ses ‘The iron bas heen uaopcred in solution in surface waters and precipitated along tracures in te TS Exotic limonites rae distinguished from indigenous limouites by the lack of pseudomernhs OF ‘boxworks after sulfide, by their presence on random fractures that are part of the rego ‘and tbat cut all hydrothermal fractures, and by their Pree ei appearance as massive coatings and “pains, commonly with Dowyo\a) and chatoyant surfaces Gigvetite), Some exotic goetite takes on a glassy appearance, but 8 can be distinguished from glassy aor ihy abe tact that the glassy material is only on the surface of te Coating (ye ‘can't "see" into it). Pa Mmportan poin is that mapping of total abundance of lumonites does nos tvs A ‘original sulfide content cht Pook (a Fock with 10% exoue Himorite comined less sulfide than a rock. Wits with 1% SOoigenous limonite. Keep track of relative abundance of indigenous and exotic limonites and their mineralogy. Sai eance mapping for porphyry-type depasls needs to focus on the standan fests of titology and suuctare and on some adsitional Key features. These are listed beet ‘order of importance. The te argely ig based on those features that survive weathering, even in highly acid-generating seeseetarie, Wallrock alteration, especially the “argllic” types, needs to be ‘de-emphasized! Recon ‘upping focused on porpbyry targets can be done ficiently wits ony five colt pencils: blue for faults, red | Teomormuyries, orange for quartz veins, green fr sreddy bioite, and brown for Hanomies ‘A. Rock description, especially “productive” pombyries, including color, textures, and grain size i ‘and % of each mineral in the rock. i norpiyey exploration, te characteristics ofthe “produetive porphyry’ have 10 Fe understood and rooked £67 50% fine-grained (0-2 mun) api (more rarely apbaiic) groundmass, “50% Peres repeing from 1 to 3 mm, if quartz phenos ae present they are rounded and crnbayen Gh eyes). The Significance and importance of this rock texture needs more emphasis. It '8 $0 ‘important, that you coulé ‘consider assigning a special color (red) t0 this rock type! BB. Ovattz veins and veinlts, including their abundance and stuctralattudes At 1:3000 scale, cone obviously cannot "map all the veinles”, but the Key sets bave to be identified and representative strikes SR5 Gipe plowed on the map. Abundance can be estimated and written down for cach SuleR, "The importance et quan veins and vein in regional recon stems from two faclors: one, we know close correlation a ade and quariz vein in ponpbyry-ype deposits, and two, quar veins sunive weaverg and Derween grade 2m umabiguous evidence of hydrothermal activity. Cart veins ae so imporant chat they iso are worthy of a special color during mapping (orange?) ._Limonite assemblages need to be emphasized. Each outcrop should be assessed for proportions of glassy Timonite,goetbite, earthy hematite jaoste, norte, and green Cu carbonates/silicates. Proportions of assy Maly recorded by a color code for each ofthese minerals, oF by asigning raion pre-assigned ‘order. In recon, I would choose the latter approach. in mapping a prospect that is being drilled, T would use order, Ws feoehs omits typically are well-zoned and represent an excellent targeting (00) Jdes also needs to be estimated. (s assessment of whether the Cu assays Each outcrop needs to receive a number that indicates the ge0l0gi represent transported copper or “in-place” copper. E Biotite distribution patterns, espesially of “shreddy biotite”. are useful to delineate zones of potassic alteration, which in many porphyries can represen tbe ore target. Bros fine-grained biotized aoa eranot outlive weathering, but coarser-grained bioute that bas seplaced homblendc hornblende andesite may moby bearing tonalite porphyries commonly survives weathering. In the case of BB sites, if the aot doesn't survive, its characteristic "shreddy” texture may survive, E_ Magnesite abundance needs wo be recorded by visual