Part1: Research in detail the structure and function of the nucleus

1. What is the size and shape of the nucleus? Does it differ among
specialized cells?
Round or oval are the two commons shapes of most nucleus, which the size of nucleus are
likely to be increases when the nucleus have their formation.
Yes, the size and shape of nucleus are differ among specialized cells. For example, nerve cell
is round and is 0.04 nanometers, which act as sensing.

2. Do cells differ in their number of nuclei?

Yes, number of nuclei in cells differ them. For example, the red blood cell doesnt have any
nuclei in its cell at all since its function is to emerge around to transport oxygen, which the self-
reproducing function is not needed to it to allow extra space for haemoglobin and lessen the
use of energy consumption for the whole organism. While cardiac muscle cells are
mononucleated and sometimes binucleated, and do binary fission.

3. What are the different parts of the nucleus? What are their
roles/functions?
a. Chromatin - DNA, histone and others protein
combined together become chromatin and found inside nucleus of
eukaryotic cell. Chromatin divided into heterochromatin and euchromatin.
Chromatin condenses to form chromosome during cell division
b. Nucleoplasm - just like cytoplasm, it is a type of
protoplasm and is a sticky liquid. Their main function is to support the
structure and maintain shape of a nucleus.
c. Nucleolus: Nucleolus produce ribosomal and RNA
unit and can be founded inside nucleus without membrane surrounding.
Cell that need to synthesis lot of protein such oocyte and nerve cells wii
found nucleolus, but sperm and red blood cells dont have it.
d. Nuclear Envelope: What is its function? How does it
allow communication with the cytoplasm?
:Nuclear envelope is a class of lipid bilayer surrounding the genetic
material in cells of eukaryotes. Acts as a biological corridor to Separate
Nucleus from Cytoplasm. The membrane is porous to control the
exchange of genetic material and other substances between the nucleus
and cytoplasm.
 e. Nuclear Pores: What is their size and function?
What is their importance?
: Nuclear Pores are huge protein complex surrounding double membrane of
eukaryotic cells. Nuclear Pores allow only the water across nucleus envelope.
This transport includes RNA and ribosomes moving from nucleus to the
cytoplasm and proteins, carbohydrates, signal molecules and lipids moving into
the nucleus.

PART 2: Research in detail the structure and function of ribosome

1. What are the different components of ribosome?
: The ribosome is made up of two parts, called subunits. The larger of the two subunits is
where the amino acids get added to the growing protein chain. The small subunit is where the
mRNA binds and is decoded. Each of the subunits is made up of both protein and RNA
components.
2. What is their size?
The ribosomes size is approximately 20 nanometre.
3. Do the number of ribosome differ among specialized cells?
Yes, they do have different number of ribosomes among other cell, for example; Hepatocytes
has more ribosomes than normal cell would have.
4. Where are they located within the cell?
Ribosome located in two places in cell which are free ribosome located all around in cell and
ribosome that attach ER become rough ER.
5. What is the process of a ribosome binding to the ER?
: The SRP (Signal Recognition Particle) process is the process where the protein is being
synthesized by a ribosomes and later become a signal peptide, which it binds to a receptor and
on to the ER. As soon as the protein enters the ER, Pr

6. Describe the sequence of events from a gene to a function protein?

a. In the process of transcription, a sequence of DNA or gene was
being copied into mRNA.
b. Then the mRNA was brought into the ribosome and the protein
synthesis or the translation process then occurred, where the process begin with
the two subunits of ribosomal bond up onto the mRNA (a signal peptide).
c. After that, they merged with a SRP and was transported into the
rough ER, where the SRP then exit.
 d. As a result, the polypeptide was made and forced into the ER
lumen.
e. Lastly, after the removal of signal peptide, the polypeptide was
being folded into a protein shape and the protein is made.

1. DNA copy to mRNA

2. Come out of cytoplasm and ribosome attach mRNA
3. Produce peptide by reading mRNA and then amino acid come up
4. Polypeptide was being fold

Part 3: Research in detail the structure and function of the Endomembrane System, including;
1. What does the Endomembrane System consist of? What is the function of
this system?
Endomembrane System consist of Endoplasmic reticulum (Smooth ER and Rough ER),
Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicle, and nuclear membrane. Endomembrane System
responsible for production, transport, and modification of various macromolecules, including
proteins and some lipids.