estimate and magnetic suscepaPilty ‘measurementsMTE mapping, p. 9, March 6, 1997 Field sheets are transferred to three separate posting sheets. A base posting-sheet serves as the basis for drawing an interpretive geological map with lithologies, structure, and veins; an alteration posting-sheet serves as the basis for drawing an alteration map, and a "limonite" or "ore" posting-shect serves as the basis for drawing a ‘mineralization map. The posting sheets and the interpretive maps drawn from the posting sheets should retain all Of the structural information shown on the original field sheets. Transfer of dips of veins and faulis to the alteration and mineralization overlays is especially important, as this allows the geologist to document the third dimension and to explore the structural control of altcration/mineralization pattems and the possibility of post-ore offsets on faults. A i geological map A._Posting sheets and follow-up interpretation are two steps that go hand-in-hand with field mapping. Both of these steps need to be taken routinely and ina timely fashion. The mapping project should noL_be considered complete until such time as the posting sheet has been used to construct interpretive geologic base maps and relevant overlays. A rough estimate is that 3 days of field mapping requires 1 day of twansferring the mapping to a posting sheet and doing the interpretive work. (7) posting sheets should be kept up-to-dats on a daily (or at least weekly) basis 2) once a significant area has been mapped, but well before mapping of the chosen area has been completed, the geologist should begin to make interpretive overlays. ‘These will be working hypotheses that will aid him/her as s/he continues to map. G) interpretation based on posting sheets should be done at the same scale as the posting sheets and should retain all the structural detail recorded in the field. Ultimately, these working sheets will be reduced in order to generate a smaller-scale map, but the important structural details need to be preserved at all scales (1 have seen too many geological maps that have no dip symbols, and that display photo linears instead of faults actually mapped in the field). () The Interpretive maps should be done by hand in full color. (5) ‘The hand-drawn posting sheets, fully color-coded, represent a major investment of time ‘and money. They should be carefully archived, and the name(s) of the geologist(s) and dates of work should be written on each, B._the Folio. ‘The following types of information should be displayed in a folio sct derived from the ficld mapping phase: (1) base map: lithologies, strike and dips of bedding, faults, contacts, major vein: (2) cach overlay is drawn on a gray-scale version of the base map, so that they “stand alone” (eg, lithologic contacts, faults, etc, are visible without having to overlay the overlay on the base map), (3) vein overlay: all large veins and representative veinlet sets (color-coded to dominant mineral) plotted (0 true strike, illustrative dips indicated; vein abundance contoured. (4) fimonite overlay: distribution of glassy limonite, goethite, earthy hematite, jarosite, tenorite, and green copper oxides. Color applied to indicate relative abundance (absent, low, moderate, high), Areas of dominantly exotic versus dominantly indigenous limonites and Cu-oxides should be identified. Based ‘on mapping of limonites, areas of py-dominance versus cp-dominance should be outlined. (5) magnetite overlay: Ilustrate the distribution of magnetite, disseminated, vein/yeinlet, ot replacement, and contour for abundance. (6) alieration overlay: emphasis on minerals rather than alteration types; try simply showing limits of minerals such as secondary biotite, chlorite, epidote, clays, sericite, silica ledges, jasperoids, etc. Finally, with regard to folios, a complete folio also includes topography, geochemical and geophysical data and data interpretations. In their relation to the geological maps, the following points are important: (7). the magnetite overlay produced during the ficld mapping phase (and which could include magnetic susceptibility measurements on the outcrop) can be used to interpret ground and airborne magnetics (8). the raw geochemical data on soil, steam sediment, or rock-chip samples, should be geologically inerpreted and hand-drawn by we geologist who generated the geological maps and overlays siscussed above. The patiems of grade distribation should reflect hisher concepts of grade control. Computer ‘generated contour maps of assay results should be used only if there is no geological mapping available C. Composite maps:_exploration models and drill targeting, The final and very important Product, or raison d’éire, of the folio is the composite of key features. Examples of this approach are given by Figures 7 (Pancho, Maricunga region, nortbem Chile) and 8 (Batu Hijau, Sumbawa Is., Indonesia). 9MTE mapping, p. 10, March 6, 1997 ici. Figure 7 i redraw from porions of a folio that was competed dug ‘mapping of the porphyry Au-Cu prospect at Pancho (Refugio district, Maricunt region, Chile) by Joba Muntean in 1994- the parpnyry g aispays tie following features: ithologies. faults, alteration WETS. ot, abundance (A-B eee onged veiniets), and hand-contoured rock-chip geochemistry for 20%, ‘We attempted to pull out of Teo gata set the Key features that would help target a drill bole jo the Cerne (Of the ore zone. It is clear from Figure at anermost 172 of the gold zone is identified by the presence OY posts alteration and AB quartz evident (he ye outer 1/2 of the gold zone is identified by the disappearance of "AB quartz veinlets and appearence of abundant banded veinets. Further, quar2-alant® ‘veins lie outside the zone of +0.5 ppm Au, aacaritc & intermediate argillc alteration does not serve as a useft) WBE tool. The result is eptnposite map that displays the main features of the prospect that ‘would help to target on the gold zone. The Composite becomes a useful tool not only ia furter exploration af ‘Pancho, but in further exploration in the soarreiga area and in establishing a genetic model fr these unusually high ‘AulCu porpbyries. Figure 8 is re drawn from portions ofa folio what was one of tbe projects completed during mapping course beld a Batu Hijan in March 1996. The folio displays be following features: lithologies, a mapping covgsses of quarz vein abundance, and band-contoured soil geacheriin for copper and for gold. avtionally, we had available 2 1:10,000 seale alteration map. We ‘atempted to pull out of unis data set the ‘hy features that would help target a dill noe into the center oft oe 20k Itis clear from Figure 8 usat the Ney Simnit of abundant quartz veins (+5 vol %) outlines the +0.5 SCu zone at depth. Additionally, the following is evident: + outermost edge of secondary biotite 300 - 400m . ‘outer limit of rare quart: veins 200m . ‘outer limit of moderate quartz veins (1-2%) 150m . ‘outer limit of abundant qu veins (45%) Om 2 presence of porpiyries Om In the absence ofa driled-out reserve, the composite map could show the limit Of seus) imonite. [Additioosl features that should be displayed on a composite would be struct) dvectore of quartz veins, Addition es alteration and other byGrothermal alteration types, and limits of indigenes limonites. Stic arora ean be done to aid in targeting is to generate a “coincioence’” map, By this | mean that there are certain at can PF ose coincidence in space yields stronger evidence for a target than any aacevidual featae by itself. As an example, the following coincidences were psed as indicators of the most arte cil arges at Bata Hijau (listed in order of increasing favorability): . [Az coincidence of abundant quartz veins and highest copper in soit : 3. Coincidence of abundant quartz veins and highest gold in soil . C: coincidence of A and B ‘The rationale tor coincidence A is tata copper anomaly associate