2. The Endoplasmic Reticulum:

a. What is the structure of the ER?
rough ER is made up of a network of cisternae which is a sac-like structure held up by the
cytoskeleton.
b. What is the structure and function of the RER (Rough)?
Flat- like shape. RER synthesis protein and triglyceride. They have ribosomes attached.
c. How are glycoproteins formed in the RER?
Protein come to RER and sugar added to protein.
d. What is the structure and function of the SER (Smooth)? Can
the SER differ among specialized cells?
Tube - like shape. SER produce lipids.Yes, more ethanol you drink,more SER you have.
e. How do the RER and SER differ, and how are they similar?
RER has ribosome attatch with it, but SER doesnt has. RER involved in protein synthesis as
ribosomes are concerned with protein synthesis. SER concerned with lipid synthesis. They both
have transport vesicles and are made up of membranes.
f. What are the function of vesicles? Are the vesicles formed by
the RER different than the vesicles formed by the SER?
function of vesicle -
Vesicles that come from RER contained protein, in the other hand vesicles that come from SER
contain lipids.
3. The Golgi Apparatus:
a. What is the structure?
Each cisternae is a in circle round shape and is enclosed in a membrane, which the flat sacs of
the cisternae are tightly piled up and is in curved semicircular shape.
b. What is the function?
Modify proteins, sort proteins, and package proteins. Golgi Apparatus also transport lipids
around the creation of lysosomes, and around the cell. Produce vesicles and lysosomes
c. What do vesicles do after leaving the golgi apparatus?
They can be store for later usage or they can be sent out of the golgi to the other organelle.
d. What is exocytosis?
Exocytosis is the process of inside of vesicle moves to the plasma membrane. After that
vesicular membrane and plasma membrane ensues are fusion.
4. Lysosomes:
a. Where are lysosomes produced?
Lysosomes are formed by the transport vesicles that are budded from the trans Golgi with
endosomes and are fused up together.
b. What is the function?
Carry enzymes that used to digest proteins, fats and carbohydrates.
Digest nonfunctional organelles
c. Does the number of lysosomes differ among specialized
cells?
Yes, cells does have a different numbers of lysosome for different purpose such as in white
blood cells they must include more lysosome than what other cells does since they needed it to
remove the predator cells or cells from out side of the body.
d. What diseases might occur due to missing lysosomal
enzymes?
Some disease that cause by bacteria and virus such as Ebola, dengue fever because white
blood that act to deny bacteria produced by lysosomes.
5. Peroxisomes:
a. What is the function?
To metabolize fats and lipids
b. How do they differ from lysosomes?
Peroxisomes are smaller than lysosomes and can divide itselves like mitochondria.
Peroxisomes have different enzymes with lysosomes.
Peroxisomes are made by free ribosomes. Lysosomes are made by ER ribosomes.
Peroxisomes is not a part of endomembrane, but lysosomes is a part of it.
c. What is the relationship between peroxisomes and hydrogen
peroxide?
Peroxisomes catalyze reactions that produce H2O2.
6. Describe the relationship between the components of the endomembrane
Protein and lipids was bring by vesicles into Golgi to modifies those product and packed to
vesicle that went to various cell destinations again. Secretory vesicles bring proteins and lipids
to exocytosis at membrane to produced secretions.Lysosomes combined with incoming vesicles
and digest macromolecules.
-can mention how each part works together to perform the overall function of the system
7. Examine how the endomembrane system functions in terms of
consumption and secretion within a cell.
1. For consumption substances come inside cell by incoming vesicle and digested when the
vesicle fuses with a lysosome that contain digestive enzymes to break down substance at
plasma membrane.
2. For Secretion RER synthesis protein ,SER synthesis lipids and packed them to transport
vesicle to go to Golgi. Golgi adjust lipids and protein from ER and packed them to vesicle to go
to fuse with plasma membrane as secretion occurs.