with abundant quar veins is more 1ikely qo represent indigenous (rather than transported.) copper. Had we had 196 Aa OE ‘would have used 1 eerste of quartz veins with glassy limonite and with highest rock chip coPpSt Coincidence C reinforces coimcidence fl the targets based on coincidence C overlie te +0:5 Cu zone at depth- 103 air side ty alr side imate mineral aileration columa ae terietratend a & ana‘aiz vn tbunesree Teldspar alteration column fone. 5¥ a0 05 wm gm 10.8 Pe eltaedess NY fosk sige . {tay coe etn ‘Somuctrescontel nae fonalite, az aby: A-B vnits 9.214 wie overall 8 ep 1 meg \P :—[atesa sutides Pere eon spin’ poh oats BML Stee ese Reese [atoration halos on voine tonalite, 45% apiitic 9.m.J0% ho! Smonraomaat Phenos. 5-88 ate eyes: 408 3-4 mm re blag pence: Ag emits wi ew 0.186, iso bet ron Bae affect goss: overall re ‘abundant siructural io T Fig. 1 Bench tap In Sutide-bearing rooks (unoxidized) [matic mineral alteration column coat pease air side =a Telds par aeration column Pai Spl 0 5 97 poe Stace on sSompoppionensts wnat taireaie manne A rina I ‘eat A un 016 wat i frock. side eo {Srkay observations eating tonite osc. a its: .8es no \ ff {ocrchren commas ond we ‘nti Cox apart ora %, ‘it me tons mag ora 4 fi 2 _aeaianis alee A tuto 9 Keene ‘Seman heon nso rors afer un ae a NO Eton onto barony shoe \cadenanterin goo 9g ST rtamnane cmon seer aeoch veiling minerals alteration halos on ving b Z . mann WOsbemeae cme npnaiaa ee Gendarme age See Rae etrarhviezent ss Saat ‘abundant sractaral info T Fig. 2 Boneh Map In oxidized rocks.3 Color codes and styles for mapping hypogene and supergene “ore” minerals. "ORE" MINERALS PLOTTED ON ROCK SIDE HYPOGENE SUPERGENE VEIN/VNLT DISS'D SULFIDE OXIDE DISS'D VEIN / VNLT Yor PO ee oye jarosite Yor NONE earthy hematite *, + o, ri NONE gourte HE6882 YX) increased teaching NONE copperoxides se 4 / y chalcopyrite Glassy limonite + y SS S A bomite NONE J magnetite netite F N= Y. a me eG 7 dk specular hm specular hematite ° of, KK (rote) -/ HYPOGENE SULFIDES OXIDIZED EQUIVALENT ROCK SIDE, ROCK SIDE glass limonite, Cu-ox, fs goethite pseudo- morphs & goethite- lined cavaties chalcopyrite + “> bornite pyrite + chalcopyrite Ses Xt goethite-tined cavaties, ~~ leached cavaties, ‘0° earthy hematite, ° and jarositeFig. 4 Color codes and styles for mapping alteration and vein minerals. NON-ORE MINERALS AIR SIDE ROCK SIDE WALL-ROCK ALTERATION MINERALS VEIN-FILLING MINERALS VEINHALOS PERVASIVE Sap, 4 yY 4 Y silica quartz Y Wy Risisiees ‘ Dr 088 20 biotite secondary biotite 7. 1! D4 100 ++ Ktoldopar secondary K-eldspar Yh £0 GO CO Nasteldspar secondary Na-feldspar 7 fh 3 / nr epidote Y = aa y Yon fee chlorite chiorite y + YAK +1 seticite, cla sericite, clays Y= PERVASIVE ALT'N, HALOS VEINS, VEIN-FILLING MINERALS AIR SIDE __ Kee —piaoe ROCK SIDE Diohalos y OUTER coLuNny Dees atin feds sites ican ee cays, soricte eo ON —X serie ae . “atzeag ken) alos a bo “vein oP wnt Se oS INNER COLUMN S Syne om © et shred bot ~ .Fig. 5 Examples of color codes and styles for mapping unox'd (hypogene) and ox'd (supergene) exposures. AIR SIDE HYPOGENE ROCK SIDE votes rotes s OXIDIZED-WEATHERED ROCK SIDE| Fig. 6 Overlays for Outcrop Mapping | BASE MAP: LITHOLOGY, STRUCTURE, VEINS | gte-kspar-glass limonta)vns | bette | cote conacne | porpi Im wide fautor = ANDESITE gte-ser-chl altn OVERLAY #2: LIMONITESsericte, kaolinite feldspar stable b -os een ull limit of —~ abundant AB qtz ‘nits “Fig. 7 PANCHO: key zoning features. Based on mapping by J. Muntean, 199495. ». Bs N 7 *: ale < ¢ X Fier into \ {2econdary bitte \ \ \ aS 0 \ SN " 1 N. i 1 Bisa naant Hy Nore: = SSrocect | \ tone , urdartaisvme &\ porphyry Seek, SUSU eS ST / gold, and coincidence of 2S a bore gee end prosd romales of oper ied adéonal ~~. Sa ttging ences nate sD Nou zon Fig. 8 BATU HWJAU: Key zoning features. Based on mapping by 500 meters F. Gonaaler wd Sata Hj Hopping Course, ©.2ocaon frat hee ai March 1996, holes (discovery holes)