Part 4: Structure and Function of the Mitochondria

1. What is cellular respiration and what is the equation?
Cellular Respiration is the transferring process of the cell, where the energy in glucose into the
ATP, in which their equation is CHO + 6O 6CO + 6HO+energy
(glucose (cellfood) + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy.)
2. What is the function of mitochondria? Why are they called the
Powerhouses of the cell?
The function of mitochondria is to cells power producer, or generating chemical energy. Since
mitochondria have their role as cells power producer, mitochondria are called the
Powerhouses of the cell for generating most of the cell chemical energy which involves the
ATP. Mitochondria is the place where cellular respiration is produce, which is where the energy
is generate.
3. What is adenosine triphosphate (ATP)?
 a. What is it composed of?
Adenosine triphosphate is made up of an nitrogenous base called adenine with a sugar
called ribose and 3 phosphates group attached to it.
b. Why is ATP a high-energy molecule?
ATP is a high-energy molecule because it stores the energy that we need to do just
about everything we do. One phosphate plucked of from ATP and release energy so ATP
will became ADP with phosphate group attached with OH and H+.
c. How do cells use ATP?
Cell uses ATP for all processes that require energy
4. Do the numbers of mitochondria within a cell differ among specialized
cells? Provide examples.
Yes, cells does have a different numbers of mitochondria for different purpose such as in
skeletal muscles cells. They must include of more mitochondria than others cells does since
they needed it to use more energy from ATP to move body.
5. What is the size and structure of mitochondria?
The size of mitochondria is 0.5 micrometers - 10 micrometers and structure of mitochondria are
inner membrane and outer membrane. The structure of the mitochondria consists of the inner
and outer membrane where there is the cristae and the matrix as part of it.
6. Describes the outer and inner membrane of the mitochondria?
a. What are cristae and how do the increase surface area for the
mitochondria?
Inner membrane will folding and flat over and over to increase the surface area or called cristae
b. What is located within the matrix?
In the matrix, the mitochondria contained their own DNA and ribosomes in it.

7. How are diseases formed due to mitochondrial dysfunction?

The organs in the body that require the most energy are the brain, muscles, liver, kidneys,
gastrointestinal tract, heart and lungs. Mitochondrial disease or mitochondrial dysfunction is
what occurs when the mitochondria are not able to do their job due to genetic or environmental
factors.

Part 5: Cytoskeleton
1. What is the cytoskeleton composed of?
The cytoskeleton is composed of microfilaments (actin filaments), intermediate filaments, and
microtubules.
2. Compare and Contrast Actin Filaments, Intermediate Filaments, and
Microtubules.
a. Describe the structure
Actin Filaments: thinnest cytoskeleton; Two twisted strands of actin that are
composed of G-actin protein and are in a helical shape with 7 nm diameter.
Intermediate Filaments: Keratin-like proteins twisted up into cord shape and have their
diameter of 8-12 nm, which these filaments are tough. It is medium thickness It is
compose of fibrous proteins.
Microtubules: thickest component of cytoskeleton; Alpha and beta tubulins forming
together as hollow tubes with a diameter of 25 nm and 15 nm lumens.
b. What are the functions?
Actin Filaments: Maintenancing cell shape, muscle contraction, cell division, cell
movements
Intermediate Filaments: Maintenancing cell shape, formation of nuclear lamina. This
filament help keep the organelles in place within the cell.
Microtubules: Maintenancing cell shape, cell movements, organelle movement.They act
like a road or passageway to transport materials within the cell. This filament is directly
involved in cell division by forming mitotic spindle for the chromosomes. It is also a part
of the structure of cilia flagella, and centrioles.

3. Centrioles:
a. Describe the structure
They are in cylindrical tubelike shaped structure that is made up of nine bundles of
microtubules that are arranged up into a ring. 9+0 microtubules triplets.
b. What are the functions?
Cell division and Ciliogenesis. One centrosome has a pair of centrioles. Microtubules
radiate out of the centrioles during cell division to form the spindle for the chromosomes
to move. Formation of cilia and flagella on the surface of the cell

4. Describe the role of motor molecules in Cilia and Flagella

Motors molecules are protein synthesis that move along cytoskeletal filaments is driven by ATP.
Motors molecule help to transports organelles to the correct location.